CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
Lipids are a large and diverse group of naturally occurring organic substances that are
determined by their solubility in nonpolar organic solvents and insolubility in water. All forms of
life possess lipids which play various biological roles like membrane formation, protection,
insulation, energy storage, and cell division. Lipids, also known as fats, are made up of
triglycerides derived from alcohol glycerol plus fatty acids. Glycerol is a small organic molecule
with three hydroxyl groups while a fatty acid consists of a long hydrocarbon chain attached to a
carboxyl group. In order to arrive with a fat molecule, a reaction between the hydroxyl groups on
the glycerol backbone and the carboxyl groups of the fatty acids happens in a dehydration
synthesis which yields a fat molecule with three fatty acid tails bound to the glycerol backbone
connected by ester linkages which is presented in Figure 1. These molecules are also known as
triacylglycerols, or more commonly known as triglycerides, is an example of a simple lipid, which
are primarily stored in specialized at cells in humans called adipocytes that make up the adipose
tissue (Bowen-Forbes & Goldson-Barnaby, 2017).

Figure 1. Synthesis of a fat molecule

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 There are several classifications of lipids that exist in living tissue wherein lipids are divided
into three groups – simple lipids comprised of fats, oils, and waxes, compound lipids including
phospholipids and glycolipids, and derived lipids inclusive of fatty acids, glycerol, and sterols, with
cholesterol, bile acids, and vitamin D as examples of sterols. This paper will mainly focus on
simple lipids and its chemical properties as well as the chemical properties of soaps as metallic
salts of fatty acids. According to Bowen-Forbes & Goldson-Barnaby (2017), naturally occurring
fatty acids generally have an even number of carbons arranged in a straight chain with most
having 14-24 carbons present. Fatty acids with odd numbers or branched chains are more
characteristically found in microorganisms and dairy fats. If only single bonds are present between
the carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, fatty acids are considered to be saturated. When saturated
fatty acids combine with triglycerides, solid fats are formed at room temperature due to their tightly
packed structure. On the other hand, fatty acids that have double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain
is said to be unsaturated, if there is just one double bond present, it is classified as
monounsaturated, while if there are multiple bonds, it is polyunsaturated. The double bonds can
exist in a cis or trans configuration, where a cis double bond generates a bend in the fatty acid
which is the reason for the behavior of fats since it makes it more difficult to pack their molecules
together in a stable repeating array or crystalline lattice, therefore producing liquid oils at room
temperature (Reusch, 2013).

Waxes are long chains of nonpolar lipids that are typically esters of fatty acids and long
chain alcohols that are synthesized by various plants and animals. Animal wax esters are derived
from different variants of carboxylic acids and fatty alcohols with the composition of the wax
depending on the geographic location of the organism and not solely on the animal species. In
contrast, plant waxes are derived from mixtures of long-chain hydrocarbons containing different
functional groups like alkanes, fatty acids, alcohols, diols, ketones, and aldehydes which are
utilized by plants as protective coating to control evaporation and hydration and to prevent them
from drying out. Due to its hydrophobic nature, plants and animals are water resistant which
prevents water from sticking on their surfaces which serve different purposes. Waxes can also be
produced synthetically but lack functional groups. Synthetic waxes may be obtained from
polyethylene or from petroleum and refining by vacuum distillation like paraffin wax. These waxes
are produced to be used in adhesives, cosmetics, lubricants, insecticides, and UV protection
(Ahern et al., 2019).

Molecules that have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties are called amphiphilic,
like carboxylic acids and salts having alkyl chains longer than eight carbons show unusual

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behavior in water due to the presence of CO2 and alkyl regions in its structure. According to
Reusch (2013), fatty acids made up of ten or more carbon atoms are nearly insoluble in water,
and due to their low density, can float on the surface when mixed with water. These fatty acids
spread evenly over an extended water surface eventually forming a monomolecular layer in which
the polar carboxyl groups are hydrogen bonded at the water interface, and the hydrocarbon
chains are aligned together away from the water which is illustrated in Figure 2. Surfactants are
substances that accumulate at water surfaces and has the ability to change the surface
properties.

Figure 2. Behavior of fatty acids in water

Soaps and detergents are the most common examples of strong surfactants due to the
ability of alkali metal salts of fatty acids to be more soluble in water than the acids itself alongside
their amphiphilic character. Using soaps and detergents as cleaning agents is basically due to
their surfactant character which lowers the surface tension of water which allows it to penetrate
and wet a wide array of materials. Little amounts of surfactants dissolve in water to give a random
dispersion of solute molecules, but differ when the concentration is increased wherein the
surfactant molecules reversibly assemble into polymolecular aggregates known as micelles. By
gathering the hydrophobic chains together in the center of the micelle, disruption of the hydrogen
bonded structure of liquid water is minimized, and the polar head groups extend into the
surrounding water where they participate in hydrogen bonding. These micelles are often spherical
in shape, but may also assume cylindrical and branched forms, which are capable of
encapsulating nonpolar substances such as grease within their hydrophobic center, and thus
solubilize it so it is removed with the wash water. Since the micelles of anionic amphiphiles have
a negatively charged surface, they repel one another and the nonpolar dirt is effectively emulsified
(Reusch, 2013).

Fatty acids and its derivatives are being used in nutraceuticals which help in the promotion
of health and prevention of diseases alongside isoprenoid derivatives, phenolics, carbohydrate
derivatives, amino acid derivatives, and capsaicinoids. Nutraceuticals that are considered

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beneficial to the heart, also known as cardioprotective nutraceuticals, include omega-3 fatty acids
from fish and bird oils together with vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary fibers.
Phospholipids, stearic acid, cholesterol, and bile acids from animals are being used in various
pharmaceutical applications, specifically for their emulsifying and lubrication properties like
caproic, caprylic, and capric acids being utilized for the synthesis of triacylglycerols known as
medium-chained triglycerides (Bowen-Forbes & Goldson-Barnaby, 2017). These are being
manufactured as dietary fats for the treatment of individuals who lacks the ability to digest and
absorb long-chain triacylglycerols, especially in patients with pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, biliary
cirrhosis, and Crohn’s disease. These are also being incorporated in the meals of newborn
infants, being rapidly metabolized to provide energy for growth and development. Several animal
lipids are also being utilized as drug carriers especially phospholipids.

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 CHAPTER II
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
This section focused on the elaboration of the procedures that were followed on each test
for the observation of the different samples of simple lipids that were given. These procedures
were done to determine the chemical properties of simple lipids and to determine the chemical
properties of soaps as metallic salts of fatty acids.

Solubility Test

For this test, cotton seed sample was used instead of coconut oil due to the lack of
resources present. All the glass wares that were used for this test were properly washed and
dried. Proper labels for each test tube containing the simple lipids were also prepared. Three test
tubes and different liquid compounds were used to carry out this test. For the first test tube 2ml
of distilled water was added, for the second test tube 2ml of ethyl alcohol was added and to the
third test tube 2ml of chloroform was added then to each of these test tubes 3 drops of cotton
seed oil were added. The test tubes were gently shaken and the results were observed.

Caution: The addition of chloroform should be done in the hood and a mask should be used
because inhaling its vapors depresses the central nervous system and long term exposure to
chloroform by inhalation in humans has resulted to the damage of liver and kidneys (New World
Encyclopedia, 2017). Keep the 95% ethanol away from the Bunsen burner because it is highly
flammable and the use of laboratory gloves is advisable because ethanol can cause dry skin due
to its high alcohol content (Labchem, n.d).

Spot Test

The samples used for this test were lard, cotton seed oil and glycerol. A spot plate was
used for this test so that each sample can be placed on different depressions present but due to
the color of the samples, filter papers were used so that the results can be properly observed. To
carry out this test, three filter papers were prepared and the samples were dropped accordingly
then the filter papers were air dried to a place without disruption to note if any transparency were
produced.

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Iodine Absorption Test

All the glass wares that were used for this test were properly washed and dried. Proper
labels for each test tube containing the simple lipids were also prepared. Each test tubes were
added with the different samples of cotton seed oil, coconut oil and linseed oil respectively then
dissolved in 1ml chloroform. Hubl’s solution (2.6g of I2 and 3.0g HgCl2 in 100ml 95% ethanol)
were added drop by drop to each of the test tubes while the test tubes were being shaken until
Hubl’s solution is no longer decolorized. The number of drops were recorded and observed.

Acrolein Test

All the glass wares that were used for this test were properly washed and dried. Proper
labels for each test tube containing the simple lipids were also prepared. For this test, it required
the use of the samples lanolin, cottonseed oil and lard. Three test tubes were used where in 4
drops of the samples were added to each test tube respectively, then a pinch of potassium bisulfite
was added and each of the test tubes were heated vigorously by placing the test tube slightly on
top of the flame at an angle. After heating, smell of gases from the fumes of each sample were
recorded. While the samples were heated vigorously, they let out fumes that served as an
indication to stop the heating.

Caution: Do not put the test tube directly into the flame. Hold it above the tip of the flame,
preferably by a couple of inches and make sure to point the test tube away from yourself and
others when heating substances (Scientific LLC, n.d.). If you need to smell the odor of a chemical,
waft or fan the fumes toward your nose with one hand. Do not put your nose over the container
and inhale the fumes.

Test for Soap

A. Surface Tension

All the glass wares that were used for this test were properly washed and dried. For this
test, a soap solution of Ariel Liquid detergent was prepared in a 100ml beaker. To carry out this
test, 1ml pipette was used to measure the number of drops from 1ml of pure distilled water. The
pipette was then rinsed with soap solution and 1ml of soap solution was collected to note the
number of drops it can make. After recording, the pipette was not rinsed but was instead filled
with pure distilled water to note the number of drops.

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B. Salting out of Soaps

All the glass wares that were used for this test were properly washed and dried. A liquid
soap solution of Joy was prepared in a beaker and 20ml is placed into a large test tube then 10ml
of saturated sodium chloride solution was added to note if any precipitates formed. The
precipitates were then collected on a filter paper that was drained and pressed out to properly
drain the excess liquid present in the filter paper. The filter paper containing the precipitates were
dissolved in 10ml hot water, then 3ml of filtrate which is the soap solution is taken into a test tube
and was shaken to note if frothing was present. The test tube was then acidified with 10% HCl to
note of any precipitation was produced.

C. Formation of Insoluble Soap

All the glass wares that were used for this test were properly washed and dried. Proper
labels for each test tube for the soaps are also prepared. For this test of Ariel liquid soap solution
was prepared in a 100ml beaker. Two properly labeled test tubes were used to carry out this test.
This test required 5ml of soap solution to each of the test tube, for the first test tube few drops of
calcium chloride TS was added and for the second test tube, few drops of magnesium sulfate
solution were added. An insoluble soap will be seen to precipitate in each of the test tube and the
solutions were observed to note the results.

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 CHAPTER III
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Solubility
Solubility test is the preliminary test which detects the presence of all lipids. It is used to
detect the solubility of lipid in various solvents to check whether it is miscible or immiscible in polar
or non-polar solvents. The solubility of lipids falls under the principle “like dissolves like” (Supriya,
2019). In this experiment, cottonseed oil is used as the sample. Cottonseed oil is a naturally
occurring oil or triglyceride which is considered as a simple lipid. Triglycerides are the major
components of edible oils representing more than 95% of refined oils. They are non-polar,
hydrophobic compound because they don’t have charges in both opposite poles (A level Biology,
2019).

Table 1. Solubility of Cottonseed oil in Different Solvents

Solvent: Observation:

Distilled Water (-) Cottonseed oil is immiscible

Ethyl Alcohol (+) Cottonseed oil is miscible

Chloroform (+) Cottonseed oil is miscible

Table 1 shows the observation gathered after doing the experiment. The solvents used in
this solubility test were distilled water, ethyl alcohol, and chloroform. The solute used was
cottonseed oil, a simple lipid. The cottonseed oil was dissolved in each solvent. The result shows
that cottonseed oil is immiscible in distilled water. It is because cottonseed oil, a lipid, is a non-
polar organic compound and water is a polar compound. On the other hand, cottonseed oil was
miscible to chloroform and ethyl alcohol. It is due to the non-polar characteristic of the solvents
which is compatible with the cottonseed oil. However, heat is applied to the ethyl alcohol to
completely solubilize the cottonseed oil. An increased of the temperature helps the lipid to liquefy
(Supriya, 2019).

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Figure 3. Results of solubility of cottonseed oil in distilled water, ethyl alcohol, and chloroform (from l-r)

Spot Test
The Grease-spot Test for Lipids is one of the simplest test which is based on their ability
to produce translucent grease-marks on unglazed or filter paper. This happens because lipid does
not wet paper unlike water for the reason that most grease or fat have a high boiling point. So,
they are non-volatile. In room temperature, the spot of water can absorb enough heat from the air
and be vaporized. But the spot of grease can never absorb enough heat to evaporate (Kumar,
n.d). According to Japanese Red Cross Hiroshima College of Nursing (2017), when the liquid is
inside the sheet of paper, it diffracts light. So, light can pass from one side of the paper to another
side. This gives the phenomenon of "translucent". When there is no liquid in the paper, there is
no diffraction. So, light cannot pass through it.

Sample Observation
Cottonseed oil (+)The filter paper became
transparent.
Lard (+)The filter paper became more
transparent.
Glycerol (+)The filter paper is most
transparent.
Table 2. Table of results of transparency of simple lipids

Table 2 shows the results of simple lipids when dropped on a piece of filter paper. All three
samples got a positive result of transparency in different degrees due to different boiling or smoke
points. The difference in molecular weight and number of double bonds affect the rate of
evaporation of oil. The longer the fatty acyl chain and the fewer the double bonds, the lower the
evaporation rate. There is also a factor in the degree of unsaturation of the lipid. Saturated fatty
acids or saturated fats tend to evaporate a lot longer than unsaturated fat. Saturated fats are

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composed of many single carbon bonds that make the substance less volatile. Unsaturated fats
are composed of one or more double bonds. The double bonds make the fat more volatile (SPU,
2013). Therefore there are differences in the evaporation of different kind of oil because their
evaporation rate mainly depends upon their structural formula. The differences in molecular
weight and number of double bonds affect the rate of evaporation of oil.

Figure 4. Result of cottonseed oil on filter paper Figure 5. Structural Formula of Cottonseed oil

The first sample used is cottonseed oil, which is a cooking oil from the seeds of cotton
plants of various species, mainly Gossypium hirsutum and Gossypium herbaceum, that are grown
for cotton fiber, animal feed, and oil. It has a smoke point of about 450 °F (232 °C) and is high in
tocopherols, which also contribute its stability, giving products that contain it a long shelf life.
When dropped in filter paper, it gave a translucent color on the spot plate. According to Saunders
(2005), the reason behind this is that the lipid spot evaporates much more slowly than water
because the forces that hold the lipid molecules together are stronger than those in water
molecules.

Figure 6. Result of lard oil on filter paper Figure 7. Structural formula of lard

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 Lard was used as the second sample, usually coming from the fat of pigs, in both its
rendered and unrendered forms, insoluble and less dense than water. Lard’s molecular formula
is C21H42O5 and it has a molecular weight of 374.6 g/mol with a smoke point around 121–218 °C
(250–424 °F). It gave a positive result of a more transparent/ translucent filter paper on the spot
plate than cottonseed oil for it has a higher smoke point. In addition, it also the first one to
evaporate for it has the lowest smoke point among the three oils.

Figure 8. Result of glycerin on filter paper Figure 9. Structural formula of glycerin

The last sample used was glycerin. It is completely colorless, having a clear appearance
similar to water and alcohol. Glycerin is almost over 1500 times more viscous than water so it
flows and pours very slowly making it useful for making a variety of food products e.g. candy and
icings, and toothpaste (Papiewski, 2011). Its molecular formula is C3H8O3 with a molecular weight
of 92.09382 g/mol. It has a boiling point around 290 °C, the highest of the 3 samples, and therefore
the last one to evaporate (Pubchem, n.d.).

Iodine Absorption Test

This test is also known as Hubl’s test, was employed to determine the iodine value of fats
and oils and thus estimate their unsaturation. Iodine value is a useful parameter in studying
oxidative rancidity of oils since higher the unsaturation the greater the possibility of the oils to go
rancid (Horowitz, 2019).

Fats and oils are a mixture of triglycerides which are made up of three fatty acids linked
to glycerol by fatty acyl esters. Fatty acids are long chain hydrocarbons with carboxyl groups
(COOH groups). These fatty acids can be classified into saturated or unsaturated based on the
number of double bonds present in the fatty acid. Saturated fatty acids contain only single bond
between the carbon atoms and tend to be solids at room temperature. On the other hand,
saturated fatty acids contain double bonds between the carbon atoms in addition to the single

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bonds present in the fatty acid chain, and are likely to exist as liquids at room temperature (Amrita,
2011).

Unsaturated fatty acids can be converted into saturated by the process of hydrogenation.
Depending upon the degree of unsaturation, the fatty acids can combine with oxygen or halogens
to form saturated fatty acids. There are different methods for checking the unsaturation level in
fatty acids; one among them is by determining the iodine value of fats. Iodine value or number is
the number of grams of iodine consumed by 100g of fat. The unsaturated fatty acids present in
the oils absorb iodine at the double bonds until all the double bonds are saturated with iodine.
Hence, the measure of the iodine absorbed by an oil, gives the degree of unsaturation (Kumar,
n.d.).

Table 3. Reaction of simple lipids on iodine absorption test

Samples No. of drops of Observation

hubl’s solution
Cottonseed oil 10 Reddish brown solution
Coconut oil -- --
Linseed oil 13 Light brown solution

The table above shows that linseed oil required more drops of Hubl's iodine solution for
the latter to no longer be decolorized when associated with the oil. Furthermore, the first sample,
which is the cottonseed oil, exhibited a color which is darker than the other, implying that Hubl's
solution was absorbed more easily.

Figure 10. Result of cottonseed oil Figure 11. Result of linseed oil
on iodine absorption test on iodine absorption test

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 The oils contain both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids. Oils rich in saturated fatty
acids have low iodine numbers, while oils rich in unsaturated fatty acids have high iodine numbers.
In the experiment, Hubl's iodine was gradually added to the oil dissolved in chloroform. As long
as double bonds are available, the color of iodine does not appear in the solution as the iodine is
absorbed by the double bonds. When all the double bonds are saturated, the color of iodine
appears in the solution (Gupta, et al., n.d.). Iodine’s color was visible in cottonseed oil while
requiring less of Hubl’s solution, indicating that linseed is more unsaturated.

Coconut oil, which was not tested of its degree of unsaturation, is composed of about 90
percent saturated fat (Willett, 2018). An iodine value test conducted by Rohyami, et al., in 2017
supports this theory as their sample exhibited the color of Hubl’s solution upon its addition only in
small amount.

Acrolein Test
Table 4. Reaction of lipids for Acrolein Test

Sample Observation
Lanolin No odor
Cottonseed oil Used oil odor
Lard Rubbery odor

A test that differentiates the wax and fat is the acrolein test. Acrolein test is used to detect
the presence of glycerol or fat. When lipids containing glycerol are heated in the presence of
potassium bisulfate, the glycerol is dehydrated, forming acrolein, which has an unpleasant odor.
The dehydrating agent used in this experiment is sodium bisulfate as substitute for potassium
bisulfate due to the unavailability of the reagent. Further heating results in polymerization of
acrolein, which is indicated by the slight blackening of the reaction mixture (Manaloto). Both the
pungent smell and the black color indicate the presence of glycerol, that is thereby fat or lecithin.
The slight blackening of the mixture is only seen if the analysts made use of a filter paper to
observe this reaction. Waxes, such as lanolin, do not contain glycerol therefore produces no odor
which further indicates that waxes produce a negative result for acrolein test. According to Himor
et al., cottonseed oil contains no fat thus producing lightly used oil odor. Natural fats, on the other
hand, consists of a mixture of several types of triacylglycerols which affects their physical
properties (Das, 2013). This explains why lard, a fat rich in saturated triacyglycerol or triglyceride,
produces a rubbery odor that is a fainter pungent smell and is the only sample that produces a

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positive result for acrolein test since this contain a triglyceride which is an ester derived from
glycerol. Below is the documentation for the heating of the samples.

Figure 12. Heating of Figure 13. Heating of Figure 14. Heating of

Lanolin mixture Cottonseed oil Lard mixture
mixture
Test for Soap
Surface Tension
Surface tension is the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an external
force due to the cohesive nature of its molecules. Table 5 shows the number of drops it took for
the different samples to form 1 ml.

Table 5. Results for surface tension test

Sample Number of drops to form 1ml

Distilled water 20 drops
Soap solution (Bubble Man 60 drops
Dishwashing Liquid)
Distilled water with soap 50 drops

An individual water molecule has one large oxygen atom and two smaller hydrogen atoms
which are positively charged, making the water molecule polar. These hydrogen atoms attract the
oxygen atoms of other water molecules to form hydrogen bonds within the water. According to
Hessong (2018), water molecules are experiencing a pull force from other water molecules in
every direction, but the water molecules on the surface are not being pulled because there are no
other molecules above them, so these molecules experience a greater pull below them than the
surface above. The difference in force packs the water molecules at the surface closer together
than those water molecules inside the liquid which produces the phenomena of surface tension
which explains why it only takes 20 drops of water to form 1 ml. Soap molecules, on the other

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hand, are made up of long chains of hydrocarbon chains with one end being hydrophilic and the
other end being hydrophobic. The molecules at both ends of soaps and detergents are the reason
why it is able to break through the surface tension of water, which is relatively higher compared
to the surface tension of soaps.

In a soap and water solution, the hydrophobic end of the soap molecule does not want to
be in the liquid at all so they make their way out of the water by squeezing between the surface
water molecules. This makes the water molecules separate from each other, making the surface
tension forces smaller as the distance between the water molecules increase, therefore making
the soap molecules the reason behind the decrease in surface tension. This is the explanation
behind the increased number of drops of soap solution, at 60 drops, and distilled water with soap,
at 50 drops, needed to make 1 ml during the experiment. This is why soaps and detergents are
used as cleaning agents because once soap is added to water, surface tension is reduced and
the water will tend to spread out and they also help break down the grease in dirty dishes by
acting as an emulsifier, making the oil molecules attracted to the water molecules making it easier
to rinse off (Hessong, 2018).

Salting-out of Soaps

Figure 15. Cloudy Soap Solution after addition of Saturated Sodium Chloride Solution

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Figure 16. Soap Solution Acidified with 10% HCl

Observation: Frothing occurred after the addition of 3ml soap solution in the filtrate dissolved in
hot water. Light precipitation also occurred after the addition of 10% HCl in the solution.

Salting out is a purification method that utilizes the reduced solubility of certain molecules
in a solution of very high ionic strength. Salting out is typically, but not limited to, the precipitation
of large biomolecules such as proteins (UC Davis Library, 2019). Substances more soluble in
water compete with soap for water molecules. In this experiment, sodium chloride is much more
soluble in water than soap, so soap is displaced or salted out of solution (Agaceta, 2015).

The addition of Saturated Sodium Chloride to the Joy liquid soap solution produced a
cloudy solution indicating that precipitates formed. The sodium ions from the sodium chloride
bond with the fatty acid, forming a product that is less soluble in water. Because of this reduced
solubility, the soap leaves the solution and forms a solid mass (Whyte, 2018). Addition of sodium
chloride reduces the solubility of the soap salts. The soaps precipitate due to a combination of
common ion effect and increased ionic strength. In addition, The NaCl solution provides Na+ and
Cl- ions that bind to the polar water molecules, and help separate the water from the soap thus
making the soap salt out of the water. In saturated soap solution there exist an equilibrium,

Figure 17. Equilibrium Equation of Soap

If the addition of saturated sodium chloride is added to the soap solution, it is dissociated as

Figure 18. Equilibrium Equation of Soap

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 In the presence of excess sodium ions, the solubility of soap salts is reduced, making
the soap less effective. The solubility of sodium soaps in dilute aqueous salt solutions has been
systematically investigated by direct visual phase behavior observations. The added electrolytes,
including simple inorganic salts and bulky organic salts, influence the solubility of sodium soaps
in water (Bin, McCormick, Davis, & Strey, 2015).

The soap solution also precipitated in the addition of 10% HCl because the pH of the soap
solution is higher than HCl thus if acids are added to bases, they form salts. When an acid and
a base are placed together, they react to neutralize the acid and base properties, producing a salt.
The H+ cation of the acid combines with the OH- anion of the base to form water. The compound
formed by the cation of the base and the anion of the acid is called a salt (Hyperphysics.edu,
2012). Since liquid soaps contain a base of Potassium Hydroxide, this compound will react with
HCl to form potassium and sodium chloride salts.

Figure 19. Reaction of Potassium Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid

Formation of Insoluble Soap

The soap solution utilized during the activity was Ariel Power Gel Concentrated Detergent
and the observations are listed in the table below.

Table 6. Observations based on the formation of insoluble soap

Sample Observation
Soap solution with calcium Cloudy solution
chloride TS
Soap solution with magnesium Cloudy solution
sulphate solution

Soaps, which are formed by the saponification, base-catalyzed hydrolysis, of animal fats,
are the sodium or potassium salt of a long chain fatty acid containing 12 to 18 carbon atoms. The
treatment of fats or oils with strong bases like NaOH or KOH causes it to undergo hydrolysis to
form glycerol and the soap which will be slightly alkaline since it is the salt of strong bases and
weak acids. When the pH of a soap solution is lowered by acidic contaminants or by metal cations

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found in hard water, the ionic end of the soap ends up losing its charge, which is vital because
the cleansing action of soaps depends on their ability to ionize readily with water. When this
happens, the soap will no longer be attracted to water molecules, decreasing its ability to emulsify
oil and dirt. Hard water contains metal cations like Ca2+ and Mg2+ which reacts with the charged
ends of the soaps to form insoluble salts with soap anions causing insoluble fatty acids to
precipitate and forming a scum, which is usually grayish in color and more commonly known as
a bathtub ring (Reusch, 2013).

Figure 20. Reaction of soap solution with calcium chloride TS and magnesium sulphate solution
respectively

The soap solution utilized during the experimentation yielded a negative result, since there
were no evident precipitates present after the addition of calcium chloride TS and magnesium
sulphate solution as seen in the figure above. The negative result may be justified by the reason
that synthetic detergents, also called synthetic amphiphiles, are made to overcome the limitations
of soaps. According to Reusch (2013), detergents have a much stronger acids as the polar head
group, so solutions of these detergents with water are less sensitive to pH changes and are less
susceptible to forming insoluble salts of Ca2+ and Mg2+. Due to the advancement in soap and
detergent synthesis, many detergents and some soap products contain phosphates, which act as
bases to neutralize acidic water and to form insoluble salts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions which prevents
the reaction with soap that forms bathtub rings. However, soluble phosphate salts can cause
explosive growth algae when released to streams, lakes, and rivers, which can eventually cause
death or decay of the aquatic ecosystem due to deoxygenation from the decomposition of dead
algae. Variations made on detergents led to the development of cationic and nonionic detergents,
with cationic detergents exhibiting germicidal properties and ability to change the surface pH
which makes it useful as fabric softeners and hair conditioners.

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CHAPTER IV
CONCLUSION

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