INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL FOR NUMERICAL AND ANALYTICAL METHODS IN GEOMECHANICS. VOL. 8.

71-% 119841

DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR OF SATURATED

POROUS MEDIA; THE GENERALIZED
BIOT FORMULATION AND
ITS NUMERICAL SOLUTION$
0.c. WENKIEWICZ*
University College of Swansea, Swansea, U.K.

T.SHIOMIt
Takenaka Komuten Co. Ltd., Japan

t ‘Homage a hi.A. Biot’.

SUMMARY
The basic equations of motion for porous media were established by Biot and, despite many subsequent
rederivations, are, with minor modifications, relevant today. However, some changes of variables and
approximations are on occasion useful, and this paper discusses the alternative forms available and their
relative efficiency of solution in the numerical context. Here penalty methods prove once again useful.
The paper is illustrated with examples covering phenomena of different periods ranging from shock
excitation to slow consolidation which are treated in a single unified program.

1. INTRODUCTION
Current interest in geomechanics is focused on transient phenomena occurring in earthquakes,
wave loading and consolidation. For all of these the coupling between the deformation of the
‘solid skeleton’ of the soil or rock and the motion of the pore fluid is of primary importance.
Indeed, similar problems occur in other areas of engineering with biomechanics being an
obvious parallel. Here the ‘solid skeleton’ may well refer to the largely porous bone structure
and the pore fluid to the circulating blood.
The equations governing the interaction of the solid and fluid media were first established
for quasi-static phenomena in 1941 by Biot’ who then extended them to dynamics.24 At a
later date so called ‘mixture’ theory introduced in 1957 by True~dell’*~ and elaborated by
many others’-’’ provided a new basis for such coupled equations and a rederivation of the
equations was achieved with no substantial or rational change resulting.
Later, owing to increasing interest in non-linear applications, a generalized incremental
form was derived by Zienkiewicz et al., 14-18 Prev~st’~-’’and other^,'^.'^ in which large strain
and non-linear material behaviour are included. A discussion of inconsistencies implicit in the
mixture theory and the essential correction of Biot’s assumptions has recently been given by
Der~ki.’~

* Professor of Civil engineering.

+ Present address: University College of Swansea, Swansea, U.K.

0363-9061/ 84/01 007 1-26$02.60 Received 20 October 1982

@ 1984 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Revised 22 January 1983
72 0.C. ZIENKIEWICZ AND T. SHlOMl

In this paper we shall start with a form of the equations given in Reference 18 (some details
of a simple derivation are repeated in Appendix I). The reader will notice that in these
equations the displacements (or velocities) of the solid and fluid phases play a predominant
role. However, choosing different bases of such motions allows alternative equations to be
written and some turn out more convenient for numerical work than others.
With compressible fluid, or simply by using a penalty formulation for incompressible fluid,
the explicit elimination of the pore pressure is possible and here again we shall find, in analogy
with equations of fluid mechanics, alternative possibilities. When the phenomena are of
relatively slow speed, we can neglect the compressive waves in the fluid and an approximation
can be introduced in which the pore pressure and only solid phase displacements occur. This
provides a convenient form for many numerical formulations concerned with earthquake
motion and we shall diswss its possibilities.

2. THE GENERAL FORM OF GOVERNING EQUATION

Before proceeding with the general equations we introduce the associated notation. In this
we have

uij the total Cauchy stress in the combined solid and fluid mix at any instant.
ui the displacement of the solid skeleton,
Wi the 'pseudo-displacement' of the fluid phase relative to the skeleton of
solid so defined that w = dw/dt is the average relative velocity of seepage
measured over the total area,
P the pore pressure in the fluid,
Eoi, = t(ui., + u,,i) the rate of deformation tensor,

ti,= $(ui,,- Ui,,) spin tensor (the symbol ( " ) is introduced to denote that here we are not
dealing with a partial time derivative but with a total time derivative),
P , Ps, Pf the densities of the assembly, and the solid and fluid phases, respectively,
n the porosity, and by its definition p = (1- n )p, + npf,
o = - - w1.1. the rate at which the volume of fluid changes per unit total volume of
mixture.
With these definitions, and others introduced as necessary, we can write the equation governing
the behaviour of the coupled system.
We shall assume that the formulation is Lagrangian with the co-ordinate system transferring
with displacements ui. This immediately yields the equation of motion for the total system as

where bi is the body force acceleration

The last term refers to the acceleration of the fluid, now written in Eulerian terms and
including therefore the relative convective term. (It should be observed that in a unit volume
of the mix the mass of fluid is npf but, as the mean pore velocities and accelerations are l/n
times the averages given by the definition of wi, n does not enter the equation explicitly.)
For the pore fluid we can write the equation of motion as
 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 73

in which

is the viscous drag linearized using the Darcy permeability coefficients kii or k for anisotropic
and isotropic conditions, respectively. For very high velocities and deformation a non-linearity
may occur and we could find that
k =k(wi,n)=k(wi,r.qi) (2b)
R could include the mass coupling term p a introduced by Biot2 as
Rifn = k - ' w i + p a w (2c)
However experimental data are not available and this is omitted in our derivation. pa would
be positive to prevent the movement of each phases. The positive coupling mass preserves
the positive kinetic energy since the determinant of mass terms is
n(1--n)pgf-pig>O
For the solid skeleton we can define a constitutive relation in a very general non-linear
form by suitable rates as
&.If = &!<
If
-as...

=Dijk)(gk/ -gi/)+&i@kj +djkuki -(Ysijp (3)

where E:. is the rate of thermal or other 'initial' strain.
We note that we can write the above in an incremental form with
duij = d a t -d i j dp

if simple Lagrangian definitions are used and a material point considered. In equation (3),
Dijkl is defined by a suitable constitutive law and may well depend on u;, its history and
direction of straining. 0; is identical to the so called effective stress used in soil mechanics
providing the coefficient a is unity. This coefficient, introduced in Appendix I, is indeed very
close to unity for most soil-like materials but may be as low as 0.5 for rock-like materials
with a small porosity.
The final equation is supplied by the mass conservation equation applied to the fluid flow.
Here we have

The first term of the RHS here is simply the additional storage caused by the expansion of
the solid skeleton, the second introduces a constant Q wihch tends to infinity for most soils
and denotes the storage due to compressibility of the solid grains and of the fluid. Indeed, as
defined in Appendix I1 we can write

where K , and Kf are the bulk moduli of the fluid and solid materials respectively. In the
derivation of the equation we have excluded thermal expansion of the fluid, which simply
adds term to RHS of equation (4) of magnitude n/3T where /3 is the coefficient of thermal
74 0. C. ZlENKlEWlCZ AND f.SHIOMI

expansion and T is the temperature. Such terms are of importance in geothermal problems
and can readily be included if the heat balance is considered.
Equations (1)-(4), together with the definitions previously made, establish a system with
basic unknowns u, w and p which can be numerically solved when suitable boundary and
initial conditions are imposed on the domain n.
When Q #a,i.e. when the fluid is compressible, equation (4) allows p to be eliminated
and the resulting system contains only u and w variables. The first numerical dynamic solution
of such a system using small strain linearized assumptions was given by Ghaboussi and Wilson.2s
We shall not pursue further the formulation using these variables, as the reader familiar with
finite element methods will notice that in equations (1)and (2) acceleration terms for both
variables occur. This leads to coupled mass matrices inconvenient in temporal integration-and
a substitution of variables will be made in next section from which we shall start our numerical
consideration.

3. A MODIFICATION OF VARIABLES
Let us introduce in place of the relative displacements of the fluid wi a new variable Videfined
as

This can be physically interpreted, if small deformation occurs, as the total displacement of
the fluid measured from the same datum as ui, the division by n being made simply to convert
the average velocities to the (mean) actual ones in the pores.
Insertion of definition ( 5 ) into equations (1) and (2) and subtraction of [n xequation (2)]
from equation (1)leads to the equation of solid skeleton equilibrium
UijJ +np,i +(I -n)p*bi -(1 -n)psU, -Ri =0 (64
or, inserting the definition of effective stress for equation (3)
u:.,- ((Y- n ) p , i + (1- n)p,bi - (1 - n)p,iii - Ri =0 (6b)
The second equation will simply be [n x equation (2)], i.e.
-np,i + npfbi - npriii +Ri = 0 (7)
Using the definitions of equations (2a) and (3,
we have
Ri =n&-'wi =n2&-'(Lji -ii) (74
In the above equations and from here onwards we omit the convective acceleration terms in
the fluid as these lead to computational complexityz6 and in practice are relatively insignificant
v i s - h i s the imprecision with which the permeability k is determined.
The reader will note that in equations ( 5 ) and (7)only single acceleration terms occur and
that, on discretization, the mass matrices will remain uncoupled. This is the main reason why
we favour this form from which the main numerical equations will proceed.
Equations (6) and (7) can be interpreted directly as the equations of the solid and fluid
components of the mixture, respectively (e.g. references 19 and 21), but we have started with
a more readily understandable interpretation.
To complete the system we rewrite equations (3) and (4), dropping the initial strain terms
for clarity-though these would obviously be retained in material models involving creep.
 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 75

Thus for equation 3 we have

&; =Dijkl&l +cjirp;j +cjjrp:i

and the continuity relation (4) becomes on substitution of definition ( 5 )

Once again we have a complete equation system given by equations (6), (7)and (9) with
the constitutive relation (8).With the basic definitions introduced earlier, the essential variables
are ui, Ui and p.

4. GENERAL, MIXED NUMERICAL SOLUTION (SCHEME A)

The equation system introduced in the previous section can be discretized using standard finite
element procedures and weak forms of the appropriate equations. Details of such methods
are well described in textsz6and will be treated here cursorily. A semi-discretization procedure
is first used with appropriate time stepping process applicable to the final solution.
Thus, we can write
ui =NkJKi, Ui = NgoKi and p = N& (10)
with Nf; etc. representing appropriate shape functions and JK etc. giving the nodal values
or parameters describing the variables.
We note that, if the usual Galerkin process is used, the shape functions need not be of the
same kind for each of the variables. Although generally N u and N U would be assumed to be
identical and involve a C, continuity, NP can be discontinuous as p appears with first
derivatives only.
The semi-discretized systems become from equation (6b)

in $ - G ,p - C z f + C1d + M,d = f,
N L , i ~dR

from equation (9) (integrated in time)

G T +~ GTO - PP = -f,
from equation (7)
-G~)- czti + c,U + ~ ~= If i j
In the above f,, ff and jPinclude all prescribed loading terms and natural conditions. The
matrices are defined as follows

GI =
Jn N & ( a -n)Nc d R =
k BT@(a -n)N[dR

Gz= J N&nNr dR
n
1
P=
Jn Ng-NidR
Q
76 0. C. ZlENKIEWlCZ AND T. SHIOMI

CZ= I
n
Nkn2Sijk-'N: d R

C3 =
h NEnZSijk-'N: d o

M, =
k N k (1- n)p,Si,NL d R

f, , fP and f, are defined appropriately to incorporate the prescribed boundary conditions.

For a general, non-linear, problem the stress cri is determined incrementally by use of
equation (8).It is of interest however to write down the relations for a linear case as a complete
system. Now, assuming that rotation terms are negligible and that the constitutive matrix D i j k l
is constant we can write the set

This system is symmetric, with K being the linear, solid, stiffness matrix

In its complete form the solution of this system has never, to the authors' knowledge, been
attempted, but it is the only form possible when compressibility of the fluid is negligible (i.e.
Q = co and P=O) and when no penalty procedure is used.

Scheme 1(a)
When the fluid is compressible and the local definition of the shape functions N P is made
in a discontinuous manner, it is easy to eliminate p directly at the element level. Formally we
solve for p from equation ( l l b ) as

p = p-l(fP+~ +
T i i GTU) (15)

and substitution of the above into equations ( l l a ) and ( l l b ) in the linearized form gives

K+Ki
K,
K2][
K3 0
[:;.3
a ] -- -
u
(16)
 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 77

where

In the next section we shall show that such an elimination is equivalent to the use of reduced
differential equations, provided that suitable numerical integration formulae are used. This
equivalence was first shown in the context of fluid mechanics in Malkus and Hughes2' and
later used in a generalized sense by Taylor and Zienkiewicz" and Zienkiewicz and N a k a z a ~ a . ~ ~
However the mixed form given above allows the use of very efficient interpolations which do
not have a strict integration equivalence. One of these interpolations is the use (in two
dimensions) of a nine node Lagrangian element with a linear, three parameter, pressure
distribution. These elements, well tested in fluid mechanics, could easily be adopted here and
lead to an efficient computational form. 30-32
In the problem the necessary boundary conditions involve
(a) specification of total tractions
ti = (a;- asijp)nj (18)
or of solid displacements ui, and
(b) specification of pressure p or flow velocity
wi=n(oi-ui) (19)
Each of these quantities will appear in the boundary terms of the weak forms and either
be enforced by omitting the terms with specified nodal variables or be included in the load
vectors.

5. IRREDUCIBLE SOLUTION FOR COMPRESSIBLE FLUID (SCHEME A(b))

If the fluid is compressible, i.e. when Q # a,an elimination of p at equation level is possible.
Thus, from equation (9) we can write (after integrating in time)
p =-Q(nUi,i +(a - n ) ~ i , i ) (20)
and eliminate p from equations (6b) and (7)
Thus, the primary variables become simply ui and Vi and the problem has become
'irreducible'.
To eliminate unnecessary algebra it is convenient to write directly the discretized weak
form, and to eliminate p at this stage. (However we note that it is useful to leave p in boundary
force terms if it is to be specified.)
Proceeding in precisely the same manner as in deriving equations (1la) to (1lc) we can.write
78 0. C. ZIENKIEWICZ A N D T. SHIOMI

This can, as before, be used for a non-linear solution if equation (8) is incremented to obtain
the stresses.
Most of the matrices have the same meaning as given in equation (12) and new ones are
defined below

NZi (CY - n)'QN;,j dR

K2= [ N E V i n ( -an ) Q N & j dR

K3 =
h N&n2QNEj dR

The linearized form of the equations parallels equation (16) and is written simply as

[ M,
O 0 i
M,][d+[-C: c
1 -Cz][
C3 '1
0 +[K+K1
KT KZ][
K3 U =[;I (23)

The reader will observe the similarity of the various terms. It is an easy matter to show
that if numerical quadrature is adopted for the evaluation of K1 and K2 and K3 and this
quadrature is at precisely the same number of points as define uniquely NP, chosen inside an
element, then
K1=Kl K z = K 2 and K 2 = K 2
We have already referred to this equivalence in the previous section-noting nevertheless
that the mixed formulation offers more freedom.
It is well known that mixed formulation can at times go wrong if unsuitable interpolation
functions are used. These difficulties are referred to in much of the mathematical and engineer-
ing l i t e r a t ~ r e ~and
'-~~concern the stability of the numerical equation. The necessary conditions
for their avoidance have been stated by B a b ~ s k a . ' ~ (These conditions are sometimes known
by the name of Ladys~henskaya~~-Babuska-Brezzi.~~) Similarly, in irreducible forms, the
quadrature has therefore to be suitably chosen for good performance. We recommend from
the experience gained as similar problems of fluid mechanics that reduced (minimum consistent)
quadrature should always be used in evaluating K1, K2 and K3.For fuller discussion of such
reduced integration for K the reader is referred to References 26 and 37.
It is of interest to note that the matrix K+K1+2K2+K3 corresponds to the total stress
undrained behaviour of the material and if such undrained behaviour occurs we must have
k = O and U = u (provided that the same interpolation was used). Clearly such undrained
behaviour is easier to model, as we have to contend only with one variable u.
The governing equation for such undrained behaviour can be obtained by addition of terms
in equation (21) and, in linearized form, becomes
(-+Mt)i+ (K+ K1+ 2Kz +K3)ii=ju +j" (24)
Such undrained models have been used by Zienkiewicz et ul.38*39 for transient non-linear
analysis of soil behaviour involving liquefaction under earthquake action.
The occurrence of the undrained behaviour matrix in above equation means, however, that
eigenvalues of the system can be relatively high (A + 00 with Q+m) and numerical problems
may be anticipated when an explicit time stepping scheme is adopted. The process in fact
breaks down generally at very high values of Q, or when incompressibility of the fluid is
 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 79

encountered. When such problems are serious we recommend the use of the penalty formula-
tion for incompressible fluids to be described in the next section.

6. IRREDUCIBLE SOLUTION FOR INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUIDS (SCHEME B)

If we wish to introduce the notion of fluid incompressibility(often assumed by soil mechanicians)
the preceding formulations fail, as the term containing the pressure disappears from equation
(9). In such cases we have to either use the complete system of section 4 or introduce a penalty
formulation. Using the latter we approximate to equation (9) and write
1
-nui,(= (a- n ) ~ &+, -~Ap (25)

which is correct in the limit when A + 00. Though no physical significance can in general be
attached to A this has been interpreted as a volumetric viscosity of the fluid* (which does
occur in fluid mechanics for certain cases).40
With equation (25) now used to eliminate p from the equilibrium equations (6a) and (7)
we proceed identically as in Section 5 to achieve the discretization. The final result is

I, N i j v ; d f l + k 1 6 + k 6 - C 2 6 - C , i + M$ = 4 (26)

klU+k36-C2u+C3U+MfU= f,
where the matrices K1,k2 and K3 are similar to those defined in equation (22) but with 0
now replaced by A in the appropriate integrals.
The linearized form equivalent to equation (23) is now

K O ][-]=[;:]
ii (27)
0 0 u
and we note that a ‘shift’ of all the penalty terms has been made into a system damping matrix.
The new forms (26) or (27) are computationally advantageous for longer time steps but we
must remember that we have now introduced an arbitrary penalty number in place of a real
compressibility. Acoustic frequency phenomena will therefore not be correctly modelled.
However, for earthquake and consolidation problems this form is advantageous, as will be
shown later (see also References 21 and 22).

7. THE U-P APPROXIMATION (SCHEME C)

In quasi-static, slow motion phenomena, which are typical of the consolidation behaviour of
soils, all acceleration terms in the equations of motion become negligible and are omitted
with confidence. Now the seepage velocity w can be determined in terms of u and p and
eliminated, leaving two basic unknowns. Indeed this form is used as a standard approach in
13.4 1 4
the numerical solution of consolidation.
For medium speed phenomena it is reasonable to assume that only the terms relating to
the fluid acceleration (i.e. those containing pr) are to be neglected, and to proceed similarly.

* Unfortunately assignment of a real meaning to this term has led to serious errors in equations for example by
Prevost,2’ who quotes a totally incorrect set of equations.
80 0.C. ZIENKIEWICZ A N D T. SHIOMI

16-18
This approximation, introduced by Zienkiewicz et al., is valid for most problems of
earthquake analysis and frequencies slower than this.
To derive the relevant formulation, we return to equations (1) and (2) and in the first omit
all terms of fluid acceleration, thus obtaining simply (with substitution of equation (3).)

- a p , i +pbi - piii = 0
uiVj (28)

In equation (2) we omit all dynamic terms, arriving at

From the second, wican be determined and substituted into the continuity equation (4).
giving
1
[k(p,i+prbi)],i+aiii+-p = O
Q
This, in fact, is the well known seepage equation when decoupled from the displacement
by omitting the iiiterm.
Equations (28) and (30) together with the constitutive law, equation (8), define a coupled
set in which ui and p remain as the only variables.
Numerical discretization is once again achieved in a standard manner, taking

u i = N f ; i i K i and p = N P d K

and we note that now both sets of shape functions have to possess Cocontinuity.
The resulting approximation is, for equation (28)

I, N L p E dfl- Qp + Ma = T, (32)

and for equation (30)

HP +Q% +sg = T, (33)
with the constitutive equation supplying the increments of ub.
In a linearized form the system is

;[ ;][;I+[; :[+];I -:T][;]=[;;] (34)

with K and f being as defined before and the other matrices as given below
 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 81

We observe that
(1) The system is no longer symmetric and indeed shows the typical form encountered in
many coupled problem^.^^'^'
(2) It is capable of dealing with compressibility of the fluid via the matrix S. However, such
compressibility is now relatively unimportant as the wave motion in the fluid is essentially
excluded by the omission of fluid acceleration terms and with the exception of gas flow
the storage increase is insignificant. We may therefore safely assume that S+O.
(3) If compressibility is neglected it is possible to eliminate p by the inversion of H and
obtain an irreducible form which regains its symmetry. Thus, from the second of
equations (34) we have
p=~ - ' ( f-
,~ ~ i i ) (36)
and substitution of this into the first results in
MG+ QH-'Q=~+ KQ = S, + Q H - ' ~ , (37)
The above form is relatively simple, symmetric and equally applicable to linear and non-linear
situations, and indicates ihe most important aspect of the fluid motion, i.e. that of providing
a damping matrix.
There is a drawback in the above form due to the fact that computation of H-'is by no
means trivial now. With C, continuity of NP this inversion cannot be done at the element
level as it was in the reduction of the system of equation (13). Nevertheless, it has been used
as such in solving consolidation' problems (with M = 0) by Smith43 and indeed is implicit in
the solution schemes of Zienkiewin et al.46*47

8. TIME DOMAIN SOLUTION

For non-linear, transient problems, such as are associated with earthquake engineering, shock
waves or consolidation, a time domain solution has to be adopted. In such problems we may
be interested in very short elapsed time situations in which wave propagation is predominant
or long time scales in which the consolidation effects are important.
Indeed, in such problems as earthquake engineering including liquefaction, it has been
observed that although the main pore pressure build up occurs in the dynamic phase of the
earthquake measured on the scale of seconds, the most serious failure effects may be delayed
by a period of It is therefore desirable to consider a time stepping formulation capable
of dealing with the whole range of duration.
In this survey we shall not discuss the details of time stepping processes for which the
literature is quite v o l u m i n ~ u s . * ~ *The
~ ~ - most
~ ' popular currently used algorithm is that due
to Newmark5' with various modifications in the computational s t r u c t ~ r e .Such~ ~ ' an
~ ~algorithm
with two parameters p and y can lead to explicit schemes in which only the inverse of the
mass matrix is required or implicit ones where a full solution of simultaneous equations is
needed.
In an explicit scheme it is essential that the mass matrices (such as M, or Mr in equation
(27)) are diagonalized, or 'lumped'. Procedures for such lumping are described in some detail
in Reference 26.*
* It should be noted that lumping at times introduces errors. These however can be readily corrected by the insertion
of
(Mc-M')U
as a load term in any of the time step algorithms used by putting in a previously computed ii value. In this W is
the consistent mass and M' the lumped mass.
82 0.C. ZIENKIEWICZ AND T. SHIOMI

In Table I we summarize the basic ordinary differential equations which we have derived
and for which the time domain solution needs to be used.
We note immediately that in the full mixed form (A) or in the velocity pressure formulations
(C)fully explicit procedures cannot apply as the dynamic matrix contains zeros on the diagonal.
For such problems ‘staggered’ solutions appear attractive in which the relevant equations
are solved sequentially using previously extrapolated variables yet to be solved.45 Example
of such procedures are given in References 46 and 56, where the (C) type equations are used.
In these papers the first dynamic equation is solved for 1 using previous p values and an
explicit scheme. This is followed by a solution for p using the now available values of ii. As
this scheme is only conditionally stable quite small time intervals are used and the solution is
not applicable to large time scales.
An obvious possibility in the use of staggered algorithms for longer time solution is to apply
implicit-implicit proceduress5 and to rely on unconditional stability. Unfortunately such
stability is not automatically achieved in the above equation as shown by and care
should be exercised.
For this reason we shall, in the following examples, use simply the complete system of
equations and apply standard Newmark procedures of explicit or implicit kind. In order to
be able to cope with both long and short intervals in the time stepping process the length of
the time step At is adjusted adaptively during the computation. Various procedures of such
13,51.59-61
adaptive time step changes are discussed in the literature. The simplest we have
chosen proceeds as follows:
The time interval is doubled when a certain norm is greater than the upper limit of the
tolerance and is halved when the norm is less than the lower limit of the tolerance. The norm
we have used here is
r = llun+l-un111’2/maxi IIuilli/’ (384
or
r = Jliin+l-un1(1/2pAt2/maxi1(uil(’/’

where u and u are the displacement and acceleration vectors, respectively, and the subscript
stands for the time step. Both norms gave similar results in our numerical studies. The following
norm also gives similar time steps for the consolidation problems by choosing a suitable
tolerance.
r = IIun+i -unIt’/’/lIun -un-*II1/’ (39)
In the above ~ ~ Istands
I ~ ~for
~ the
~ ’square root norm defined as
~ ~ u=~(u~ru)11 /~2 2 (40)
The logic of using simply the magnitude of incremental displacement to change or to govern
the step size in these expressions could well be questioned. An alternative step size adjustment
procedure has hence been developed which promises improved performance. Here, we simply
estimated the error in a time step as the difference between u,,+~and U;+I where U;+I is the
value obtained by using an explicit computation in a time step. In this procedure, we use the
value
r = ((u;+i-un+ill/maxi lluill (41)
as the approximation criterion.
 Table I. Alternative discretized formulations of the transient dynamic soil-pore fluid interaction

Variables in Fluid compressible/

Name Description discretized form incompressible Comment Equation No.

Full mixed 4,a,p Either Complete general form (11) or (13)

formulation
Reduced mixed 1,a Compressible only Incompressibility of (16)
formulation fluid not permitted and can
be equivalent to A(b) but
more general
Irreducible ii, 0 Compressible only Incompressibility of fluid (21) or (23)
compressible form not permitted
Reduced integration needed
Irreducible ii, 0 Incompressible only Acoustic waves (26) or (27)
incompressible not permitted
form (penalty) Reduced integration needed
Displacement a, B Either Dynamic fluid term omitted.
pressure Simpler treatment for
approximation consolidation equation
Reduced ii Incompressible Inversion of H needed
displacement form
Dynamic Undrained ii Compressible only Valid only if
be haviour permeability = 0
Consolidation 0, P Either All dynamic term omitted
equation (slow) special case of C

00
w
84 0. C. ZIENKIEWICZ AND T. SHlOMl

The adjustable time step is well adapted to slow phenomena such as the consolidation
problem, but not necessarily to the earthquake problem, where refactorization of the dynamic
system matrix due to the change of time interval is so costly in computation that a constant
time interval is preferable in practice.

9. EXAMPLES
In the preceding we have surveyed many alternative forms of discretization possible for dealing
with the solution of the generalized Biot equation. The limitation of some forms, as summarized
in Table I, is their incapability of dealing with fluid compressibility: others introduce approxima-
tion in the dynamic fluid terms. Clearly the incompressibility assumption is acceptable in the
consolidation problem, as shown by Prevost” among others. How acceptable such assumptions
are in the dynamic range could well be debated. Approximations introduced in the u-p form
have been investigated to some extent in References 16-18 and found adequate for many
earthquake engineering problems. However further comparisons are needed to establish
precisely their limits.
In two simple examples we shall examine the approximation and relative performance of
three algorithms listed in Table I as A(b) and B.

Example 1: soil column

In order to illustrate the difference of the compressible form (A(b) in Table I) and the
incompressible penalty form (B), we choose here a one dimensional consolidation problem
where the material parameters are adapted artificially to emphasize the numerical solution
performance. The permeability is taken as m/s and other material properties are shown
in Table 11. The finite element discretization in space is shown in Figure 1, and has a free and

Table 11. Material properties of numerical examples

Example 2
Foundation
Example 1
Material parameter soil column soil structure

Young modulus E 30 MN/m2 60 MN/m2 1300 GN/mZ

Poisson ratio V 0.2 0.3 0.3
Mass density of solid Pl 2 Mg/m’ 2.0 Mg/m3 2.0 Mg/rn3
Bulk modulus of fluid K 100 m / m Z 2250 MN/m’ -
Bulk modulus of soil grain K 10 : 7 MN/m2 10 : 17 M/m2 -
Mass density of fluid Pr 1 Mg/m’ 1 Mg/m’ -
Permeability K 0.01 m/s 1 :-4 m/s -
Porosity n 0.3 0.3 -

fixed boundary at each edge. Water movement is suppressed at the base and free at top (i.e.
p = 0). In this problem, the stiffness of soil grains (Ks)
is assumed as infinity. The applied load
approximates to a step load shown in Figure 1 and is applied at the surface of the soil.
The results of both compressible A(b), and penalty forms B are compared with the analytical
solution of one dimensional consolidation theory for a step load in Figure 2. Very good
agreement is observed between both comparisons once the high oscillations of compressible
 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 85

sin -
ma?
c

Applied load
U
0
J
0 t,=O.(sec

Figure 1. Pore pressure profile in space and numerical model

form at the beginning have died out. Time steps were varied using the method mentioned
above and 30 steps were needed by specifying 0.01-0.05 as a rate of incremental displacement.
The penalty form needed fewer time steps than compressible form in this case.
In the penalty form the large number A (of equation (26))has been fixed by
A =hb/E (42)
where Ab is the precision of the machine times and 6 is the permeability. A must also satisfy
A > A.KTAt (43)

---

I
h I O k analytical result
c
9 ”- compressible form
\
z 8
1
L

QJ
c
3
VI
m 5
(Ir
c 4
a
a, 3

\
T i m e Isec)
+P
Figure 2. Comparison between compressible, penalty and analytical solution ( y = 0.6, fl = 0.3025)
86 0. C. ZIENMEWXZ AND T.S H I O M I

N
-
E
1
1
\
z
A
"
9,

kVI
VI
9,
L
a 7 I'
9,
L
0
a

O l
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 ?O
T l m e (secl , x10-1

where KT is the bulk modulus and A. could be lo' in practice. If neither condition is satisfied
the penalty procedure is unreliable.
In both calculations y = 0.6 and 6 = 0.3025 were used in the Newmark formula to achieve
some numerical damping.
In order to see cbt Mcc?of compressible waves nej$ected in the penalty form the initial
part of the transient is recalculated using amstant time intervals. Figure 3 shows the oscillation
due to these waves and its magnitude gradually being damped out. P i 4 shows the absence
of such waves, where compressibility is s u p j w d .
However, if time interval is enlarged a purely numerical oscillation now takes place and is
only slowly damped (pipie 5) if undamped Newmark is used ( y -0.5, 6 =0.25). This
numerical oscillation does not occur when the penalty formula is used (Figure 6).

x10-1

A
N
E
\
z
1
"
P,
L
3
H
H
01
L
a
PI
L
0
a

ot 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 lb 18 20
Tlme x10-1

Figufc4. NocJadukm m penalty form

 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA a7

x10-1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 5. Compressible form without numerical damping

To cure the artificial oscillation in compressible form, numerical damping may be useful,
since the consolidation problem is quasi-static. Figure 7 shows the result in which the high
oscillation was again damped out by using the time integration parameter y = 0.6 and p =
0.3025 in the Newmark method.
In this problem, the maximum pore pressure of compressible form is slightly higher than
that of penalty form because of non-existence of oscillatory waves in an incompressible fluid.
The differencewill depend on the problem and care must be taken in elasto-plastic problems
subjected to high frequency loading.

Example 2: a foundation problems

A 2-dimensional example is solved now to illustrate the influence of the seepage dissipation
in a more realistic soil-structure type problem. The material properties are again summarized

x10-1
11
1
N
E
\
z
1
"
al
L
3
UI
UI
al
a
P,

0
a

0- I , I I 1

0 1 2 3 45 6 7 8 9 10
T l m e [secl
Figure 6. Penalty form without numerical damping
88 0. C. ZlENKlEWICZ A N D T. SHlOMl

x10-1
I1
I

TIme Lsecl

Figure 7. Compressible form wirh numerical damping ( y = 0.6.p = 0.3025)

in Table I1 and the dimensions of problem are seen in Figure 8. Side boundaries are treated
in repeatable manner (Reference 47, see also Reference 26, pp. 219, 594). The load applied
is rather artificial, to illustrate the possibility of dealing simultaneously with slow and rapid
problems. The step-like load used in the first example is adopted for the dead load of the
structure part on the soil surface and in addition to that an earthquake motion is applied
during the first 5.0s (El Centro 1940 NS Max. Acc. 3.4m/s2 at 2.12s). This ensures an
interaction of a consolidation transiencies and earthquake response. Figure 9 shows the
deformation pattern at various times.
The contour diagrams of the pore pressure distribution are shown in Figures 10 for various
times during and after the earthquake. The pore pressure is highest at the place just under
the bottom edge of the structure part as the rotational movement of structure is induced by
the horizontal earthquake excitation. These high concentrations of pore pressure are caused
by local movement of water and are not affected by the boundary (drainage). The distribution
pattern is not symmetric at those times since the vertical dead load acts symmetrically and
horizontal earthquake acts anti-symmetrically between the right and left halves of the configur-
ation. After the earthquake (f = 6 s, 14 s, 10 min and 1 h 44 min), the influence of earthquake
motion is decreasing and the pore pressures recover the symmetric distribution where the
water flows toward surface of soil. At t = 10 min and 1 h 44 min, the pore pressure has a
typical pattern encountered in consolidation problems.
Figures 11 and 12, showing the time history of pore pressure and displacement ‘during-and
after-the earthquake’, emphasize the different natures of the behaviour and the coupling in
dealing with greatly varying time scales. Once again almost identical results were obtained
using the compressible formulation A(b) with artificial damping and the penalty form in which
no artificial damping was introduced.
In this problem the motion induced by the earthquake lasts around 20 s, which is about 4
times the excitation periods. That would not be expected in a realistic earthquake engineering
problem where structural damping may occur. It is of interest that these post-earthquake
motions could be shorter when drainage at the bottom of the foundation is allowed. A further
important point is that the elasto-plastic situation will induce a permanent pore pressure and
 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 89

U
0
-0

!!3rIl
db
0 015 0.30
x.1.0
10 20 30 4 0 50
Time (sec)
History of vertical input motion
XI 03
60

.- 35 '''''''''''r
8OOm

I I I I
J

N 30-
t 5 5 sec At = 0.02 sec
t > 5 sec At = variable time step

1 I I I I I I I I I

0 8 16 2 4 10 20 30 40 50 60
x 1.0 x 103
Time (sec)
History of eorthquoke motion

Figure 8. Configuration and input motions of example 2

its re-distribution in space may take place after the earthquake and cause or affect the
liquefaction of soil. A study of such non-linear situation will be presented in another publication.
In all of the calculations we have used bilinear elements with selective integration to prevent
hour-glass modes. In Figure 13 we show that use of single point reduced integration may give
serious problems and divergence for unsaturated parts of the soils. However when pore fluid
is present throughout, such oscillations are much suppressed. We recommend for general use
the possibility of a stabilizing procedure such as introduced by Kosloff .62 However in simple
problems where stress concentrations do not occur stability can be achieved with a simple
reduced integration method.63
7u U. C. LltNKICWICX ANU 1. SHlUM1

5
DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA
92 0.C. ZIENKIEWICZ A N D T. SHIOMI

0 8 16 2 4 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Tlme (secl X I O ~

Figure 1 1 . History of pore-water pressure

Steps 233 266 265 293 347 355 375

)- : I
Time 5 10 20 26 5ooo l M 0 0 62551 sec

F l u i d disp. at no& 32 -
S o l i d disp. at node 32 -
7

F l u i d 6 s o l i d disp.
at node 42

--s3
0 8 16 24
Tlme (secl

Figure 12. History of displacement at nodes 42 and 32

- b a K &
’

Figure 13. Hour-glass mode causing divergence

 DYNAMICS OF POROUS MEDIA 93

10. CONCLUDING REMARKS

We have demonstrated in the preeceding that various formulations can be effectively used in
the solution of soil-fluid transient problems with widely differing time scales. For most problems
of practical nature involving such frequencies as occur in earthquakes and slower consolidation
problems the neglect of compressibility and the penalty formulation procedure give a stable
and efficient procedure. However with the introduction of slight aIgorithmic damping the full
compressible form valid all over the frequencies gives an identical result and its computational
cost is comparable. Similar transient analyses have recently been attempted e l ~ e w h e r e . ~ ~

APPENDIX I: TRUE EFFECTIVE STRESS AND THE COEFFICIENT a

In the mechanics of porous media it is customary to divide the total stress into two parts as

where ub is known as the effective stress.

This division is convenient, as it is known from experiment that the hydrostatic external
and internal pressure rate p is responsible only for an isotropic volumetric strain rate

where K , is the average bulk modulus of the grains. As the stress rate Ciij is responsible for
the remaining deformation rate we can write in place of equation (3)
.o
ll = &!.
U.. I1 -sip = D Ilk1
. . (& k l - ~ ~ I - & k I ) + C j i ~ U ; j + ( j j l P ; l -&j@ (46)
If we define
Ci; =Ci;i+(l-a)&@ (47)

the identity with equation ( 3 ) is obtained.

Inserting equation (45) into this yields

This can only be satisfied in general if a is a vector given as ai.However it is recommended

to use an average value which we obtain by premultiplying aii now giving

a = 1- sipijkakl)
( 3K,
For an isotropic material the quantity & P i j k f i k l is equal to 3KT where KT is the bulk modulus,
but in general can be evaluated for any Dijkr.In non-linear problems an average value is
assumed for a given material which can be determined by experiments.
Y4 0.C. ZIENKIEWICZ AND T. SHlOMl

APPENDIX 11: RATE OF FLUID ACCUMULATION AND THE CONSTANT Q

The rate of change of fluid volume stored in a unit volume is composed of
(1) volumetric strain of skeleton (with no volumetric change of grains) iii
(2) compression strain in fluid np/Kf
(3) compression strain in grains due to pressure (1 - n )p/Ks
(4) change of compression of solid grains due to effective stress change -$8,~+.&/6,
Addition of these three terms and use of equations (47)-(50) yields equation (4)

in which

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