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High School to College: Transition Experiences of Young Adults With Autism

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FOAXXX10.1177/1088357615611880Focus on Autism and Other Developmental DisabilitiesAlverson et al.

Article
Focus on Autism and Other

High School to College:

Developmental Disabilities
1­–13
© Hammill Institute on Disabilities 2015
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Young Adults With Autism DOI: 10.1177/1088357615611880

focus.sagepub.com

Charlotte Y. Alverson, PhD1, Lauren E. Lindstrom, PhD1,

and Kara A. Hirano, MEd1

Abstract
Youth with disabilities are less likely to enroll and complete postsecondary education than their nondisabled peers. Using
a qualitative, cross-case design, we investigated the high school to college transition experiences of young adults diagnosed
with Asperger syndrome (AS). Data sources included a family questionnaire, review of special education records, and
multiple individual interviews (N = 27) with young adults with AS, family members, teachers, and rehabilitation counselors.
Social skills, communication, and executive functioning challenges in high school continued into postsecondary education
settings. Across cases, five reoccurring themes seemed to influence the transition from high school to postsecondary
education: (a) motivation to attend college, (b) high levels of disability awareness, (c) intentional family supports, (d)
coordinated transition planning, and (e) clear postschool goals.

Keywords
high school, secondary transition, postsecondary education, Asperger syndrome

Changes in the labor market over the last several decades
have made postsecondary education critical for employabil-
ity and economic stability (Carnevale, Smith, & Strohl,
2010). With the increasing demand for highly trained work-
ers who have completed postsecondary education, prepar-
ing all students to exit high school college and career ready
has become the mantra of educational leaders and a focus of
federal legislation, including the reauthorization of the
Elementary and Secondary Education Act (U.S. Department
of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy
Development, 2010). When examining postsecondary edu-
cation and degree attainment, two key issues arise, enroll-
ment in degree-granting institutions and persistence to
graduation.
Relative to enrollment in a postsecondary program, stu-
dents with disabilities are less likely than their peers with-
out disabilities (60% vs. 67%) to attend postsecondary
education within 8 years of leaving high school. For young
adults with autism, the rate of postsecondary enrollment
within 8 years after high school is 44% (Newman et al.,
2011). Shattuck et al. (2012) found youth with autism from
higher income families and those with greater functional
abilities were more likely to attend college. Furthermore,
Shattuck et al. found that youth with autism have a high risk
for being unengaged in either postsecondary education or
employment during the first 2 years after high school.
Chiang, Cheung, Hickson, Xiang, and Tsai (2012) identi-
fied five significant predictors of postsecondary education
participation for individuals with autism: (a) primary post–
high school goal to attend postsecondary education, (b) type
of high school (regular vs. specialized), (c) parent expecta-
tions for enrollment, (d) annual household income above
US$50,000, and (e) above average academic performance
in high school.
In examining previous research regarding completion of
postsecondary programs, students with disabilities are less
likely than peers in the general population to graduate (41%
vs. 52%), and young adults with autism have a completion
rate of 39% (Newman et al., 2011). Receiving appropriate
supports and accommodations is one factor related to the
success and persistence of students with disabilities in post-
secondary programs (Hart, Grigal, & Weir, 2010; Mull,
Sitlington, & Alper, 2001). Although the Americans With
Disabilities Act of 1990 guarantees accommodations in
public institutions of higher education for students with dis-
abilities, the onus for securing accommodations rests solely
1
University of Oregon, Eugene, USA
Corresponding Author:
Charlotte Y. Alverson, University of Oregon, 205 Clinical Services
Building, 5620 University of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97403, USA.
Email: calverso@uoregon.edu

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2 Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
on the student. Newman et al. (2011) found 72% of students
identified by their secondary school as having a disability
either did not consider themselves to have a disability once
they transitioned to a postsecondary school (63%) or chose
not to disclose their disability to the school (9%). Nearly
37% of students with autism in the National Longitudinal
Transition Study–2 (NLTS2) did not disclose their disabil-
ity to their educational institution, therefore did not receive
accommodations (Newman et al., 2011).
The lack of formal accommodations is only one factor
influencing persistence to graduation. Other factors unique
to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affect students in post-
secondary settings, especially those diagnosed with
Asperger syndrome (AS), an ASD characterized by signifi-
cant impairment in social interaction accompanied by
restrictive, repetitive, and stereotyped behaviors or interests
(Klin & Volkmar, 2003). Adults diagnosed with AS are
often socially isolated, remain dependent on their families,
and are unable to transition fully to independent adult roles
(Howlin, Goode, Hutton, & Rutter, 2004). Common inter-
personal challenges include forming and maintaining work
and personal relationships, demonstrating age appropriate
behaviors, developing a full understanding of their disabil-
ity, and lacking self-advocacy, coping, and problem-solving
skills (Browning & Miron, 2007; Roberts, 2010). Although
overall academic achievement may be average or above
average, youth with AS often exhibit uneven patterns of
performance with pockets of specialized knowledge and
highly focused interest areas (Sciutto, Richwine,
Mentrikoski, & Niedzwiecki, 2012).
Kidwell (2005) referred to the first year of college as the
purgatorial zone as students often struggle, not due to a lack
of intellect or aptitude, but due to challenges stemming
from leaving familiar surroundings, family, and friends,
and navigating the routines associated with being a college
student—finding classrooms, purchasing books, meeting
other students, understanding syllabi, and completing
assignments on time. This purgatorial zone can be debilitat-
ing for individuals with AS who have difficulties with
communication and social skills as well as unique needs
related to sensory integration and organization (Camarena
& Sarigiani, 2009).
Anecdotal reports of generalized challenges faced by
individuals with AS abound in the literature, often accom-
panied by recommendations for strategies to address barri-
ers in postsecondary education (Browning & Miron, 2007;
Dillion, 2007; Wenzel & Rowley, 2010). However, there is
a dearth of empirical research documenting how these traits
manifest in college, and what high school transition ser-
vices may better prepare individuals with AS for college.
The purpose of this study was to identify the unique per-
sonal and contextual barriers young adults with AS face in
postsecondary education and what high school transition
services youth need to be prepared for postsecondary
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education. The overarching research questions were as
follows:
Research Question 1: What high school transition ser-
vices do young adults with AS need to be successful in
college?
Research Question 2: What unique personal and con-
textual barriers do these individuals face when enrolling
and remaining in college?
Method
We used a phenomenological qualitative approach using
individual interviews over a 6- to 12-month time period to
examine the experiences of young adults with AS in transi-
tion from high school to college. Multiple, individual inter-
views with young adults, family members, teachers, and
rehabilitation counselors (N = 27) provided various per-
spectives on the transition process and early college expe-
riences. A family background questionnaire contributed to
the understanding of the family structure, and, when avail-
able, participants’ special education records provided
insight into their school experiences. Qualitative methods
allowed us to gain a rich understanding of individuals with
AS, their families, and those who worked with them
(Brantlinger, Jimenez, Klingner, Pugach, & Richardson,
2005).
Participants
We purposefully selected young adults with a medical diag-
nosis of AS, all diagnosed under the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; DSM-IV;
American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994) criteria
(prior to the publication of DSM’s fifth edition; DSM-5;
APA, 2013) who were eligible for special education ser-
vices in high school and enrolled or planned to enroll in a
2- or 4-year college. Referral sources were (a) autism con-
sultants for an education service district, (b) a vocational
rehabilitation counselor primarily serving clients with ASD,
and (c) a developmental pediatrician. Young adults with
diagnosed or suspected comorbid conditions (e.g., clinical
depression) or those unable or unwilling to acknowledge a
disability were ineligible. We used a structured screening
protocol to ensure potential participants met the study’s
inclusion criteria.
Young adults with AS.  Participants were five young men ages
19 to 22 at the time of the first interview (see Table 1). They
lived in urban, suburban, and rural areas of a northwestern
state. Four identified as Caucasian and one identified as
multiple races. All five participants had a high school com-
pletion document at the time of the first interview; two
received a regular high school diploma, two completed the
Alverson et al. 3

Table 1.  Participant Demographic Information.

Name Age at first interview Age at ASD diagnosis Initial diagnosis Ethnicity Diploma status
Brent 22 18 ADD/ADHD Caucasian Modified
Hunter 21 17 ADD Caucasian GED
Irvin 22 3 PDD-NOS Caucasian Regular
Jeff 21 4 ID Multiracial GED
Jorge 19 19 ADHD Caucasian Regular

Note. Per the American Psychiatric Association, “Anyone diagnosed with one of the four pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) from DSM-IV
should still meet the criteria for ASD in DSM-5 . . . ” ADD = attention deficit disorder; ADHD = attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder; PDD-NOS
= pervasive developmental disorder, not otherwise specified; ID = intellectual disability; ASD = autism spectrum disorder; DSM-IV = Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.).

General Educational Development (GED), and one received
a modified diploma.
Key informants.  We obtained participants’ consent to inter-
view individuals who could provide additional insights into
their family, high school, and college experiences. For each
participant, we interviewed (a) one or both parents, (b) a
high school teacher or transition specialist; and (c) for those
who received services from vocational rehabilitation, a
rehabilitation counselor who provided career counseling
and guidance.
Data Collection
Interview protocols. We developed semi-structured inter-
view protocols utilizing key indicators identified in special
education (e.g., disability awareness, focus of Individual-
ized Education Program [IEP]), transition (e.g., postschool
goals, self-advocacy/self-determination), and autism litera-
ture (e.g., communication, socialization, organization/exec-
utive functioning). The following major topics were
addressed in all interview protocols: (a) personal character-
istics including strengths and interests, (b) family supports
and expectations, (c) high school experiences, and (d) col-
lege experiences including barriers and services accessed.
Interview procedures.  We interviewed each participant and a
parent or family member twice, approximately 6 to 12
months apart. Participants had the option of having a parent
join them for the first interview; three young adults included
their parent in the first interview. The remaining parents
were interviewed individually. The initial interviews
focused on family background, high school, and early col-
lege experiences. We conducted the second interviews with
parents and participants separately. The second interviews
focused on recent changes in the participants’ lives and
individualized questions to clarify and follow up on infor-
mation obtained in the first interviews. With participants’
permission, we interviewed a high school teacher or other
school staff and rehabilitation counselor to gain information
about their perceptions and experiences working with the
participants during the transition from high school to col-
lege. Across all five participants, we conducted 27 inter-
views. Interviews lasted 60 to 90 min and were audio
recorded and transcribed verbatim by a professional
transcriptionist.
Secondary sources. We completed a family background
questionnaire and obtained special education records when
available. Field notes documenting contact with partici-
pants and key informants were compiled and coded. All
field notes and file reviews were recorded on structured
forms to ensure comparable information across cases (Yin,
2009).
Data Analysis
We analyzed data following a multistage process (Bazeley,
2009; Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2013). First, we simul-
taneously read the transcripts and listened to the audio files
to ensure accuracy in transcription, added descriptors (e.g.,
“said sarcastically”), or included field notes (e.g., turned
away as mom described his early behaviors). All transcripts
were entered into NVivo (Version 9) qualitative software
used for coding and analysis.
Next, we developed broad descriptive codes and defini-
tions based on relevant literature, interview protocols, and
our initial read of the data. Using the descriptive codes (e.g.,
preparation for college, or social skills/socialization), we
assigned labels to individual passages of text. After review-
ing an initial set of transcripts, the research team revised
and expanded the codes, adding key topics that emerged
from participant data. To ensure that interpretations were
not idiosyncratic or biased, coding was conducted in pairs
with the lead author coding all interviews. We did not
attempt to resolve coding differences. Instead, coders
reached initial agreement on the definition of each code,
and multiple codes were assigned to each passage of text to
allow for flexible, yet consistent, data interpretation
(Anfara, Brown, & Mangione, 2002).
In the third stage of analysis, we developed an in-depth
narrative profile for each participant using coded interview

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4 Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
data, field notes, and file review records. The profiles
included detailed descriptions of family, high school transi-
tion, and college experiences supported by direct quotes
from the data sources. After completing in-depth, partici-
pant profiles, we used explanatory methods to compare and
contrast common or unique qualities and experiences across
participants. Cross-case analysis was used to confirm pat-
terns and document themes related to the transition to col-
lege (Bazeley, 2009; Miles et al., 2013).
Findings
Our interviews with young adults, parents, and service pro-
viders provided in-depth perspectives on the transition from
high school to college for five individuals with AS. All five
participants enrolled in college with varying degrees of suc-
cess. Participants identified multiple challenges, especially
in the areas of social skills, communication, and executive
functioning skills. These challenges were evident in high
school and persisted into college settings. Our descriptive
findings are presented in three parts: (a) participant profiles,
including family status and initial disability diagnosis for
each participant, (b) high school and transition services, and
(c) early college experiences. We conclude the section with
a presentation of the cross-case themes that seemed to influ-
ence postsecondary enrollment and retention across cases.
Participant Profiles
Brent.  Brent grew up with his mother and younger brother
in an urban community. Brent’s mom described his early
elementary years as difficult as he had intense temper tan-
trums: “Grade school was definitely something. We were
sent to somebody for a diagnosis on the average of once per
year.” He received several diagnoses in elementary school,
including attention deficit disorder (ADD) and attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). As Brent aged, he
had difficulty with hygiene and organization. In sixth grade,
his mom enrolled him in a military school, where he thrived
within a system of structure and specific expectations. He
had high grades and followed the strict dress and hygiene
requirements. Brent attended a nonprofit, public, charter
high school. Although he continued to have an IEP, his
transition specialist described the nature of the charter
school as one in which “he was accepted into their commu-
nity and they kind of tossed out all disability. He was just
sort of viewed as an individual.” During high school,
Brent’s IEP was based on eligibility for a specific learning
disability in written expression. Observations by the transi-
tion specialist led to an evaluation for ASD and a medical
diagnosis of AS at age 18. Having resisted previous diagno-
ses, his mom supported the AS diagnosis, “The Asperger’s
thing, the more I learned, the more I know it’s like uh huh,
the light bulbs! Oh, that explains it!”
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Jeff.  Jeff grew up with his mother after his parents divorced
when he was a young child. Jeff’s mom described knowing
early that he was not developing like other babies. She
noted he did not cry for food as her older son had, explore
his environment, or respond when his name was called. He
expressed strong preferences for certain textures on his
skin, sometimes refusing to wear clothes. When Jeff was
about 3 years old, a doctor suggested he had a mild intel-
lectual disability (ID) and referred him to the school system
for evaluation. Mom indicated he was diagnosed as ID
based on initial testing. Jeff was diagnosed with ASD
around age 4. In the early elementary years, he had diffi-
culty following directions, spoke with two-word utterances,
and exhibited aggressive behaviors especially when people
were “in his space.” When Jeff entered sixth grade, his mom
began homeschooling him, saying she worried that kids
would tease him and “[middle school] was just a different
environment and I just felt it was better that he would just
stay home.” Jeff was homeschooled via online programs
until age 18 when he enrolled in a post–high school transi-
tion program.
Hunter.  Hunter grew up with elderly parents in a rural com-
munity. He was the youngest of five children. As a young
child, Hunter was given a variety of medications to control
his behavior. His mom described how some medications
made him hyper and some made him “like a zombie” until
she finally said, “no more medications.” In elementary
school, he was diagnosed with ADD and struggled to focus
and control his behavior; these years were not easy for
Hunter. He described some of the difficulties he had as “not
really concentrating on anything, or paying attention or car-
ing. People described me as a tyrant. Pretty much every day
I wound up in the principal’s office daily for being in trou-
ble, usually for doing something; usually hitting people.” In
fifth grade, Hunter was evaluated for special education ser-
vices but was determined to be “too smart for help.” Mid-
year, his parents withdrew him from public school and
enrolled him in an online, homeschool program. He was
diagnosed with AS at the age of 17 by the developmental
pediatrician he was seeing for anger issues and depression.
Irvin.  Irvin grew up with his parents and younger sister in an
urban community. His mother recognized from an early age
that his speech was not developing, he did not pay attention
to his environment, and he did not react to people’s nonver-
bal cues. He was first diagnosed with a nonverbal learning
disorder and pervasive development disorder. Just prior to
the age of 4, he was diagnosed with AS. His mom recalled
him perseverating and arm flapping when he was in pre-
school, but described him as having an “easygoing person-
ality, and thank goodness. I mean, he wasn’t a kid who had
temper tantrums.” Beginning in elementary school, Irvin’s
parents provided private tutors up to 3 times a week. His
Alverson et al. 5
mom noted, “In a way it took us out of the realm of having
to say ‘you’ve gotta do this,’ we could remove ourselves
from having to be involved in the same way with homework
assignments and other things.” He received private tutoring
and attended general education classes throughout high
school.
Jorge. Jorge grew up in a small, rural community. His
immediate family included two older and three younger sib-
lings. His mother remembered that he was slow learning to
crawl and talk. At age 4, Jorge was diagnosed with ADHD,
a diagnosis the mom did not trust, saying
I just kept pushing it and kept pushing it, because it did not
seem like hyperactivity to me. If we went out into public, his
mood would escalate. He would be bouncing off the walls, it
would be hard to calm him down, he would cry easily. But at
home or in a regular environment, he was totally normal. And
so I just kind of fought that diagnosis.
In school, Jorge experienced sensory overload issues related
to sounds—the grittiness of peers’ pencil lead against paper
or the teacher writing on the chalkboard—to the point that
he would scream and cry in class. Jorge had the diagnosis of
ADHD through his public school years and only received
services for ASD as a result of mom advocating for him. He
received a medical diagnosis of AS after graduating high
school.
High School Transition Experiences
Of the five participants, only Irvin and Jorge attended gen-
eral education classes in public high schools. Both gradu-
ated with a regular diploma in 4 years. Hunter was
homeschooled via a structured, online program and
obtained a GED at the age of 19. Brent attended a non-
profit, public, charter high school for 5 years and obtained
a modified diploma. Jeff, after being homeschooled until
age 18, enrolled in a high school transition program and
obtained a GED. Both Brent and Jeff attended a transition
program for 18- to 21-year-olds in a public school system.
Across the five case studies, high school experiences dif-
fered greatly, yet all participants experienced some of the
common challenges faced by individuals with AS, such as
difficulty with social skills, communication skills, and
executive functioning.
Social skills and socialization. Difficulties in the area of
friendships were evident across all participants. Jorge and
Irvin were socially engaged during high school, yet both
reported feeling socially isolated. Jorge’s circle of friends
consisted primarily of his two older siblings. Jorge distin-
guished between having close friends and being friendly
with people in various social groups in high school saying,
“I didn’t really become close friends with any of them, but
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I became friendly with a lot of them.” Irvin credited estab-
lishing a Facebook account during senior year with helping
him make friends, although saying he never developed
friends “who I’d call up and be like ‘hey, what are you guys
doing?’”
Unlike Jorge and Irvin who described having few or no
friends in high school, Hunter, Jeff, and Brent each reported
having friends. Asked to describe how often they saw their
friends or what they did with their friends, they disclosed
that their friends existed through online gaming forums and
were not friends they had met in person. Hunter described
his challenges with social skills, saying they were never his
strong point . . . Something seemed off. I noticed I wasn’t
exactly getting the reactions I wanted from other people . . . I
never really understood in what way I was different, but I
always knew I was.
Jeff disassociated with other students in his transition pro-
gram, saying he did not share their interests, and he found
them “annoying.” Brent’s mom indicated his only friends
were those from the gaming community. His transition spe-
cialist attributed his difficulty with developing friends to the
inappropriate social behaviors he displayed, such as “imag-
inary sword fighting, fantasy role-playing acting in charac-
ter, or . . . [pulling] out an ocarina and [playing] the theme
from the Legend of Zelda.”
Communication skills.  Difficulty with effective communica-
tion was most apparent with Jeff, Hunter, and Brent. Jeff
and Hunter both described being aware of past miscommu-
nications. Hunter said he “[tries] not to leave any room for
error when I say things to people. Like, try not to let them
misinterpret what I’m saying.” When he was younger, he
was “afraid of saying something wrong or not being
accepted. Because I knew I was different.” Although none
of the young men reported having difficulty when talking
with teachers or service providers, we noted multiple exam-
ples of communication breakdowns that occurred during
high school. Brent’s communications skills were an ongo-
ing source of stress in the household, especially as mom
learned about his inappropriate behaviors at school or in the
community from a third party, long after the occurrence. In
work settings, his inappropriate comments and behaviors
resulted in negative responses from co-workers. Brent
explained, “anything but short communications tend to end
up having a good chance of gravitating towards my special
interests.”
Executive functioning skills. Participants described several
areas related to executive functioning—independence,
organization, and establishing routines—as difficult. Jeff
described how his lack of independent skills and discipline
to do homework resulted in him being “kicked out” of one
online high school program. The importance of repetition
6 Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
and structure was especially evident for Brent and Jorge.
Brent described functioning best with more structure in his
daily routine, and yet, “I know that sometimes I over-
structure myself though and then become inflexible.”
Jorge’s need for a schedule permeated all aspects of his life,
as he described:
So if I don’t have a schedule, I’ll sort of forget to sleep, and
bathe, and eat, and drink. Go a while without doing all that.
When I’m in a schedule, I can do fine . . . If I have a schedule
all planned out and stuff, I can stick to it pretty well, and I’ll be
on it every day. But if I don’t quickly make a schedule, then I
will be stuck in the schedule of not having a schedule. . . . And
when I say stuck, I mean I’ll be stuck in it for months.
College Experiences
All participants had some postsecondary education experi-
ence, primarily at community colleges. Irvin attended a
4-year university for 2 years immediately following high
school, returned home and enrolled in community college
before transferring to the 4-year university in his home
town. Hunter maintained full-time status throughout his
community college experience. Jeff, Jorge, and Brent had
enrolled part time, taking from 3 to 11 credits per term,
however; Brent only enrolled in one class. Of the five, only
Hunter and Irvin pursued declared majors.
At the time of the second interview, Hunter was on track
to complete an associate degree in automotive mechanics,
and Irvin was pursuing a bachelor’s degree with a double
major in sociology and general social sciences. The other
three young men were enrolled in nontransferable remedia-
tion or general education courses not associated with a
degree program. In general, they sought very little support
from adult agencies such as vocational rehabilitation (VR)
or the various supports available on the different campuses.
Jeff and Brent had open cases with VR, but Jeff only used
VR to support his tuition and fees, otherwise relying on his
transition teacher to assist with navigating financial aid,
registration, or any problems that arose. Only Irvin and
Jorge accessed disability services on campus. Irvin also uti-
lized supports from the Trio program and the writing and
math labs on campus. Hunter did not use support services,
saying, “Every class I’ve tooken [sic], I’ve had the option of
help if needed. I never took it. Don’t really need it that bad.”
The difficulties with social skills/socialization, communica-
tion, and executive functioning skills evident in high school
did not lessen once these young men reached college.
Social skills/socialization.  Socialization deficits were promi-
nent for all participants. Jorge and Irvin continued to lack
friendships in college, in spite of seeking activities that cre-
ated opportunities for them to socialize with peers. Irvin
volunteered as a referee for community basketball games,
joined an ultimate Frisbee team, and obtained a campus job.
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In addition, in his first year away at school, he met and
dated a young woman for 3 years. Jorge described himself
as a loner in high school and being forced into social inter-
actions because the school was small. In college, he came to
appreciate
. . . people won’t socialize with me out of obligation. . . .
Personally, I think the social transition was the hardest for me.
Realizing that I had to interact with people to get them to
interact back, sort of a two-way street, conversation wise.
Jorge joined a support group for people with AS on campus
and said he enjoyed it until it became repetitive, at which
point he stopped participating. According to his mom,
He has a strong desire to have friends and be social, and he just
[doesn’t] have the social skills to do that and . . . his anxiety is
so bad that it’s just almost impossible, physically, to do it right
now.
Unlike Irvin and Jorge who sought social opportunities,
Hunter and Jeff did not attempt to make friends in college.
According to Hunter, there were people he talked to before
and after class and people he ate lunch with, yet, he “didn’t
really see much point in making friends with anybody there
’cause of the fact, chances are, I’d never really be able to
hang out with them.” Furthermore, he did not talk with
them on the phone because there was no one “whose char-
acter interested me too much. Not like-minded as myself.”
Where Hunter indicated talking with people at college, Jeff
avoided interactions with classmates to the point of discour-
aging interactions initiated by another student, explaining,
“everybody was not my age so it’s not like I’d want to talk
to them.” For Jeff, each new class was a source of anxiety.
He explained,
It’s just kind of uncomfortable for me every time I go into a
new class. Like, I quickly get over it, but it’s a thing. I don’t
know what my place is yet, you know. I’m surrounded by
people. I’m always paranoid that people gets [sic] offended, I
took their seat they used last time or something like that. . . . I
really prefer people not to notice me so I always take a seat
that’s like, on the far left or the far right of the class, not in the
middle.
Jeff’s mom described him as being anxious about his first
day of college, but he and mom disagreed about what made
him anxious. Mom said he was concerned that he would be
the “oddball out,” to which Jeff responded, “I have no use
for people generally, I don’t care what they think of me. I
don’t think much of them either. So I never cared if I was
the oddball out.”
Communication skills. Although most of these young men
reported no difficulties communicating with professors,
working in groups, or seeking assistance, we noted clear
Alverson et al. 7
Table 2.  Cross-Case Themes and Postsecondary Outcomes.
Disability Source of Family support and
Name awareness motivation involvement
Brent Low External Directed to others
for assistance
Jeff Medium Internal Minimal
involvement
Hunter Medium Internal to Completed tasks
External for him
Irvin High Internal Facilitated
independence
Jorge High Internal Facilitated
independence
Note. AA = associate of arts; BA = bachelor of arts.
indications of communication barriers. All participants
stated a preference for communicating via email rather than
using the phone. Hunter and Jeff avoided phone conversa-
tions whenever possible. Jeff’s support providers reported
writing scripts for him that he then pasted into emails when
he needed to communicate with others about financial aid
status or enrolling in a class. Jorge preferred texting to
phone calls. His verbal interactions consisted of talking
with his roommates, telling his mom “ . . . other than them,
mom, you’re the only one I talk to, ever.” Jorge’s mom
described how vomiting and breaking out in hives, due to
anxiety, prevented him from talking to instructors or attend-
ing group tutoring sessions. He admitted his grades suffered
because “I wouldn’t ask for help, or ask questions, because
I just couldn’t speak.”
Executive functioning skills.  As these young men transitioned
into college, they had considerable difficulty initiating and
following through with tasks, memorizing and retrieving
information, utilizing past knowledge, managing time, and
organizing themselves and their home environments. Mul-
tiple sources described Brent’s lack of follow through. His
support provider noted, “If he has a very structured routine
and tight supervision and accountability, he does very well
. . . asking him to do anything nonroutine by himself is not
gonna work.” Hunter’s mom indicated that she maintained
his calendar and kept track of appointments; similarly, Jorge
relied on his mom to track his appointments and other criti-
cal tasks. Jeff did not use a calendar to track assignments
and relied on prompting from his transition teacher for
guidance. Jeff and Jorge both described having difficulty
managing homework and knowing how to start projects.
Cross-Case Themes
As we looked across the cases and pondered the question,
“What made a difference in terms of success in postsecond-
ary education for these five young men?” several common
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Coordinated Clear
planning postschool goal College enrollment College retention
Low No Not enrolled Completed one class
Low No Community college Completed
remediation classes
None Yes Community college On track for AA
degree
High Yes 4-year university On track for BA
degree
High Yes Community college Completed general
education classes
themes emerged related to (a) self-awareness/disability
awareness, (b) source of motivation to attend college, (c)
family support/involvement, (d) coordinated set of transi-
tion activities, and (e) clear postschool goals. Each theme
was present in varying degrees across participants and
clearly influenced enrollment and retention in postsecond-
ary education. See Table 2 for a summary of themes and
postsecondary outcomes across participants.
Self-awareness/disability awareness.  The degree of awareness
each young man had relative to his disability varied greatly.
Brent, oldest of the group at the time he was diagnosed with
AS, had the least awareness of his disability and its effect
on his daily life. He described some basic characteristics of
AS and how they were relevant to him, but his responses
were pedantic, and he parroted what he had heard others say
about AS, “What is the saying, if you’ve met one person
with Asperger syndrome, you’ve met one person with
Asperger syndrome.”
Jeff and Hunter were the most similar in their awareness
of AS, their level of acceptance, and knowledge of how AS
affected them. Although they demonstrated some level of
disability awareness, neither young man had investigated
what it meant to be diagnosed with AS nor fully grasped
how it affected their daily life. According to Jeff, “You
wouldn’t know I had autism if she didn’t tell you. Maybe I
do have it but I just pretend I don’t . . . ” Hunter’s response
to being asked to describe how autism affected his life was
similar, “I don’t really know. . . . I guess it just means that
certain things are gonna be harder in life. I still don’t really
know what autism is exactly. Again, I never really cared to
find out.” Although both young men were enrolled in
courses at the community college, only Hunter had regis-
tered with disability services. Neither informed their
instructors of their disability nor used accommodations in
college.
Irvin and Jorge had the highest degree of self-awareness
and understanding of AS. They understood their limitations
8 Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
and were able to explain their individual needs. Both sought
assistance from various campus resources, used accommo-
dations in classes, and joined a campus group for individu-
als with AS. Irvin described in detail how AS affected him
socially, “I struggle socially, definitely. I don’t read a lot of
social cues and that’s kind of problems [sic] in school and
socially. I don’t have really a clique of friends.” Socialization
was also difficult for Jorge, “Social interaction and a prob-
lem with adapting, I suppose, are the two main problems.”
Source of motivation.  We classified motivation for these five
young men according to the perceived source of motivation—
internal, external, or external to internal. Jeff, Irvin, and Jorge
were motivated by an internal drive to attend college, although
for different reasons. Jeff’s motivation stemmed from a
desire for a stable income and a way to provide for himself
and his mother. He did not want a minimum wage job or
multiple jobs to make ends meet. Irvin had a self-expectation
to attend college, saying, “I never decided not to . . . I never
really thought about not going to college. I always knew I
was going to [go to college].” Jorge’s motivation was also
internal; he knew his long-term goal of being a biologist
required a college degree.
Brent’s motivation to attend college was external.
College was something his mom wanted for him, and some-
thing he arrived at as a result of being asked questions
related to his future and transition planning, which led him
to decide “gotta go to college.” In spite of a stated desire to
attend college, he was unable or unwilling to complete the
steps to enroll in the community college. His mother advo-
cated for him to have help transitioning to college while he
was in high school, but his transition services focused on
employment and vocational training.
Hunter’s motivation was initially external but became
internal over time. His initial motivation for attending col-
lege was based on a recommendation by his pediatrician to
go to college. After starting the mechanics program, he saw
the benefit of continuing in college, saying “It gives me
something to do. It occupies a lot of my time. And it gives
me valuable skills, which I will use quite often, probably.”
Family support/involvement. All five families offered some
support for the transition to college, yet their support mani-
fested differently. Irvin and Jorge’s families facilitated their
sons’ decision-making process and provided intentional
college planning activities. Irvin’s parents provided infor-
mation, visited campus, and reviewed college programs
with him “ . . . helping him to see what’s out there, becom-
ing more informed.” Jorge’s mom played a role in influenc-
ing which college he enrolled in by describing the supports
available at the community college she had attended. Once
Jorge decided on a college, his mom and older sister helped
him complete the admission application and apply for
scholarships.
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Jeff, Hunter, and Brent’s families were supportive but
did not provide intentional guidance that facilitated inde-
pendence and success in postsecondary environments.
Jeff’s mom supported his decision to attend college, but she
was not involved in the decision making or activities to help
him enroll in college. When Jeff turned 18, she stopped
attending his IEP meetings, “Now, he’s been on his own on
his IEP. This last one was by himself . . . he was on his own,
which is the way it should be.” When Jeff encountered
problems registering for classes or with financial aid, she
expected him to solve the problem. His solution was to
involve his transition teacher to help him navigate the sys-
tem and resolve problems. Hunter’s mom provided support
by doing things for him. She enrolled him in college, regis-
tered him for classes each semester, and filed his financial
aid packet each year. Brent’s mom provided support by
advocating for and obtaining a variety of adult agency sup-
port services for Brent. Her role was one of organizing and
directing services providers. In her view, it was an agency’s
(e.g., VR or personal agents) responsibility to ensure Brent
enrolled in college. When service agencies outlined steps
that needed to be taken (e.g., take the placement test), Brent
and/or agency personnel were expected to complete the
steps.
Coordinated transition services. Coordinated transition ser-
vices differed dramatically for these young men. Hunter,
homeschooled from fifth grade, received no transition ser-
vices during his high school years, therefore, he had no con-
nections to adult service agencies. Asked if he knew about
VR, he responded, “not entirely. It was brought up, but I
can’t remember much on it. If anything was ever said on it,
I think it was just offered.”
Although Brent and Jeff received some transition ser-
vices in the transition programs for 18- to 21-year-olds,
overall coordination of these services was low. Although
both young men were connected with VR services as part of
the transition program, neither developed a specific employ-
ment goal nor vision for a future career. Jeff’s career goal was
simply to earn more than minimum wage. Notwithstanding a
demonstrated aptitude for and well-established hobby “mod-
ding” (i.e., modifying existing video games), Jeff resisted
pursuing an education in game design because he did not
trust it would lead to a stable career, yet he had not identi-
fied other potential careers that could provide the stability
he wanted.
In spite of his IEP containing a postschool goal for col-
lege, Brent could not describe what he wanted to do after
high school, saying, “I can’t—I don’t really have future
plans” to which mom added, “I can’t get him to—We can
talk for 3 hours and not get to [identifying a goal]—Other
than maybe gaming something. He just—goals are not con-
crete for him, really.” Brent’s transition services never
resulted in a postschool goal that motivated or engaged him.
Alverson et al. 9
Although mom advocated for a focus on college, his transi-
tion teacher pursued work experiences and connected Brent
with VR services, before determining that
it became clear that he wasn’t going to take off and go to
school, and he was not going to take off and have a job and be
able to work, and so I helped him connect with [an agency],
and we helped him apply for social security disability.
Brent described the transition services he received in high
school as “periodic random encouragement is about the best
I can think of.”
Juxtaposed to Brent, Hunter, and Jeff’s experiences,
Jorge and Irvin experienced a high level of coordination in
their transition services. Intentional planning for postsec-
ondary was evident. Throughout school, their parents advo-
cated for them to be in general education classes as much as
possible. Jorge and Irvin spent only one period per day in
pullout, resource room classes. Jorge’s mom pushed for his
post–high school focus to be college, not work, saying,
There was a person on site who connected him to VR. And
their push was really for him to go out and get job training.
There was not a push for him to go to college. And so I made it
very clear at the very beginning, even in ninth grade, that
[Jorge] was going to college. That he’s not going to be pushed
out into the workforce.
Irvin and Jorge had a clear college-related goal in mind
from an early age, and their families and school personnel
supported that goal. Irvin’s mom described the efforts put
forth by his high school counselors, vice principals, transi-
tion staff, and parents, “We were all looking at options for
him.” Jorge described being focused beyond high school
from an early age: “I always thought of it as just another
stage in school. College wasn’t really the highlight of my
goal. My goal was [being] the biologist.” Both had high
school programs that provided support for taking practice
entrance exams, completing college entrance applications,
and applying for financial aid.
Clear postschool goals. The interviews and record reviews
showed the extent to which postsecondary goals aligned
with postcollege career aspirations. Brent and Jeff’s post-
secondary goals on their IEPs specified community college
classes focused on video game design, yet, neither reported
taking classes related to this field, nor were there any career
exploration activities related to game design evident on
their IEPs. During their interviews, neither could describe a
career linked to the postschool goal on their IEP. In fact, Jeff
wanted a stable income, but did not see that as an option
within the field of game design, telling his VR counselor, “I
need a job that I know will be there.”
Although Hunter did not have an IEP during his high
school years, he had a clear career focus in college as he
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pursued a 2-year associate degree in auto mechanics.
Nevertheless, when asked about his career aspirations fol-
lowing college, he stated a very different career goal than
the degree he was about to complete, saying,
What I would like to do is then try my hand at heavy equipment.
Take classes on that. Not fixing heavy equipment, but operating
it. Because it’s what I would really like to do; . . . operate an
excavator.
Irvin and Jorge had the clearest link between their high
school postsecondary goal and college major, although after
being in college, they were less sure about postcollege
career options. Irvin’s IEPs showed a consistent postsec-
ondary goal related to law enforcement and criminal justice,
and he sought a college offering that degree program. After
being in college, he eventually broadened his focus to gen-
eral social science, which allowed more career options
related to law enforcement. For Jorge, his early career focus
was zoology, and his high school program of study concen-
trated heavily on the sciences. Like Irvin, once in college,
he began to think more broadly about a career in biology,
but had not defined a concentration area.
Discussion
As educators and researchers, it is important that we iden-
tify the support services young adults with AS need to enroll
and persist in college, thereby significantly improving
access to employment and financial self-sufficiency
(Carnevale et al., 2010). This study is a step to that end.
Through interviews with young men with AS, their fami-
lies, former high school teachers, and support personnel, we
found that social skills, communication, and executive
functioning created challenges in high school that contin-
ued into college settings. These barriers appeared to limit
their capacity to negotiate academic tasks and fully partici-
pate in a range of social activities associated with postsec-
ondary education. We also identified five cross-case themes
that seemed to influence the successful transition from high
school to college: (a) internal source of motivation to attend
college, (b) high levels of disability awareness, (c) inten-
tional family supports, (d) coordinated transition planning,
and (e) clear postschool goals.
Study Limitations
Several limitations should be noted when interpreting find-
ings from this study. First, a limitation of qualitative research
is the lack of generalizability. Second, the sample selection,
although purposive based on strict criteria, reflects only
one portion of the population of those with ASD—those
diagnosed with AS prior to 2013 when the criteria for ASD
diagnosis changed. The majority of the participants were
10 Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities
Caucasian males, and all lived in the same geographic area.
Finally, the focus of this analysis was on high school and
early college experiences. We did not collect longitudinal
data to determine college completion, thus, we may not have
captured all of the contextual factors that influenced postsec-
ondary success for these young men over time.
In spite of these limitations, our findings offer important
contributions to the sparse literature describing the transi-
tion from high school to postsecondary education for young
adults with ASD. First, this study demonstrates the impor-
tance of a set of coordinated transition activities for youth
with ASD while in high school to prepare them for the chal-
lenges of college. As noted by Zager and Alpern (2010),
many youth with ASD struggle with social communication
in college. This study provides insight into what high school
transition service providers can do to better understand the
communication demands of a college setting and better pre-
pare youth to meet those demands. Second, as noted by
Zeedyk, Tipton, and Blacher (2014), “Limited research has
been conducted involving individuals with ASD who
choose to attend college” (p. 10). This study helps to fill that
void by empirically documenting the supports five young
men with ASD who chose to attend college received, or
needed, that helped prepare them for college while in high
school.
In examining our central themes, it seemed that a num-
ber of interrelated individual, family, and school system
factors combined to influence initial enrollment and persis-
tence in college. Utilizing an ecological framework to con-
ceptualize the multidimensional interactions between
individuals and their environments (Bronfenbrenner, 1977),
we noted that our participants both influenced and were
influenced by family and school systems. In the remainder
of this discussion, we highlight some of the key characteris-
tics of individuals, families, and school systems that help to
explain how and why these participants made the transition
from high school to college.
Individual
At an individual level, our findings confirm and extend the
research describing difficulties with communication, social-
ization, and executive functioning that are prevalent for
many individuals with AS (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009).
Despite stilted social interactions and marked limitations
with organization and planning, the young adults who per-
sisted in college demonstrated high levels of internal moti-
vation to continue within the very challenging environment
of postsecondary education. As Sciutto and colleagues
(2012) noted, “Many of the core characteristics and associ-
ated features of AS are poorly matched with typical school
environments” (p. 177). Simply put, college was hard.
Expectations to interact with peers, work in groups, and
communicate regularly with professors created very real
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challenges. Nevertheless, determination to meet personal
goals and gain skills for later employment seemed to moti-
vate participants to attend classes, make progress toward
degree completion, and overcome varying manifestations
of their anxiety and uncertainties.
The four individuals who persisted in college displayed
varying degrees of disability awareness beyond the ability
to merely describe their diagnosis. Participants with the
most developed disability awareness understood the influ-
ence of AS on their academic and functional skills. They
provided clear descriptions of both challenging situations
and strategies they used to function effectively (e.g., keep-
ing a daily schedule, using email to communicate with pro-
fessors). These traits are consistent with previous literature
describing “highly successful” adults with physical and
learning disabilities (Gerber, Ginsberg, & Reiff, 1992;
Noonan et al., 2004) who displayed the ability to recognize
and accept their disabilities and work in employment envi-
ronments that maximized their strengths. Our study extends
this literature to both a new population (i.e., ASD) and a
new environment by examining disability awareness in the
context of postsecondary education.
Families
Previous research has documented a strong relationship
between active parent involvement, high parent expecta-
tions, and educational attainment for youth with disabilities
(Doren, Gau, & Lindstrom, 2012). Our study describes spe-
cific patterns of activity parents engaged in during the tran-
sition to college for young adults with AS. Of the five
families, two expected their sons to make decisions inde-
pendently at age 18. These families were reluctant to be
actively involved in college planning, expecting the young
adult or paid service providers to complete the steps for col-
lege enrollment. Another parent “took over” all aspects of
the application, registration, and financial processes, while
the other two families found a middle ground between
expecting total independence and controlling each step of
the process. These “middle ground” families facilitated
their sons’ independence by encouraging them to complete
tasks independently, thereby developing the skills and con-
fidence to navigate the college environment. Interestingly,
these same two families kept their children in general edu-
cation classes in public schools throughout high school, a
decision that may have fostered an expectation of success
within mainstream education environments.
School Systems
School services and supports played an important role in the
complex process of transition to postsecondary education for
these young adults. Previous studies have documented an
array of transition experiences that show promise in
Alverson et al. 11
preparing youth for education and employment (Test et al.,
2009); however, three of our five participants were not
enrolled in a public high school. Homeschool and charter
school settings, although designed to provide individualized
educational supports, did not offer a formal, coordinated pro-
cess for developing postschool goals and preparing for life
after high school. Brent and Jeff only began exploring transi-
tion options once enrolled in a community transition program
at age 18; Hunter’s only exposure to postschool planning
occurred when his pediatrician suggested he go to college.
The two participants who engaged in transition services
offered through their high schools had clearer postschool
goals and were more successful in adapting to the expecta-
tions of postsecondary education. This finding is consistent
with Chiang et al. (2012) who found having a primary post-
school goal in high school was a significant predictor of
enrollment in postsecondary education for youth with
autism. For these young men, college was offered as one of
several postschool opportunities. Although their specific
programs differed, these high schools had a coordinated set
of transition-focused services designed to explore options
and complete the process of entrance exams and financial
aid applications. Importantly, participants had a systematic
opportunity to explore and develop postschool goals aligned
with their interests. Relying on input from families and cen-
tered on individual interests, Irwin and Jorge developed tar-
geted career goals and a plan for meeting these goals. In
both cases, the tightly defined idiosyncratic interests often
associated with AS were perceived as a strength and became
a launching point for postschool planning and ultimately
postsecondary education.
Implications for Practitioners
First and foremost, school personnel and service providers
need a thorough understanding of the multifaceted charac-
teristics of ASD. It is important to recognize that the general
characteristics of ASD manifest differently from person to
person. Identifying an individual’s unique characteristics
relative to social, communication, and executive function-
ing, and how these characteristics manifest in different
community settings such as postsecondary education and
employment is critical for long-term, successful transitions.
Our findings also reinforce the need for a set of coordi-
nated activities as part of comprehensive transition services
called for in Individuals With Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) 2004. Instruction in general education classes with
content designed to help young adults develop an awareness
of their disability and understand their needs is crucial.
Related services and community experiences are needed to
prepare young adults with ASD to socialize and communi-
cate in settings beyond high school. Transition services
focused on developing daily living skills related to executive
functioning for goal attainment, follow-through, as well as
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managing self-care needs should be a priority. Anticipating
potential sources for anxiety and developing supports and
strategies to help youth overcome the anxiety is critical for
persistence in college. Furthermore, school and adult agency
professionals need to work in concert with youth and fami-
lies to prepare youth to transition seamlessly to appropriate
education and employment.
As part of the coordinated set of transition activities,
school practitioners should lead the discussion to identify
ongoing supports needed to help individuals with ASD
achieve their goals. Although well past the age of majority,
these young men relied on their families for ongoing sup-
port. Previous research has documented the importance of
family support and involvement in the postsecondary suc-
cesses of youth with disabilities (Wagner, Newman, Cameto,
& Levine, 2005). Some parents in our study knew the col-
lege system well and helped their sons navigate the chal-
lenges. Other parents had little or no experience with college
and therefore offered little support as their sons transitioned
to postsecondary settings. Our findings support the need for
a balance between the individual’s right to make decisions
independently at age 18 and professionals collaborating with
the family to ensure that ongoing supports are in place.
Further Research
Although significant progress has been made linking in-
school transition experiences to increased postschool out-
comes for all youth with disabilities (Test et al., 2009),
further research is needed to identify transition services
unique to individuals with ASD. Interventions need to be
developed or implemented at the collegiate level to address
the unique characteristics individuals with ASD experience.
More extensive longitudinal and experimental studies are
needed to inform our understanding of effective high school
transition services for this population.
Young adults with ASD face unique challenges when
transitioning from high school to college. High school tran-
sition services designed to develop and support youth’s
internal motivation, disability awareness, family supports,
and clear postschool goals are crucial for these youth to be
college and career ready.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support
for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article:
Support for this study was provided by the University of Oreogn
College of Education through the Fairway Fund.
12 Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities

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