CHAPTER 2

FLUID STATICS

Prepared by
Dr. Toh Hoong Thaim
Outline

• Pressure
• Pressure Measurement
• Static pressure variation
• Hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces
• Hydrostatic forces on an inclined and a curved surface
• Buoyancy
• Constant translational acceleration of a liquid.
2.1 Pressure

 Pressure is defined as the normal force exerted by a fluid per unit

area.

 The pressure at a point within the fluid is defined as

∆F dF
p = lim = (1)
∆A→0 ∆A dA

 If the pressure is uniformly distributed over a finite surface area, then

the average pressure is

F
pavg = (2)
A
 The SI unit for pressure is pascal.
1 Pa = 1 N/m2

 Other pressure units are bar, standard atmosphere, & kilogram-force

per square centimeter.

1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa

1 atm = 1.01325 bars = 101.325 Pa
1 kgf/cm2 = 9.807 N/cm2 = 9.807×104 N/m2 = 9.807×104 Pa
= 0.9807 bar
= 0.9679 atm
= 14.223 psi

 Pressure is a scalar quantity.

Pascal’s Law
 Pascal’s law states that the intensity of the pressure acting at a point
in a fluid is the same in all direction

 Pressure at a Point
 Consider a small triangular element within a fluid.

 For equilibrium,
+ Fy = 0 : p y (∆x∆z ) − [ p(∆x∆s )] sin θ = 0
p y (∆x)(∆s sin θ ) − p(∆x∆s ) sin θ = 0
py = p (3)
+↑ ΣFz=0: pz∆x∆y − [p(∆x∆s)] cosθ −mg = 0

pz(∆x)(∆scosθ) − [p(∆x∆s)] cosθ − ρVg = 0

pz(∆x)(∆scosθ) − [p(∆x∆s)] cosθ − ρ (½ ∆y∆z ∆x)g = 0

pz(∆x)(∆scosθ) −[p(∆x∆s)]cosθ −ρ [½ (∆s cosθ) (∆s sinθ) ∆x]g = 0

pz− p −γ (½ ∆s sinθ ) = 0

pz= p as ∆s ⟶ 0 (fluid element shrinks to a point) (4)

 By rotating the triangular element 90o about the z axis, we obtain
px = p

 Since the angle θ of the inclined face is arbitrary, it can be concluded

that the pressure at a point is the same in all directions for
any fluid that has no relative motion between its adjacent layers.

 Note:
The above result is applicable to fluids in motion (i.e., the fluid is
accelerating) as well as fluids at rest .
 From the Pascal’s law, it follows that any pressure increase ∆p at one
point in the fluid will cause the same increase in pressure at all the
other points within the fluid.
 Based on Pascal’s law, “Pascal machine” has been built to enable us to
lift large weight by a small force.

Examples: Hydraulic jack,

hydraulic brake & lift.
EXAMPLE 1
Given:
• The mechanics of a pneumatic jack used in
a service station is shown in the adjacent
figure.

• The car and lift have a weight of 25 kN.

• Air is in the line from B to A.

• The air line at B has an inner diameter of 15 mm, and the post at A
has a diameter of 280 mm,

Find:
Determine the force that must be developed by the air compressor at B
to raise the lift at a constant velocity.
Solution:
Fluid Description: The weight of the air can be neglected.

Analysis:
• For equilibrium, the force created by air pressure at A is given by
FA = W = 25(103) N, where W = weight of car & lift

• The average pressure at A is

FA W
pA = =
AA AA

• From the Pascal’s law, the change in pressure at A will be transmitted to

B. Therefore, since the weight of the air is neglected,

pB = pA
 FB FA
⟹ =
AB AA

FA
⟹ FB = AB
AA

W  πDB2 
⟹ FB = 2 
 
 πDA   4 
 
 4 
2
 DB 
⟹ FB = W  
 DA 
2
 15 × 10 −3

⟹ FB = (25 ×10 N)
3

−3 
 280 ×10 
⟹ FB = 71.7 N
2.2 Absolute and Gage Pressure
 Zero Absolute Pressure
 If a fluid were removed from its container, a vacuum would exist and
the pressure within the container would be zero.
 This pressure is commonly referred to as zero absolute pressure.

 Absolute Pressure, pabs

 Any pressure that is measured above the zero absolute pressure is
referred to as the absolute pressure.
 It is the actual pressure at a given position.

Example: Standard atmospheric pressure is the absolute pressure

measured at sea level and at a temperature of 15 oC.
patm = 101.3 kPa
 Gage Pressure, pgage

 Any pressure measured above or below the atmospheric pressure is

called the gage pressure.

pabs = patm + pg

 Most pressure-measuring devices

are calibrated to read zero in the
atmosphere, and so they indicate
gage pressure.

Note:
• In this course, the gage pressure is
measured relative to standard
atmospheric pressure.
• For greater accuracy, the local
atmospheric pressure should be
used as the reference pressure.
 Pressure below atmospheric pressure are sometimes called vacuum
pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute
pressure.

pvac = patm − pabs

EXAMPLE 1
Given:
• A vacuum gage connected to a chamber reads 40 kPa at a location
where the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.

Find:
Determine the absolute pressure in the chamber.

Solution:
pvac = patm − pabs

The absolute pressure is

pabs = patm − pvac
= 100 kPa − 40 kPa
= 60 kPa
EXAMPLE 2
Given:

• The air pressure within the bicycle

tire is determined from a gage to
be 70 kPa.

• The local atmospheric pressure

is 104 kPa.

Find:
Determine the absolute pressure in the tire.
Solution:

Fluid Description:
• The air remains static under constant pressure.

• It is known that patm = 104 kPa,

pg = 70 kPa

Analysis:
• The absolute pressure in the tire is given by

pabs = patm + pg

= 104 kPa + 70 kPa

= 174 kPa
2.3 Static Pressure Variation
 Variation of Pressure Along the Horizontal Direction
 Consider a small slender horizontal fluid
element of cross-sectional area ∆A and
length of ∆y.

 For equilibrium,
 ∂p 
ΣFy=0: p(ΔA) −  p + ∆y ΔA = 0
 ∂y 

⟹ ∂p = 0
⟹ p = constant

 Similar result can be obtained in the x direction.

 Thus, the pressure remains constant in the horizontal plane.
(This result applies to both incompressible and compressible fluids)
 Variation of Pressure Along the Vertical Direction

 Consider a small slender vertical fluid

element of cross-sectional area ∆A and
length of ∆z.

 For equilibrium,
ΣFz=0:
 dp 
p (ΔA) −  p + ∆z ΔA − γ (ΔA∆z ) = 0
 dz 

dp (5)
⟹ = −γ
dz

 Thus, the pressure decreases as one moves upwards in the fluid.

In other words, the pressure increases with depth.
2.4 Pressure Variation for Incompressible Fluids
 If the fluid is incompressible (as in the case if a liquid), its specific
weight γ = constant.

 Consequently, Eq. (5) can be integrated as follows.

p z
po
dp = −γ  dz
zo

⟹ p − po = −γ ( z − zo )

⟹ p = po + γ ( z o − z ) (6)
 For convenience, it is usually to set the reference level at the free
surface of the liquid, i.e., zo = 0, and the coordinate z is taken to be
directed positive downward.

Then, Eq. (5) becomes

dp = γdz
p h
⟹ po
dp = γ  dz
0

⟹ p − po = γ (h − 0 )

⟹ p = po + γh (7)

 If po = patm = 0, then the gage pressure in the liquid is

p=γh (8)

 Thus, the gage pressure in an incompressible liquid increases linearly

with depth.
 Pressure Head
 Eq.(8) can be written as
p
h= (9)
γ
 Here h is referred to as the pressure head.
It indicates the height of a column of liquid that produces the (gage)
pressure p.

 Example:
If the gage pressure is 50 kPa, then the
pressure heads for water (γw = 9.81 kN/m3)
& mercury (γHg = 133 kN/m3) are
p
hw = = 5.10 m
γw
p
hHg = = 0.376 m
γ Hg
2.5 Pressure Variation for Compressible Fluids
 If the fluid is compressible its specific weight γ will not be constant
throughout the fluid.

 From the ideal gas law, p = ρ R T = (γ /g) R T.

 Therefore, γ is a function of p & T.

pg
γ= (10)
RT

 Using Eq.(10) in Eq.(5), we have

 pg 
dp = − dz
 RT 

or dp g
=− dz (11)
p RT
 Constant Temperature (Isothermal)

If the temperature throughout the gas remains constant at T = T o,

Eq.(11) can be written as
dp g
=− dz
p RTo

p dp z g
⟹ po p
= −
z o RTo
dz

g
⟹ [ln p ] p
po =− [z ]zzo
RTo

p g
⟹ ln =− ( z − zo )
po RTo
g
− ( z − zo )
RTo
⟹ p = po e (12)
 Eq.(12) is often used to calculate the pressure within the lowest
region of the stratosphere.
EXAMPLE 3
Given:
• The tank and the drainpipe in the adjacent
figure are filled with gasoline and glycerin
to the depth shown.

• Densities:
ρga = 726 kg/m3,
ρgl = 1260 kg/m3.

Find:
Determine the air pressure on the drain plug at C in terms of the pressure
head in meter of water.
Solution:
Fluid Description:
• Each of the liquids is assumed to be incompressible.

Analysis:
• The pressure is independent of the shape /size of the tank.
• The pressure depends on the depth of each liquid.
• The gage pressure at C is

pC = γgahAB + γglhBC
= ρgaghAB + ρglghBC

= (726 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(1 m) + (1260 kg/m3)(9.81 m/s2)(1.5 m)

= 25.66 (103) Pa
= 25.66 kPa
• The pressure head in meter of water at C is
pC
hw =
γw

⟹ 25.66(103 ) N/m 2
hw =
9.81(103 ) N/m 3

⟹ hw = 2.62 m
EXAMPLE 4
Given:
• The natural gas in the storage tank is
contained within a flexible membrane and
held under constant pressure using a
weighted top that is allowed to move up or
down as the gas enters or leave the tank.

• The gage pressure at the outlet A is 600 kPa.

• The gas has a constant temperature of 20 °C.

Find:
Determine the required weight of the top if
(a) the gas is incompressible
(b) the gas is compressible
Solution:
Fluid Description:
• From Appendix A(pg. 790), for natural gas at of 20 °C, we have
ρg = 0.665 kg/m3.
R = 518.3 J/(kg∙K)

Analysis:
• Consider the FBD of the weighted top.

• For equilibrium,

+↑Σ Fy= 0: pBAB −W = 0

W = p B AB
W = pB(π r2) (i)
(a) Incompressible gas

• The pressure at B is given by

pA = pB + γgh

⟹ pB = pA − γgh
⟹ pB = pA − ρggh
= 600(103) −(0.655)(9.81)(30)
= 599804 Pa

• From Eq. (i),

W = pB(π r2)

=599804π (10)2
=188.4(10)6 N
=188.4 MN
(b) Compressible gas
• Taking A as the reference location, i.e., zo= zA =0), the pressure at B is
given by
g
− ( zB − z A )
RTo
pB = p Ae
9.81
− (30− 0 )
( 518.3)( 20 + 273)
⟹ pB = (600 ×103 )e

= 598838 Pa

• From Eq. (i),

W = pB(π r2)

=598838π (10)2
=188.1(10)6 N
=188.1 MN
Note:
• For incompressible gas,
pA − pB = 600 kPa− 599. 804kPa = 0.2 kPa

• For compressible gas,

pA − pB = 600 kPa− 598. 838kPa = 1.2 kPa

• Therefore, it is generally satisfactory to neglect the change in pressure

due to the weight of the gas.

• Thus, the pressure within any gas can be assumed to be constant

throughout its volume.

• If the pressure within the gas is assumed to be constant throughout its

volume, then the required weight of the top is

W = pB(π r2) = 600(10)3π (10)2 =188.5 MN