Communication Client Interviewing Counselling and Advocacy Skills

Faculty: Apoorva Roy

Course Code:LAW 205

Credit Units: 2

Sem. 1V

Course Contents/Syllabus:

Weightage (%)

Module I: Communication 20%

Meaning of communication, Types and Directions to Communication

,Approaches to Communication, Barriers

to Communication, Communication Process, Email etiquettes in

communication, Effective presentation and public speaking. Basics of report
writing

Module II Personality: Meaning and Definition 20%

: Determinants of personality, Heredity, Environment and Situational Factors,

Theories of personality: Trait

Th eory, Type Theory, Psycho Analytic Theory, Humanistic Theory and Learning
Theory.

Importance of appropriate dressing

Module III: Attitude 20%

Meaning and Definition, Types of Attitude, Formation of Attitude, Negative

Attitude and objective, Building

positive attitude, Situational analysis of Attitude, Perception.

Module IV: Motivation and Leadership 20%

Define Motivation. Theories of Motivation, Various motives: Biological and

social Motives, Motives to know

and Be effective, Frustration and conflict of motives. Definition Leadership,

Theories of Leadership,

Characteristics of leadership.

Module V:QW3 Client Interviewing & Legal Counseling 20%

Meaning and significance, Different Components: listening, types of questions

asked, Information gathering,

Report formation.

Define Legal counseling and its differentiation from general counseling,

Different types of counseling.
 Module 1

Communication

Definition: The Communication is a two-way process wherein the message in the form of ideas,
thoughts, feelings, opinions is transmitted between two or more persons with the intent of creating a
shared understanding. Communication can be define as a a process by which information is exchanged
between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behavior. Simply, an act of
conveying intended information and understanding from one person to another is called as
communication. The term communication is derived from the Latin word “Communis” which means to
share. Effective communication is when the message conveyed by the sender is understood by the
receiver in exactly the same way as it was intended.

Communication Process

The communication is a dynamic process that begins with the conceptualizing of ideas by the sender
who then transmits the message through a channel to the receiver, who in turn gives the feedback in
the form of some message or signal within the given time frame. Thus, there are Seven major elements
of communication process.

Sender: The sender or the communicator is the person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualized the idea that he intends to convey it to others.

Encoding: The sender begins with the encoding process wherein he uses certain words or non-verbal
methods such as symbols, signs, body gestures, etc. to translate the information into a message. The
sender’s knowledge, skills, perception, background, competencies, etc. has a great impact on the
success of the message.

Message: Once the encoding is finished, the sender gets the message that he intends to convey. The
message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal such as body gestures, silence, sighs, sounds, etc.
or any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.

Communication Channel: The Sender chooses the medium through which he wants to convey his
message to the recipient. It must be selected carefully in order to make the message effective and
correctly interpreted by the recipient. The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal relationships
between the sender and the receiver and also on the urgency of the message being sent. Oral, virtual,
written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the commonly used communication mediums.

Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom the message is intended or targeted. He tries to
comprehend it in the best possible manner such that the communication objective is attained. The
degree to which the receiver decodes the message depends on his knowledge of the subject matter,
experience, trust and relationship with the sender.
Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the sender’s message and tries to understand it in the best
possible manner. An effective communication occurs only if the receiver understands the message in
exactly the same way as it was intended by the sender.

Feedback: The Feedback is the final step of the process that ensures the receiver has received the
message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended by the sender. It increases the effectiveness of
the communication as it permits the sender to know the efficacy of his message. The response of the
receiver can be verbal or non-verbal.

Note: The Noise shows the barriers in communications. There are chances when the message sent by
the sender is not received by the recipient.

Barriers to Effective Communication

There are many reasons why interpersonal communications may fail. In many communications, the
message (what is said) may not be received exactly the way the sender intended. It is, therefore,
important that the communicator seeks feedback to check that their message is clearly understood.

The skills of Active Listening, Clarification and Reflection may help but the skilled communicator also
needs to be aware of the barriers to effective communication and how to avoid or overcome them.

There are many barriers to communication and these may occur at any stage in the communication
process. Barriers may lead to your message becoming distorted and you therefore risk wasting both
time and/or money by causing confusion and misunderstanding.

Effective communication involves overcoming these barriers and conveying a clear and concise message.

Common Barriers to Effective Communication:

The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and some
topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo. Taboo or difficult topics may include, but are not limited
to, politics, religion, disabilities (mental and physical), sexuality and sex, racism and any opinion that
may be seen as unpopular.

Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver. (See our page Barriers to Effective
Listening for more information).

Differences in perception and viewpoint.

Physical disabilities such as hearing problems or speech difficulties.

Physical barriers to non-verbal communication. Not being able to see the non-verbal cues, gestures,
posture and general body language can make communication less effective. Phone calls, text messages
and other communication methods that rely on technology are often less effective than face-to-face
communication.

Language differences and the difficulty in understanding unfamiliar accents.

Expectations and prejudices which may lead to false assumptions or stereotyping. People often hear
what they expect to hear rather than what is actually said and jump to incorrect conclusions. Our page
The Ladder of Inference explains this in more detail.

Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do the way in
which emotions are expressed. For example, the concept of personal space varies between cultures and
between different social settings. See our page on Intercultural Awareness for more information.

A skilled communicator must be aware of these barriers and try to reduce their impact by continually
checking understanding and by offering appropriate feedback.

Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, feelings and emotions through
speech, signals, writing, or behavior. In communication process, a sender(encoder) encodes a message
and then using a medium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who decodes the message and after
processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply using a medium/channel.

Types of Communication

People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its
context in which it is being sent. Choice of communication channel and your style of communicating also
affects communication. So, there are variety of types of communication.

Types of communication based on the communication channels used are:

 Verbal Communication

 Nonverbal Communication

Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the the form of communication in which message is transmitted
verbally; communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. Objective of every
communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. In verbal communication
remember the acronym KISS(keep it short and simple).
When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying because we know what
we are saying. But this is not the case. usually people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and
thoughts about the topic and hence creates barrier in delivering the right meaning.

So in order to deliver the right message, you must put yourself on the other side of the table and think
from your receiver’s point of view. Would he understand the message? how it would sound on the other
side of the table?

Verbal Communication is further divided into:

 Oral Communication

 Written Communication

Oral Communication

In oral communication, Spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech,
telephonic conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. In oral communication,
communication is influence by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking.

Advantages of Oral communication

It brings quick feedback.

In a face-to-face conversation, by reading facial expression and body language one can guess whether
he/she should trust what’s being said or not.

Disadvantage of oral communication

In face-to-face discussion, user is unable to deeply think about what he is delivering, so this can be
counted as a

Written Communication

In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may
be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter,
report, memo etc. Message, in written communication, is influenced by the vocabulary & grammar
used, writing style, precision and clarity of the language used.

Written Communication is most common form of communication being used in business. So, it is
considered core among business skills.

Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic mail are the types of
written communication used for internal communication. For communicating with external environment
in writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts,
advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.

Advantages of written communication includes:

Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.

Written communication provide record for every message sent and can be saved for later study.

A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.

Disadvantages of written communication includes:

Unlike oral communication, Written communication doesn’t bring instant feedback.

It take more time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth. and number of
people struggles for writing ability.

Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that
communication other than oral and written, such as gesture, body language, posture, tone of voice or
facial expressions, is called nonverbal communication. Nonverbal communication is all about the body
language of speaker.

Nonverbal communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often, nonverbal signals
reflects the situation more accurately than verbal messages. Sometimes nonverbal response contradicts
verbal communication and hence affect the effectiveness of message.

Nonverbal communication have the following three elements:

Appearance

Speaker: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics

Surrounding: room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings

Body Language

facial expressions, gestures, postures

Sounds

Voice Tone, Volume, Speech rate

Types of Communication Based on Purpose and Style

Based on style and purpose, there are two main categories of communication and they both bears their
own characteristics. Communication types based on style and purpose are:

 Formal Communication

 Informal Communication

Formal Communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while communicating
message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually professional settings,
corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern.

In formal communication, use of slang and foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is
required. Authority lines are needed to be followed in formal communication.

Informal Communication

Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with formal communication
channels. It’s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of members in an organization
and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and family. In informal communication use of
slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually. informal communication is done orally and using
gestures.

Informal communication, Unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow authority lines. In an

organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when talking informally.
Informal communication helps in building relationships.
Types of directions of communication

Some of the most important types of direction in formal communication are: 1. Downward 2. Upward 3.
Horizontal or Lateral and 4. Diagonal or Cross-wise!

Formal communication is designed by the management. It is an official communication which takes

place through the line of authority or chain of command.

The basic purpose of designing such communication is to connect various sub-systems of organisation
and coordinating their functioning for achieving organisational goals. Such communication is official and
part of formal organisation which operates through formal relationship of superior and subordinate.

1. Downward communication:

Communication in the first place, flows downwards. That is why, traditionally this direction has been
highlighted or emphasised. It is based on the assumption that the people working at higher levels have
the authority to communicate to the people working at lower levels. This direction of communication
strengthens the authoritarian structure of the organisation. This is also called Down Stream
Communication.

Limitations of Downward Communication:

(i) Distortion/Dilution:

Quite often the communication originating at the highest level gets distorted or diluted on the way to
the lower levels. Sometimes the messages may get lost. It has to be ensured that the receiver fully
understands the purport/ instructions/directions coming from above. This requires an efficient feedback
system.

(ii) Delay:

Another drawback of downward communication is that often it becomes time-consuming. The more the
levels the greater the chances of delay. That is why sometimes managers choose to send their massages
directly to the person concerned.

(iii) Filtering:

Sometimes managers may withhold some valuable information from the employees. In such a situation
the employees become frustrated, confused and powerless. This may spoil the employer-employee
relationship.

2. Upward communication:
The function of upward communication is to send information, suggestions, complaints and grievances
of the lower level workers to the managers above. It is, therefore, more participative in nature. It was
not encouraged in the past, but modern managers encourage upward communication. This is a direct
result of increasing democratisation. This is also called Up Stream Communication.

Limitations of upward communication:

(i) Psychological:

Certain problems, primarily of psychological nature, may come up in upward communication.

(ii)Hierarchical:

Many managers do not like to be ‘told’ by their juniors. They may not be patient enough to listen to
them or may even suppress the message sent to them from below. In such a situation the employees
may feel let down.

Ways to Overcome the Limitations—Ombudsperson:

In order to tide over such problems an Ombudsperson plays an important role. The concept of
Ombudsman or Ombudsperson was first used in Sweden to go into the complaints of lower level
employees against government officials or agencies.

Now a number of companies in many countries have established positions for persons to investigate
employees, complaints and grievances. An Ombudsperson, therefore, effectively mediates between the
employers and the employees and smoothens upward communication.

3. Lateral or horizontal communication:

This type of communication can be seen taking place between persons operating at the same level or
working under the same executive. Functional managers operating at the same level, in different
departments, through their communication, present a good example of lateral communication. The
main use of this dimension of communication is to maintain coordination and review activities assigned
to various subordinates.

Occasions for lateral communication arise during committee meetings or conferences in which all
members of the group, mostly peers or equals, interact. The best example of lateral communication can
be seen in the interaction between production and marketing departments.

4. Diagonal or crosswise communication:

Diagonal or crosswise communication takes place when people working at the same level interact with
those working at a higher or lower-level of organisational hierarchy and across the boundaries of their
reporting relationships.
Advantages of diagonal communication:

1. Coordination:

This crosswise communication serves the important purpose of coordination through informal meetings,
formal conferences, lunch hour meetings, general notices etc.

2. Practicable:

As we know not all communication takes place strictly on the lines of organisational hierarchy, i.e.,
downwards or upwards.

3. Morale boosting:

By providing opportunities to lower level workers to interact with managers in informal meetings it gives
their morale a boost and further commitment to the organisation. More and more organisations are
now encouraging crosswise communication and building up bonhomie.

Limitations:

1. Fear of infringement:

The superior may feel it an infringement that his subordinate has been given undue importance and that
he has been by passed.

2. Resistance to compliance:

The superior may not implement the suggestion as he has not been consulted.

3. Anarchy:

The lack of accepted procedures may lead to internal anarchy and external animosity.

Avoid Labeling

Labeling is a form of typecasting or creating prejudice towards somebody. Labeling affects how you
think about aperson which in turn affects how you communicate with him /her. For example, if a person
is labeled.
Effective Public Speaking

Effective Public Speaking is an important skill in communicating knowledge and expressing ideas to
groups of people. It is a primary medium for presenting and selling your products and ideas.

Essential Ingredient to make presentation effective-:

Show your Passion and Connect with your Audience. ...

Focus on your Audience's Needs. ...

Keep it Simple: Concentrate on your Core Message. ...

Smile and Make Eye Contact with your Audience. ...

Start Strongly. ...

Remember the 10-20-30 Rule for Slideshows. ...

Tell Stories.

To make a good presentation even more effective-

1. Show your Passion and Connect with your Audience

It’s hard to be relaxed and be yourself when you’re nervous.

But time and again, the great presenters say that the most important thing is to connect with your
audience, and the best way to do that is to let your passion for the subject shine through.

Be honest with the audience about what is important to you and why it matters.

Be enthusiastic and honest, and the audience will respond.

2. Focus on your Audience’s Needs

Your presentation needs to be built around what your audience is going to get out of the presentation.

As you prepare the presentation, you always need to bear in mind what the audience needs and wants
to know, not what you can tell them.

While you’re giving the presentation, you also need to remain focused on your audience’s response, and
react to that.

You need to make it easy for your audience to understand and respond.

3. Keep it Simple: Concentrate on your Core Message

When planning your presentation, you should always keep in mind the question:

You should be able to communicate that key message very briefly.

Some experts recommend a 30-second ‘elevator summary’, others that you can write it on the back of a
business card, or say it in no more than 15 words.

Whichever rule you choose, the important thing is to keep your core message focused and brief.

And if what you are planning to say doesn’t contribute to that core message, don’t say it.

4. Smile and Make Eye Contact with your Audience

This sounds very easy, but a surprisingly large number of presenters fail to do it.

If you smile and make eye contact, you are building rapport, which helps the audience to connect with
you and your subject. It also helps you to feel less nervous, because you are talking to individuals, not to
a great mass of unknown people.

To help you with this, make sure that you don’t turn down all the lights so that only the slide screen is
visible. Your audience needs to see you as well as your slides.

5. Start Strongly

The beginning of your presentation is crucial. You need to grab your audience’s attention and hold it.

They will give you a few minutes’ grace in which to entertain them, before they start to switch off if
you’re dull. So don’t waste that on explaining who you are. Start by entertaining them.

As a general rule, slides should be the sideshow to you, the presenter. A good set of slides should be no
use without the presenter, and they should definitely contain less, rather than more, information,
expressed simply. If you need to provide more information, create a bespoke handout and give it out
after your presentation.

7. Tell Stories

Human beings are programmed to respond to stories.

Stories help us to pay attention, and also to remember things. If you can use stories in your
presentation, your audience is more likely to engage and to remember your points afterwards. It is a
good idea to start with a story, but there is a wider point too: you need your presentation to act like a
story.

Think about what story you are trying to tell your audience, and create your presentation to tell it.
Five essentials of a giving a good presentation

Take a good and professional posture while presenting. ...

Be audible enough to convey the message. ...

Have a full command of the subject matter that you are presenting. ...

Have confidence when presenting. ...

Be interactive and engage the audience.

let’s take a look at the separate parts of the presentation, and be sure we understand exactly why they
are needed, and how we might put them together for a terrific presentation or speech. Please note that
even the most informal talks do better when you follow this format. With a little planning and practice it
will become your “go to” structure.

The Three Essential Elements of a Great Presentation

Opening and key message

A strong start with a key message provide context, a reason for listening.

A strong start builds your confidence, even as it captures and directs your audience’s attention.

A strong start connects you with your audience, and them to your message.

How?

Start with a one-sentence overview. This is your key message. It should be short enough to say in one
breath. It should be the one thing you want your audience to take away. If you could only say one
sentence, this would be it.

Write it down. Say it out loud. If it is just “in your head” it could be very vague or “slippery.” If you can
write it down or say it out loud, then you know it is a message, not just a thought.

Content or Body of Presentation

The message needs the evidence or proof that only the body of the presentation can provide. As a
standalone, it may be intriguing, but it probably lacks substance.The body must be organized and clear.
This is where you lay out your case, and you want to follow a logical structure.

The body should strike a balance between being too detailed and too broad. Be sure you think through
your time frame, your audience, and the nature of this content. How detailed does it need to be? How
simple can it be? If it is too detailed, the audience may fade. If it is too broad, they will get bored and
possibly insulted. The body should strike a balance between facts and feelings. Depending again on
content and the makeup of the audience members, you will want to include not just facts, but some
kind of emotional appeal. If you tend to lean on emotional appeal, be sure to balance that with solid
facts and figures. Include pertinent, updated facts and findings. I recently found a great statistic I wanted
to use, until I discovered the research was over ten years old. No good. Also consider the sources of the
statistics you use; will they be credible with your audience?

Include humor, stories, examples, case studies, and discussion questions. Get your audience talking with
each other to whatever degree seems appropriate. Get them to do something with you or each other,
even if it is as simple as answering your “quiz” questions or raising a hand. Humor is great but don’t feel
you must tell a joke. Instead, use a personal anecdote or reaction. Blend it into your content; don’t make
a big issue of it. A great closing builds your confidence and lets you end with power and punch, not a
whimper. A great closing drives the main message home. We need to hear things more than once,
especially the things that it is important to remember. A great closing creates a satisfying sense of
closure. Imagine going to a concert or a play and wondering “is it over?” Great experiences come with a
resounding close. A great closing includes a reminder of where you started, which improves recall of
your key message, and a call to action can take advantage of an emotional high at the end.

So even if time is short, the presentation is informal, or you just don’t know how to get started, make
sure these three elements of your talk are well planned and that you deliver them with aplomb. Without
these essentials, it might be just a bunch of words. With them, you have a compelling talk.
Report Writing

Some academic assignments ask for a ‘report’, rather than an essay, and students are often confused
about what that really means.Likewise, in business, confronted with a request for a ‘report’ to a senior
manager, many people struggle to know what to write. Confusion often arises about the writing style,
what to include, the language to use, the length of the document and other factors.

In academia there is some overlap between reports and essays, and the two words are sometimes used
interchangeably, but reports are more likely to be needed for business, scientific and technical subjects,
and in the workplace. Whereas an essay presents arguments and reasoning, a report concentrates on
facts.

Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a particular purpose and
audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem, often making recommendations for
future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear and well-structured.

Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between organisation and
departments and in study between courses, from tutor to tutor, as well as between subjects, so it’s
worth finding out if there are any specific guidelines before you start.

Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:

 A description of a sequence of events or a situation;

 Some interpretation of the significance of these events or situation, whether solely your own
analysis or informed by the views of others, always carefully referenced of course (see our page
on Academic Referencing for more information);

 An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;

 Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;

 Your recommendations as to a course of action; and

 Conclusions.

Not all of these elements will be essential in every report.

If you’re writing a report in the workplace, check whether there are any standard guidelines or structure
that you need to use.

For example, in the UK many government departments have outline structures for reports to ministers
that must be followed exactly.

Sections and Numbering

A report is designed to lead people through the information in a structured way, but also to enable them
to find the information that they want quickly and easily.

Reports usually, therefore, have numbered sections and subsections, and a clear and full contents page
listing each heading. It follows that page numbering is important.

Modern word processors have features to add tables of contents (ToC) and page numbers as well as
styled headings; you should take advantage of these as they update automatically as you edit your
report, moving, adding or deleting sections.

Report Writing

Getting Started: prior preparation and planning

The structure of a report is very important to lead the reader through your thinking to a course of action
and/or decision. It’s worth taking a bit of time to plan it out beforehand.

Step 1: Know your brief

You will usually receive a clear brief for a report, including what you are studying and for whom the
report should be prepared.

First of all, consider your brief very carefully and make sure that you are clear who the report is for (if
you're a student then not just your tutor, but who it is supposed to be written for), and why you are
writing it, as well as what you want the reader to do at the end of reading: make a decision or agree a
recommendation, perhaps.

Step 2: Keep your brief in mind at all times

During your planning and writing, make sure that you keep your brief in mind: who are you writing for,
and why are you writing?

All your thinking needs to be focused on that, which may require you to be ruthless in your reading and
thinking. Anything irrelevant should be discarded.

As you read and research, try to organise your work into sections by theme, a bit like writing a Literature
Review.

Make sure that you keep track of your references, especially for academic work. Although referencing is
perhaps less important in the workplace, it’s also important that you can substantiate any assertions
that you make so it’s helpful to keep track of your sources of information.
The Structure of a Report

Like the precise content, requirements for structure vary, so do check what’s set out in any guidance.

However, as a rough guide, you should plan to include at the very least an executive summary,
introduction, the main body of your report, and a section containing your conclusions and any
recommendations.

Executive Summary

The executive summary or abstract, for a scientific report, is a brief summary of the contents. It’s worth
writing this last, when you know the key points to draw out. It should be no more than half a page to a
page in length.

Remember the executive summary is designed to give busy 'executives' a quick summary of the contents
of the report.

Introduction

The introduction sets out what you plan to say and provides a brief summary of the problem under
discussion. It should also touch briefly on your conclusions.

Report Main Body

The main body of the report should be carefully structured in a way that leads the reader through the
issue.

You should split it into sections using numbered sub-headings relating to themes or areas for
consideration. For each theme, you should aim to set out clearly and concisely the main issue under
discussion and any areas of difficulty or disagreement. It may also include experimental results. All the
information that you present should be related back to the brief and the precise subject under
discussion.

If it’s not relevant, leave it out.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The conclusion sets out what inferences you draw from the information, including any experimental
results. It may include recommendations, or these may be included in a separate section.

Recommendations suggest how you think the situation could be improved, and should be specific,
achievable and measurable. If your recommendations have financial implications, you should set these
out clearly, with estimated costs if possible.

A Word on Writing Style

When writing a report, your aim should be to be absolutely clear. Above all, it should be easy to read
and understand, even to someone with little knowledge of the subject area.

You should therefore aim for crisp, precise text, using plain English, and shorter words rather than
longer, with short sentences. You should also avoid jargon. If you have to use specialist language, you
should explain each word as you use it. If you find that you’ve had to explain more than about five
words, you’re probably using too much jargon, and need to replace some of it with simpler words.

Consider your audience. If the report is designed to be written for a particular person, check whether
you should be writing it to ‘you’ or perhaps in the third person to a job role: ‘The Chief Executive may
like to consider…’, or ‘The minister is recommended to agree…’, for example.

A Final Warning

As with any academic assignment or formal piece of writing, your work will benefit from being read over
again and edited ruthlessly for sense and style.

Pay particular attention to whether all the information that you have included is relevant. Also
remember to check tenses, which person you have written in, grammar and spelling. It’s also worth one
last check against any requirements on structure.

For an academic assignment, make sure that you have referenced fully and correctly. As always, check
that you have not inadvertently or deliberately plagiarised or copied anything without acknowledging it.
Email etiquette

Short for electronic mail, e-mail or email is information stored on a computer that is exchanged between
two users over telecommunications. More plainly, e-mail is a message that may contain text, files,
images, or other attachments sent through a network to a specified individual or group of individuals.
Short for electronic mail, email (or e-mail) is defined as the transmission of messages over
communications networks. Typically the messages are notes entered from the keyboard or electronic
files stored on disk. Most mainframes, minicomputers, and computer networks have an email system.

Advantages

Emails are delivered extremely fast when compared to traditional post. ... Webmail means emails can be
sent and received from any computer, anywhere in the world, that has an internet connection . Cheap -
when using broadband , each email sent is effectively free.

Email etiquette refers to the principles of behavior that one should use when writing or answering email
messages. It is also known as the code of conduct for email communication. Email etiquette depends
upon to whom we are writing- Friends & Relatives, Partners, Customers, Superior or Subordinates.

Ten rules of email etiquette

Don't be sloppy in an attempt to be friendly. ...

Watch your grammar, spelling, and punctuation. ...

Avoid talking aimlessly in emails. ...

Choose your subject wisely. ...

Keep your emails organised. ...

Reply to emails promptly. ...

Delivery requests and sending receipts. ...

Rules of Email Etiquette

Nowadays, business email is used more than any other means of communication in business, yet many
still don’t understand the importance of email etiquette. How you compose an email reflects your
professionalism and personality, so it is worth spending some time learning how to portray a
professional, yet friendly, image.
An article in the Dynamic Business blog written by Sharon Zeeve Poole nominated the top 10
commandments of email etiquette:

1. Don’t be sloppy in an attempt to be friendly.

Play it safe – a balance between formal and friendly is ideal for the first contact. Writing in a
conversational manner can come across too casual, while a formal approach can seem stern or
impersonal. In short, be reserve your attempt to write like you are addressing a close business contact
for later communications.

2. Watch your grammar, spelling, and punctuation.

Spelling, grammar, and punctuation should be one of your top concerns in writing business emails.
Remember, how you write reflects your total professionalism and personality. If you do not take these
things into consideration, it may appear that you are too lazy to communicate with them and thus will
give them the perception that you are not going to be a good person to deal business with. Always
double check your email before sending.

3. Avoid talking aimlessly in emails.

Rule of thumb in composing a professional business email is to focus on one subject per email. If an
email conversation has exceeded two emails on both sides already – pick up the phone! It does not save
time, it is also more professional and convenient.

4. Choose your subject wisely.

As much as possible, relay your email message by indicating a more specific email subject. Your subject
must indicate the purpose of your message.

5. Keep your emails organised.

Do not just leave messages threads. Make it a habit to organise your emails so you won’t have a hard
time finding a certain message again in the future if the need arises.

6. Reply to emails promptly.

Within reason, an email should be treated like a phone call and returned in a reasonable time frame.

7. Delivery requests and sending receipts.

There aren’t many people who appreciate these, so give them a miss,

8. Send smaller files, compress them.

It is more preferable to send compressed files than sending large attachments. That makes it easier for
the recipient to download the file easily.

9. Watch your tone.

The tone of voice can often be misinterpreted via email – watch your tone and adopt a matter-of-fact
approach and avoid sarcasm.

10. Avoid sending an email for discussions which are better-done face to face.

Delicate messages are not appropriate to be discussed via email. If there are issues between you and the
recipient, it is better to discuss it personally, face to face rather than exchanging bitter conversations via
email.
 Module 2

Personality: Meaning and Determinants of Personality

Man is not born a person. At birth he is an infant possessing the potentiality of becoming a person. After
birth he associates with other human beings and comes under the influence of their culture. As a result
of a variety of experiences and social influences he becomes a person and comes to possess a
personality.

The Meaning of Personality:

The term ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’ which means a mask.

According to K. Young, “Personality is a …. patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes and ideas of an
individual, as these are organised externally into roles and statuses, and as they relate internally to
motivation, goals, and various aspects of selfhood.”

G. W. Allport defined it as “a person’s pattern of habits, attitudes, and traits which determine his
adjustment to his environment.”

Personality, as we understand it, says MacIver, “is all that an individual is and has experienced so far as
this “all” can be comprehended as unity.” According to Lundberg and others, “The term personality
refers to the habits, attitudes, and other social traits that are characteristic of a given individual’s
behaviour.”

By personality Ogburn means “the integration of the socio psychological behaviour of the human being,
represented by habits of action and feeling, attitudes and opinions.”

According to Anderson and Parker, “Personality is the totality of habits, attitudes, and traits that result
from socialization and characterizes us in our relationships with others.”

Thus personality is the sum of the ideas, attitudes and values of a person which determine his role in
society and form an integral part of his character. Personality is acquired by tie individual as a result of
his participation in group life. As a member of the group he learns certain behaviour systems and
symbolic skills which determine his ideas, attitudes and social values.

These ideas, attitudes and values which an individual holds, comprise his personality. The personality of
an individual denotes an adult’s inner construction of the outer world. It is the result of the inter-action
processes by which standards of ethical judgment, belief and conduct are established in social groups
and communities.

To sum up it would be said that:

(i) Personality is not related to bodily structure alone. It includes both structure and dynamics
(ii) Personality is an indivisible unit.

(iii) Personality is neither good nor bad.

(iv) Personality is not a mysterious phenomenon.

(v) Every personality is unique.

(vi) Personality refers to persistent qualities of the individual. It expresses consistency and regularly.

(vii) Personality is acquired.

(viii) Personality is influenced by social interaction. It is defined in terms of behaviour.

Determinants of Personality

Personality appears to be a result of both influences. Additionally, today we recognize another factor -
the situation. The problem lies in the fact the cognitive and psychological processes, plus many other
variables, all contribute to personality. The determinants of personality can perhaps best be grouped in
five broad categories: biological, cultural, family, social and situational.

Biological determinants of Personality Development

The biological determinants of personality development are

Biological Factors

The study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads:

Heredity: Heredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception.

Physical stature, facial attractiveness, sex, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level,
and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one’s parents. The
heredity approach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular
structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes.

Research on animals has showed that both physical and psychological characteristics can be transmitted
through heredity. But research on human beings is in adequate to support this view point. However,
psychologists and geneticists have accepted the fact that heredity plays an important role in one's
personality.

Brain: The second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in personality.
Though researchers make some promising inroads, the psychologists are unable to prove empirically the
contribution of human brain in influencing personality. The most recent and exciting possibilities come
from the work done with electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) and split-brain psychology.
Preliminary results from the electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) research give indication that better
understanding of human personality and behaviour might come from the study of the brain. Work with
ESB on human subjects is just beginning.

There seem to be definite pleasurable and painful areas in the human brain. This being true, it may be
possible physically to manipulate personality through ESB.

Biofeedback: Until recently, physiologists and psychologists felt that certain biological functions such as
brainwave patterns, gastric secretions, and fluctuations in blood pressure and skin temperature were
beyond conscious control. Now some scientists believe that these involuntary functions can be
consciously controlled through biofeedback. In BFT the individual learns the internal rhythm of a
particular body process through electronic signals feedback from equipment that is wired to the body
area. From this biofeedback the person can learn to control the body processin question. More research
is needed on biofeedback before any definitive conclusions can be drawn. But its potential impact could
be extremely interesting for the future.

Physical features: A vital ingredient of the personality, an individual's external appearance, is

biologically determined. The fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will influence
the person's effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self-concept. Practically all would agree that
physical characteristics have at least some influence on the personality. According to Paul H Mussen "a
child's physical characteristics may be related to his approach to the social environment, to the
expectancies of others, and to their reactions to him. These, inturn, may have impacts on personality
development".

There are other factors, which also influence personality.

Cultural Factors

Among the factors that exert pressures on our personality formation are the culture in which we are
raised, our early conditioning, the norms among our family, friends and social groups and other
influences we experience. Traditionally, cultural factors are usually considered to make a more
significant contribution to personality than biological factors.

The culture largely determines attributes toward independence, aggression, competition, and
cooperation. According to Paul H Mussen "each culture expects, and trains, its members to behave in
the ways that are acceptable to the group. To a marked degree, the child's cultural group defines the
range of experiences and situations he is likely to encounter and the values and personality
characteristics that will be reinforced and hence learned". Culture requires both conformity and
acceptance from its members.

There are several ways of ensuring that members comply with the dictates of the culture.

The personality of an individual to a marked extent is determined by the culture in which he or she is
brought up. It follows that a person reared in a western culture has a different personality from a person
reared in our Indian culture.
Family Factors

Whereas the culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the family, and
later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. Thus, the family probably has
the most significant impact on early personality development.

A substantial amount of empirical evidence indicates that the overall home environment created by the
parents, in addition to their direct influence, is critical to personality development. For example,
children reared in a cold, un stimulating home are much more likely to be socially and emotionally Mal
adjusted than children rose by parents in a warm, loving and stimulating environment.

The parents play an especially important part in the identification process, which is important to the
person's early development. The home environment also influences the personality of an individual.
Siblings (brothers and sisters) also contribute to personality.

Social Factors

There is increasing recognition given to the role of other relevant persons, groups and especially
organizations, which greatly influence an individual's personality. This is commonly called the
socialization process. Socialization involves the process by which a person acquires, from the
enormously wide range of behavioural potentialities that are open to him or her. Socialization starts
with the initial contact between a mother and her new infant. After infancy, other members of the
immediate family – father, brothers, sisters and close relatives or friends, then the social group – peers,
school friends and members of the work group, play influential roles.

Socialization process is especially relevant to organizational behaviour because the process is not
confined to early childhood, taking place rather throughout one's life. In particular, evidence is
accumulating that socialization may be one of the best explanations for why employees be have the way
they do in today's organizations.

Situational Factors

Human personality is also influenced by situational factors. The effect of environment is quite strong.
Knowledge, skill and language are obviously acquired and represent important modifications of
behaviour. An individual's personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different
situations. The different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one's personality.
According to Milgram "Situation exerts an important press on the individual. It exercises constraints and
may provide push. In certain circumstances it is not so much the kind of person a man is, as the kind of
situation in which he is placed that determines his actions". We should therefore not look at personality
patterns in isolation.
Theories of Personality-

There are number of theories developed by psychologists to explain personality and its development.
Each theory is unique and explains personality development and functioning in its own way. Some of the
prominent theories are explained here under:

Type theory of personality

Perhaps the earliest known theory of personality is that of the Greek physician Hippocrates (c. 400 B.C.),
who characterized human behavior in terms of four temperaments, each associated with a different
bodily fluid, or "humor." The sanguine, or optimistic, type was associated with blood; the phlegmatic
type (slow and lethargic) with phlegm; the melancholic type (sad, depressed) with black bile; and the
choleric (angry) type with yellow bile. Individual personality was determined by the amount of each of
the four humors. Hippocrates' system remained influential in Western Europe throughout the medieval
and Renaissance periods. Abundant references to the four humors can be found in the plays of
Shakespeare, and the terms with which Hippocrates labeled the four personality types are still in
common use today. The theory of temperaments is among a variety of systems that deal with human
personality by dividing it into types. A widely popularized (but scientifically dubious) modern typology of
personality was developed in the 1940s by William Sheldon, an American psychologist. Sheldon
classified personality into three categories based on body types: the endomorph (heavy and easy-going),
mesomorph (muscular and aggressive), and ectomorph (thin and intellectual or artistic).

Trait theory of personality

A major weakness of Sheldon's morphological classification system and other type theories in general is
the element of oversimplification inherent in placing individuals into a single category, which h ignores
the fact that every personality represents a unique combination of qualities. Systems that address
personality as a combination of qualities or dimensions are called trait theories. Well-known trait
theorist Gordon Allport (1897-1967) extensively investigated the ways in which traits combine to form
normal personalities, cataloguing over 18,000 separate traits over a period of 30 years. He proposed
that each person has about seven central traits that dominate his or her behavior. Allport's attempt to
make trait analysis more manageable and useful by simplifying it was expanded by subsequent
researchers, who found ways to group traits into clusters through a process known as factor analysis.
Raymond B. Cattell reduced Allport's extensive list to 16 fundamental groups of inter-related
characteristics, and Hans Eysenck claimed that personality could be described based on three
fundamental factors: psychoticism (such antisocial traits as cruelty and rejection of social customs),
introversion-extroversion, and emotionality-stability (also called neuroticism). Eysenck also formulated a
quadrant based on intersecting emotional-stable and introverted-extroverted axes.

Psychoanalytical Theory:

This theory was developed by famous psychologist Sigmund Freud.

 Psychoanalytic theory is the theory of personality organization and the dynamics of personality
development that guides psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology. First laid out
by Sigmund Freud in the late 19th century, psychoanalytic theory has undergone many refinements
since his work. Psychoanalytic theory came to full prominence in the last third of the twentieth century
as part of the flow of critical discourse regarding psychological treatments after the 1960s, long after
Freud's death in 1939, and its validity is now widely disputed or rejected. Freud had ceased his analysis
of the brain and his physiological studies and shifted his focus to the study of the mind and the related
psychological attributes making up the mind, and on treatment using free association and the
phenomena of transference. His study emphasized the recognition of childhood events that could
influence the mental functioning of adults. His examination of the genetic and then the developmental
aspects gave the psychoanalytic theory its characteristics. Starting with his publication of The
Interpretation of Dreams in 1899, his theories began to gain prominence. Freud constructed a model of
personality with three interlocking parts: the Id, the Ego and the Super ego.

The Id:

This is the most primitive part, develops with the birth of the child. It can be thought of as a sort of store
house of biologically based urges: the urge to eat, to drink etc.

The Ego:

This part usually develops from the school year of life of the child—as a result of social contacts. The ego
consists of elaborate ways of behaving and thinking which constitute the executive function of the
person.

The ego delays motives of Id and channels behaviour into more socially acceptable outlets. It keeps a
person working for a living, getting along with people and generally adjusting to the realities of life.
Freud characterised the ego as working in the service on the ‘reality principle’.

That is, the ego tries to satisfy the id’s urge for pleasure, but only in realistic ways. The ongoing tension
between insistent urges of the id and the constraints of reality helps the ego develop certain skills to
safeguard the self-image. These skills are called ego defence mechanisms

The Super ego:

This part of personality corresponds closely to what we commonly call the conscience. It consists mainly
of prohibitions learned from parents and other authorities. The super ego may condemn as ‘wrong’
certain things which the ego would otherwise do to satisfy the id.

However, super ego is guided by ‘ego ideal’- a set of values and moral ideals that are pursued because
they are perceived to be worthy. In other words the super ego operates on the ‘moral principal’.

Freud believed that because of the diverse nature of these three parts, there will be constant conflicts
between one another, which leads to three types of anxiety, viz.
(1) Reality anxiety-arising when the individual is confronted by dangers or threats in the external world.

(2) Neurotic anxiety-arising when the individual’s Id impulses threaten to break through his ego controls
and result in behaviour that will lead to his punishment and

(3) Moral anxiety- arising when the individual does something or even contemplates doing something in
conflict with his super ego or moral values and arouses guilt feelings.

It is understood that there will be constant conflicts going on between id, ego and super ego. These
conflicts may occur in the conscious, subconscious and unconscious levels of human psyche. Freud
refers to the unconscious, the subconscious and the conscious as the ‘topographical’ aspects of the self,
also called as the level of consciousness. The functioning of these levels is as follows:

The conscious:

According to Freud the conscious part of mind is that part which is ready to receive the stimuli from the
external world. It helps to perform the functions like eating, drinking, reading, writing, talking, thinking
and such other activities and also helps us to behave in an appropriate way.

It will be functioning only when the individual is in a wake up state. At the conscious level we will be
aware of certain things around us and of certain thoughts.

The preconscious:

This is also known as subconscious. At this level are memories or thoughts that are easily available with
a moment’s reflection. For example, what we had for breakfast or what class was held today morning.

Preconscious will be functioning between conscious and unconscious parts. In character it resembles
conscious to greater extent and will have better adjustment with it. Its contents can be recalled easily. It
prevents the suppressed thoughts and other prohibited motives in the unconscious from entering the
conscious part. Hence, it is also called as ‘Censor’.

The unconscious:

This part of mind contains memories, thoughts and motives which we cannot easily call up. It is the
largest and also the powerful part of mind. It contains the natural instincts, thoughts inappropriate
desires, irrational motives and painful experiences. All the experiences suppressed by conscious part will
remain here. These forces will be trying to come to conscious part for satisfaction. But their entry is
prevented by preconscious. Hence, they try to come out when preconscious part is at rest. They appear
in the form of dreams, or in the form of slip of tongue, slip of pen, automatic writing, amnesia, etc.
Freud has developed certain techniques such as free association, dream analysis, analysis of
transference, analysis of resistance, hypnosis and such other techniques in order to bring out the
contents of unconscious which cause mental illness. Freud has compared these three levels to an ‘Ice
berg’ in water. The conscious part will be like tip of ice berg which is above the surface level. Although
that is the part we can see, it is only a small part. The subconscious part, as a thin layer is separating the
conscious and unconscious. The major part of the mind that is unconscious will be like a submerged big
part of ice berg.

Advantages

 The theory emphasizes the importance of childhood experiences.

 It initiated and addressed the importance of the unconscious, sexual and aggressive drives that
make up the majority of all human beings' personalities.

 The approach also explains defense mechanisms and why every individual reacts differently to
similar situations.

Limits

 Some claim that the theory is lacking in empirical data and too focused on pathology.

 Some claim that this theory lacks consideration of culture and its influence on personality

The ego balances the id, superego, and reality to maintain a healthy state of consciousness. It thus
reacts to protect the individual from any stressors and anxiety by distorting reality. This prevents
threatening unconscious thoughts and material from entering the consciousness. The different types of
defense mechanisms are: Repression, reaction formation, denial, projection, displacement, sublimation,
regression, and rationalization.

Theory of Learning and Personality Development:

Learning and conditioning in classical, instrumental and cognitive forms are highly relevant to
personality and its development. Dollard and Miller used animal experiments to test human conflicts
and repressions thus advancing social learning theory.

Albert Bandura and Walters extended social learning theory into the domain of observational learning.
They said that observational learning or imitation generally takes place in a social situation involving a
model and an imitator.

The imitator observes the model and experiences the model’s behaviour and its consequences
vicariously (observational learning).

This process is called vicarious learning. For example, seeing that one child is punished by teacher for
talking in the class, other child may stop talking. The observer himself will not experience rewards or
punishments that are imposed on the model, but vicariously experienced them.

Skinner developed a method called ‘Learning by conditioning’ in which the individuals as a result of their
experiences establish an association or linkage between two events. He used Instrumental conditioning
principles to explain the ways in which environmental conditions as reinforcements influence people’s
behaviour.
Humanistic Theories:

These theories are developed by two psychologists—Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Humanistic
theories emphasise the importance of people’s subjective attitudes, feelings and beliefs especially with
regard to self. Roger’s theory focuses on the impact of disparity between a person’s perceived real self
and his ideal self that is, ‘how I am and how I would like to be’. Maslow focuses on the significance of
self-actualization.

Humanistic theories believe that each person is potential enough to be creative and responsible, he is
free to choose his destiny and every individual strives to fulfill his need for self-actualization or realizing
his/her fullest potential.
Importance of appropriate dressing

Once a British person questioned an Indian that “Can’t you wear some proper clothes and be a
gentleman?” The Indian humbly responded that “In your country, clothes make Gentleman but in our
country, the Character makes a Gentleman.” -Swami Vivekananda

Clothes reflect one’s personality. They can tell what kind of a person one is but overall attitude is
important. Naturally, one must wear clothes that suit them. Clothes have to be worn according to
occasions. One has to dress appropriately. A well dressed person is much appreciated in society. Many
well known personalities, particularly politicians and actors are admired for their dress sense. The rich
spend a lot of money on buying the best clothes in town. Many go in for designer clothes, which are very
expensive. No doubt, one likes to wear clothes of one’s choice, but at times one has to wear according
to the demands of a given situation. Those who are working are required to wear certain types of attire.
For example, nurses wear uniforms, and so do policemen and women. They cannot wear what they like
while on official work. Of course, when off duty they can dress as they please.

In offices, one has to dress well. A pleasing personality is essential and clothes also enhance ones’
appearance. One has to look neat and tidy. Good grooming is essential. Even on the political scene,
senior political personalities must have a dress sense. Their clothes must be formal during official
engagements. When they are in a relaxed mood that is on a holiday they can dress up casually.
Individual countries have their own national dress. The Africans wear their traditional dress on special
occasions. In India, women in high position wear saris. In Pakistan as well as women in politics wear
either salwar kameez or saris. Men, of course, wear pants, which is of course a western attire.
 Module 3
Attitude

Meaning and Definition

In psychology, attitude is a psychological construct, a mental and emotional entity that inheres in, or
characterizes a person. They are complex and an acquired state through experiences. It is an individual's
predisposed state of mind regarding a value and it is precipitated through a responsive expression
toward a person, place, thing, or event (the attitude object) which in turn influences the individual's
thought and action.

Prominent psychologist Gordon Allport described this latent psychological construct as "the most
distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary social psychology.” Attitude can be formed
from a person's past and present.

Attitudes are fundamental determinants of our perceptions of, and actions toward all aspects of our
social environment. Attitudes involve a complex organisation of evaluative beliefs, feelings and
tendencies toward certain actions.

Attitudes are simply expressions of much we like or dislike various things. Attitudes represent our
evaluations, preferences or rejections based on the information we receive. Attitude may be defined as
‘an enduring predisposition or readiness to react or behave in a particular manner to a given object or
situation, idea, material or person’.

It is a generalized tendency to think or act in a certain way in respect of some object or situation, often
accompanied by feeling.

Attitude will have three components:

1. Cognitive:

It involves the knowledge or information about a person or object, etc., and his belief about it.

2. Affective:

Refers to feeling aspect, i.e. how he feels about it

3. Conative:

Refers to action tendency, i.e. how he behaves with it.

Factors

Psychological
The attitude of a person is determined by psychological factors like ideas, values, beliefs, perception,
etc. All these have a complex role in determining a person's attitude. Values are ideals, guiding
principles in one’s life, or overarching goals. Beliefs are cognitions about the world—subjective
probabilities that an object has a particular attribute or that an action will lead to a particular outcome
Beliefs can be patently and unequivocally false. For example, surveys show that a third of U.S. adults
think that vaccines cause autism, despite the preponderance of scientific research to the contrar.

It was found that beliefs held are resistant to change. Another important factor that affects attitude is
symbolic interactionism, these are rife with powerful symbols and charged with affect which can lead to
a selective perception. Persuasion theories says that in politics, successful persuaders convince its
message recipients into a selective perception or attitude polarization for turning against the opposite
candidate through a repetitive process that they are in a noncommittal state and it is unacceptable and
doesn't have any moral basis for it and for this they only require to chain the persuading message into a
realm of plausibility

Family

Family plays a significant role in the primary stage of attitudes held by individuals. Initially, a person
develops certain attitudes from his parents, brothers, sister, and elders in the family. There is a high
degree of relationship between parent and children in attitudes found in them.

Society

Societies play an important role in formatting the attitudes of an individual. The culture, the tradition,
the language, etc., influence a person's attitudes. Society, tradition, and the culture teach individuals
what is and what is not acceptable.

Economic

A person's attitude also depends on issues such as his salary, status, work environment, work as such,
etc.

Structure

The classic, tripartite view offered by Rosenberg and Hovland is that an attitude contains cognitive,
affective, and behavioral components. Empirical research, however, fails to support clear distinctions
between thoughts, emotions, and behavioral intentions associated with a particular attitude. A criticism
of the tripartite view of attitudes is that it requires cognitive, affective, and behavioral associations of an
attitude to be consistent, but this may be implausible. Thus some views of attitude structure see the
cognitive and behavioral components as derivative of affect or affect and behavior as derivative of
underlying beliefs.
Despite debate about the particular structure of attitudes, there is considerable evidence that attitudes
reflect more than evaluations of a particular object that vary from positive to negative. Among
numerous attitudes, one example is people's money attitudes which may help people understand their
affective love of money motive, stewardship behavior, and money cognition. These ABC components of
attitudes formulate, define, and contribute to an overall construct of Monetary Intelligence which, in
turn, may be related to many theoretical work-related constructs.

There is also a considerable interest in intra-attitudinal and inter-attitudinal structure, which is how an
attitude is made (expectancy and value) and how different attitudes relate to one another. Which
connects different attitudes to one another and to more underlying psychological structures, such as
values or ideology.

Attitude component models

An influential model of attitude is the multicomponent model, where attitudes are evaluations of an
object that have affective, behavioural, and cognitive components(the ABC model)

Affective component

The affective component of attitudes refer to your feelings or emotions linked to an attitude object.
Affective responses influence attitudes in a number of ways. For example, many people are
afraid/scared of spiders. So this negative affective response is likely to cause you to have a negative
attitude towards spiders.

Behavioural component

The behavioural component of attitudes refer to past behaviours or experiences regarding an attitude
object. The idea that people might infer their attitudes from their previous actions.

Cognitive component

The cognitive component of attitudes refer to the beliefs, thoughts, and attributes that we would
associate with an object. Many times a person's attitude might be based on the negative and positive
attributes they associate with an object.

Formation of Attitude

According to Doob (1947), learning can account for most of the attitudes we hold.

The study of attitude formation is the study of how people form evaluations of persons, places or things.

Theories of classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and social learning are mainly responsible
for formation of attitude. Unlike personality, attitudes are expected to change as a function of
experience. In addition, exposure to the 'attitude' objects may have an effect on how a person forms his
or her attitude. This concept was seen as the "Mere-Exposure Effect".

The classical conditioning theory is based on the assumption that learning is developed through the
interactions with the environment. Also, the environment shapes the behavior and internal mental
state such as thoughts, feelings, emotions do not explain the human behavior.

Here, an organism learns to transfer response from one stimulus to a previously neutral stimulus.

Skinner identified two key aspects of the operant conditioning process. Reinforcement serves to
increase the behavior while punishment serves to decrease the behavior.

Negative punishment involves taking away something pleasant after a behavior occurs. For example, if
a child fails to clean her room, her parents might tell her that she cannot go to the mall with her
friends. Taking away the desirable activity acts as a negative punisher on the preceding behavior.

In social learning theory, Albert Bandura (1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical
conditioning and operant conditioning. However, he adds two important ideas:

Mediating processes occur between stimuli & responses.

Behavior is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.

The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference
for things merely because they are familiar with them. In social psychology, this effect is sometimes
called the familiarity principle. The effect has been demonstrated with many kinds of things, including
words, Chinese characters, paintings, pictures of faces, geometric figures, and sounds. In studies of
interpersonal attraction, the more often someone sees a person, the more pleasing and likeable they
find that person.

Robert Zajonc showed that people were more likely to have a positive attitude on 'attitude objects'
when they were exposed to it frequently than if they were not. Mere repeated exposure of the
individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his attitude toward it.
 Tesser (1993) has argued that hereditary variables may affect attitudes - but believes that they may do
so indirectly. For example, consistency theories, which imply that we must be consistent in our beliefs
and values. As with any type of heritability, to determine if a particular trait has a basis in our genes,
twin studies are used.

When our inner systems (beliefs, attitudes, values, etc.) all support one another and when these are also
supported by external evidence, then we have a comfortable state of affairs. The discomfort of cognitive
dissonance occurs when things fall out of alignment, which leads us to try to achieve a maximum
practical level of consistency in our world.

We also have a very strong need to believe we are being consistent with social norms. When there is
conflict between behaviors that are consistent with inner systems and behaviors that are consistent with
social norms, the potential threat of social exclusion often sways us towards the latter, even though it
may cause significant inner dissonance.

The most famous example of such a theory is Dissonance-reduction theory, associated with Leon
Festinger, which explains that when the components of an attitude (including belief and behavior) are at
odds an individual may adjust one to match the other (for example, adjusting a belief to match a
behavior). Other theories include balance theory, originally proposed by Heider (1958), and the self-
perception theory, originally proposed by Daryl Bem.

Cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting attitudes, beliefs or behaviors. This
produces a feeling of mental discomfort leading to an alteration in one of the attitudes, beliefs or
behaviors to reduce the discomfort and restore balance.

For example, when people smoke (behavior) and they know that smoking causes cancer (cognition), they
are in a state of cognitive dissonance.

In the psychology of motivation, balance theory is a theory of attitude change, proposed by Fritz Heider.
It conceptualizes the cognitive consistency motive as a drive toward psychological balance. The
consistency motive is the urge to maintain one's values and beliefs over time. Heider proposed that
"sentiment" or liking relationships are balanced if the affect valence in a system multiplies out to a
positive result.

Example: Balance theory is useful in examining how celebrity endorsement affects consumers' attitudes
toward products.[3] If a person likes a celebrity and perceives (due to the endorsement) that said
celebrity likes a product, said person will tend to like the product more, in order to achieve psychological
balance.

However, if the person already had a dislike for the product being endorsed by the celebrity, they may
begin disliking the celebrity, again to achieve psychological balance.

Heider's balance theory can explain why holding the same negative attitudes of others promotes
closeness (see The enemy of my enemy is my friend).

Self-perception theory (SPT) is an account of attitude formation. It asserts that people develop their
attitudes (when there is no previous attitude due to a lack of experience, etc.-and the emotional
response is ambiguous) by observing their own behavior and concluding what attitudes must have
caused it.

Self-perception theory describes the process in which people, lacking initial attitudes or emotional
responses, develop them by observing their own behavior and coming to conclusions as to what attitudes
must have driven that behavior. The theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is
that attitudes determine behaviors.

For example, therapists working with individuals with alcohol addiction have reported that the principles
of self-perception theory assist in creating change. Individuals who begin to consciously observe the
amount they are drinking might infer from their behavior that they are tense or anxious and then do
something about it other than drinking.
For example, individuals who communicate their intentions about drinking out loud may infer their
attitudes about drinking from hearing themselves speak. In other words, the behavior of telling others, “I
am going to cut down on my drinking” may allow individuals to infer the attitude or internal awareness
that their drinking has created problems for themselves or others. In sum, researchers in psychology have
applied the self-perception theory to a wide variety of attitudes and behaviors with very interesting and
important implications.

Types of Attitudes:

Attitudes are of three types:

a. Positive:

A favourable attitude—liking people, objects, situation, etc.

b. Negative:

An unfavourable attitude—does not like people/ objects, etc.

c. Neutral:

Neither favourable nor unfavourable.

Positive Attitude

Individuals who have a positive attitude will pay attention to the good, rather than bad in people,
situations, events.

A simple example of a positive attitude; when you are having a very bad run of luck but you still say
“Good Morning” rather than “What’s so good about this morning”.

Negative Attitude

People with a negative attitude ignore the good and pay attention to the bad in people, situations,
events, etc.

For example; when a guy has so much power, wealth, and influences with great luck; but still complains
and goes on a rant; well that person has a negative attitude.
Differences between Positive and Negative Attitudes

 Individuals who have a positive attitude will pay attention to the good, rather than bad in
people, situations, events, etc. People with a negative attitude ignore the good and pay
attention to the bad in people, situations, events, etc.

 Positive attitudes are rewarded. It means the individual is encouraged to do die the same thing
in future. Negative attitudes are punished in order to discourage the same action in future.

 If we think positive thoughts we will surely experience such emotions as joy, love, gratitude,
peace, and hope. If we think negative thoughts we will definitely have negative feelings such as
anger, disappointment, irritation, envy, etc.

 Having a “positive attitude” means a person believes everything happens for the best in the end.
A person with a “negatives attitude” tends to believe their best days are in the past. There is
nothing to “look forward to” and considers it a waste of time and energy.

 Positive Attitude is an optimistic approach for a person to achieve good results. Negative
attitude is a pessimistic mindset of a person who is not capable of handling critical issues.

 Positive Attitude can achieve long-term goals easily and in time but Negative Attitude can
achieve some initial goals but not the long-term goals.

 Positive Attitude is a process of solving problems while Negative Attitude is a process of looking
for problems.

 A person with a positive attitude pays attention to the virtues of others. A person with a
negative attitude pays attention to other people’s shortcomings.

 Positive Attitude people always see opportunities while Negative Attitude people see only
limitations.

While it is difficult to categorize someone as a positive attitude and negative attitude. People show a
positive attitude for somethings and a negative attitude for somethings. This varies depending on a
person’s goal, economic status, motivation, skill, self-belief, and opportunities.

Building positive attitude

"Most folks are about as happy as they make up their minds to be." - Abraham Lincoln

Positive thinking does not only mean to assume the seeing the world through rose-colored lenses by
ignoring or glossing over the negative aspects of life., it actually means approaching life's challenges
with a positive outlook.
It does not necessarily mean avoiding or ignoring the bad things; instead, it involves making the most of
the potentially bad situations, trying to see the best in other people, and viewing yourself and your
abilities in a positive light.

Some researchers, including positive psychologist Martin Seligman, often frame positive thinking in
terms of explanatory style. Your explanatory style is how you explain why events happened. People with
an optimistic explanatory style tend to give themselves credit when good things happen, but typically
blame outside forces for bad outcomes. They also tend to see negative events as temporary and
atypical.

On the other hand, individuals with a pessimistic explanatory style often blame themselves when bad
things happen, but fail to give themselves adequate credit for successful outcomes. They also have a
tendency to view negative events as expected and lasting. As you can imagine, blaming yourself for
events outside of your control or viewing these unfortunate events as a persistent part of your life can
have a detrimental impact on your state of mind.

Positive thinkers are more apt to use an optimistic explanatory style, but the way in which people
attribute events can also vary depending upon the exact situation. For example, a person who is
generally a positive thinker might use a more pessimistic explanatory style in particularly challenging
situations, such as at work or at school.

Our life is a reflection of our attitude. Without even noticing it, it can be easy to become negative and
cynical towards the world as we are continuously exposed to tragedy and injustice in the media and as
we experience our own heartache and distress.

Not only is a negative attitude preventing you from fully enjoying your life, it can have a significant
impact on your environment. The energy a person brings with them is contagious. One of the best things
you can offer your family, organization or community is your positive attitude.

In the wise words of Michael Jackson, “If you want to make the world a better place, take a look at
yourself and make a change.” As creatures of habit, by making small adjustments to your daily life and
mindset, positive habits can be formed to make yourself and everyone you interact with happier. Here
is a list of 10 habits that can turn a gloomy outlook into an effortlessly optimistic attitude.

1. Keep a gratitude journal.

Sometimes one single event can ruin an entire day and an unpleasant interaction or experience at night
can overshadow the enjoyable parts of our day. With this awareness that our mind tends to cling to the
negative, we can intentionally focus on the good parts of our day to offset this imbalance. Try writing
down 5 things that you feel grateful for every day and see how your attitude changes. Science has found
that gratitude can significantly increase your happiness, and protect you from stress, negativity, anxiety
and depression. Check out this list of 13 ways gratitude will significantly improve your life.

2. Reframe your challenges.

“Sometimes you win and sometimes you learn.”

There are no dead ends, only re-directions. Although we might try, there are very few things in life that
we have complete control over. We should not let uncontrollable occurrences from the outside turn our
inner to mush. What we can control is the effort that we put in and when we give our full effort, there is
no reason for regret. Have fun with challenges, embrace them as adventures instead of attempting to
resist an experience for growth. 3. Get good at being rejected.

Rejection is a skill. Chalk every broken heart and failed job interview as practice because no one gets to
slide through life without being rejected. Don’t let it harden you and don’t expect the worse. If you wait
for bad things to happen, chances are it will or you’ll narrow in on the bad in the midst of the may good
things you’ve missed along the way. When there are cracks in your heart, they let the sun in.

4. Use positive words to describe your life.

The words that we use have a lot more power than we think. How you talk about your life is how your
life will be. Your mind hears what you say. If you describe your life as boring, busy, mundane, chaotic,
that is how you will percieve it and you will feel the effects in your body and mind. If you use the words
simple, involved, familiar or lively, you will see your life in a whole different light and find more
enjoyment in the way you chose to shape your life.

A study from US data suggests that having a positive attitude is not only has a direct effect on your
happiness, it is also correlated with your earning wage.

5. Replace have with get.

Do you ever notice how many times we say that we have to do something? I have to go to work. I have
to go grocery shopping. I have to pay my rent. Now change this one little word to get and see what
happens. I get to go to work. I get to go grocery shopping. Even, I get to pay my rent. Your attitude
quickly changes from needing to fulfill obligations to being grateful for the things that we become
accustomed to having: a job to support you and your family, food on the table, and a roof over your
head.

6. Don’t let yourself get dragged into other people’s complaints.

Your day was going pretty well and then you get to work and your co-worker can’t stop complaining
about the cold weather. You didn’t really think about it before he/she brought it up and now you find
yourself agreeing and joining in on the complaint-fest of how sick you are of this cold weather. In a
month you’ll be pulled into complaints about how it’s too hot. Don’t fall into the trap. A study done at
the Warsaw School of Social Psychology shows that complaining leads to lower moods and negative
emotions, decreased life satisfaction and optimism, and emotional and motivational deficits. You might
find that your co-worker will complain less without the validation of someone else having the same
complaint.

7. Breathe.
Our breath is directly connected to our emotions. Have you noticed we hold our breath sometimes
when we are concentrating on something? Can you feel your breath change when you are angry or
anxious? Our breath changes depending on how we feel.

8. Notice the righteous in times of tragedy.

It’s hard to have hope and stay positive when hate and violence is all over the media. What we don’t see
as much is that in every instance of natural disasters, war, traumatic experience, you will find people
rising up, reaching out to each other and showing raw compassion and love. Hold onto the stories of
modern day heroes and selflessness in the times of fear and devastation.

9. Have solutions when pointing out problems.

If you are going to point out problems in people or situations, place just as much effort into suggesting
solutions instead of critism.

10. Make someone else smile.

It’s good to hold ourselves accountable, take responsibility for our life roles, hygiene, food, etc. but set a
goal for each day to make someone else smile. Think about someone else’s happiness and it will help us
to realize our immense impact that our attitude and expression has on the people around us.

Situational analysis

The process of identifying and evaluating existing internal and external elements that may impact an
organization's ability to achieve its objectives. A situational analysis also includes a SWOT analysis which
is an assessment of the organization's strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats.

A situation analysis is a key foundation for any sound intervention. It helps to ensure a programme’s
relevance and to find out the best course of action (e.g. strategies, entry points, partnerships) by
learning about community attitudes and practices regarding violence against women; identifying what
has already been done to address violence against women and what results and lessons were obtained,
as well as who the main actors have been and who might be key to engage. In addition to ensuring the
appropriateness of the intervention to the local context, carrying out a situational analysis will help
avoid duplication of efforts.

Perception

“Attitude is a little thing, that makes a big difference.

Personality makes an impact if appearance makes impressions.

Behaviour is the result of your behaviour.

Perception is not reality, for we don’t see things as they are, we see them as we are.”
Perception (from the Latin perceptio) is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory
information in order to represent and understand the presented information, or the environment. All
perception involves signals that go through the nervous system, which in turn result from physical or
chemical stimulation of the sensory system. For example, vision involves light striking the retina of the
eye, smell is mediated by odor molecules, and hearing involves pressure waves.

Perception is not only the passive receipt of these signals, but it's also shaped by the recipient's learning,
memory, expectation, and attention.

Perception can be split into two processes,

(1) processing the sensory input, which transforms these low-level information to higher-level
information (e.g., extracts shapes for object recognition);

(2) processing which is connected with a person's concepts and expectations (or knowledge), restorative
and selective mechanisms (such as attention) that influence perception.

Perception depends on complex functions of the nervous system, but subjectively seems mostly
effortless because this processing happens outside conscious awareness.

Since the rise of experimental psychology in the 19th century, psychology's understanding of perception
has progressed by combining a variety of techniques. Psychophysics quantitatively describes the
relationships between the physical qualities of the sensory input and perception. Sensory neuroscience
studies the neural mechanisms underlying perception. Perceptual systems can also be studied
computationally, in terms of the information they process. Perceptual issues in philosophy include the
extent to which sensory qualities such as sound, smell or color exist in objective reality rather than in
the mind of the perceiver.

Although the senses were traditionally viewed as passive receptors, the study of illusions and ambiguous
images has demonstrated that the brain's perceptual systems actively and pre-consciously attempt to
make sense of their input. There is still active debate about the extent to which perception is an active
process of hypothesis testing, analogous to science, or whether realistic sensory information is rich
enough to make this process unnecessary.

The perceptual systems of the brain enable individuals to see the world around them as stable, even
though the sensory information is typically incomplete and rapidly varying. Human and animal brains are
structured in a modular way, with different areas processing different kinds of sensory information.
Some of these modules take the form of sensory maps, mapping some aspect of the world across part of
the brain's surface. These different modules are interconnected and influence each other. For instance,
taste is strongly influenced by smell.
Thus, Perception is the act or the effect of perceiving, i.e. how you interpret what you see or hear. Your
perception of something, is your own view or interpretation of something. The key difference is that an
attitude is closer related to actions or behaviour. An attitude is often expressed, through words or
behaviour - and can be perceived by others. Attitude could also be understood as "state of mind".

If a child is acting disrespectfully towards his teacher/parents, we would say that he has a "bad
attitude".
 Module 4

Leadership
Leadership is the process of influencing others in a manner that enhances their contribution to the
realization of group goals. We demonstrate how social influence emerges from psychological in-group
members, particularly highly in-group prototypical ones. Leadership is both a research area and a
practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual or organization to "lead" or guide other
individuals, teams, or entire organizations.

Leaders and their leadership skills play an important role in the growth of any organization. Leadership
refers to the process of influencing the behavior of people in a manner that they strive willingly and
enthusiastically towards the achievement of group objectives. A leader should have the ability to
maintain good interpersonal relations with the followers or subordinates and motivate them to help in
achieving the organizational objectives.
Features of Leadership

Influence the behaviour of others: Leadership is an ability of an individual to influence the behaviour of
other employees in the organization to achieve a common purpose or goal so that they are willingly co-
operating with each other for the fulfilment of the same.

Inter-personal process: It is an interpersonal process between the leader and the followers. The
relationship between the leader and the followers decides how efficiently and effectively the targets of
the organization would be met.

Attainment of common organizational goals: The purpose of leadership is to guide the people in an
organization to work towards the attainment of common organizational goals. The leader brings the
people and their efforts together to achieve common goals.

Continuous process: Leadership is a continuous process. A leader has to guide his employees every time
and also monitor them in order to make sure that their efforts are going in the same direction and that
they are not deviating from their goals.

Group process: It is a group process that involves two or more people together interacting with each
other. A leader cannot lead without the followers.

Dependent on the situation: It is situation bound as it all depends upon tackling the situations present.
Thus, there is no single best style of leadership.

Qualities of a Leader

Personality: A pleasing personality always attracts people. A leader should also friendly and yet
authoritative so that he inspires people to work hard like him.

Knowledge: A subordinate looks up to his leader for any suggestion that he needs. A good leader should
thus possess adequate knowledge and competence in order to influence the subordinates.

Integrity: A leader needs to possess a high level of integrity and honesty. He should have a fair outlook
and should base his judgment on the facts and logic. He should be objective and not biased.

Initiative: A good leader takes initiative to grab the opportunities and not wait for them and use them to
the advantage of the organization.

Communication skills: A leader needs to be a good communicator so that he can explain his ideas,
policies, and procedures clearly to the people. He not only needs to be a good speaker but also a good
listener, counsellor, and persuader.
Motivation skills: A leader needs to be an effective motivator who understands the needs of the people
and motivates them by satisfying those needs.

Self-confidence and Will Power: A leader needs to have a high level of self-confidence and immense
will-power and should not lose it even in the worst situations, else employees will not believe in him.

Intelligence: A leader needs to be intelligent enough to analyze the pros and cons of a situation and take
a decision accordingly. He also needs to have a vision and fore-sightedness so that he can predict the
future impact of the decisions taken by him.

Decisiveness: A leader has to be decisive in managing his work and should be firm on the decisions are
taken by him.

Social skills: A leader should possess empathy towards others. He should also be a humanist who also
helps the people with their personal problems. He also needs to possess a sense of responsibility and
accountability because with great authority comes great responsibility.

Leadership Styles

Autocratic leadership style: It refers to a style where the leader takes all the decisions by himself.

Democratic leadership style: It refers to a style where the leader consults its subordinates before taking
the final decision.

Laissez-faire or Free-rein leadership style: It refers to a style where the leader gives his subordinates
complete freedom to take the decisions.

Theories of leadership-

 “Great Man”

 Trait

 Behavioral

 Participative

 Situational

 Contingency

 Transactional

 Transformational
 1. Great man theory-

Great man theories assume that the capacity for leadership is inherent – that great leaders are born,
not made. These theories often portray great leaders as heroic, mythic and destined to rise to
leadership when needed. The term "Great Man" was used because, at the time, leadership was thought
of primarily as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership. The great man theory of
leadership became popular during the 19th-century.

In many examples, it seems as if the right man for the job seems to emerge almost magically to take
control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or success. According to Carlyle, effective
leaders are those gifted with divine inspiration and the right characteristics. Because people of a lesser
social status had fewer opportunities to practice and achieve leadership roles, it contributed to the idea
that leadership is an inherent ability such as Abraham Lincoln, Julius Caesar, Mahatma Gandhi, and
Alexander.

Even today, people often describe prominent leaders as having the right qualities or personality for the
position, implying that inherent characteristics are what make these people effective leaders.

2. Trait Theory-

Similar in some ways to "Great Man" theories, trait theories assume that people inherit certain qualities
and traits that make them better suited to leadership.

Trait theories often identify particular personality or behavioral characteristics shared by leaders. The
trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed broad dispositions.

Consider how you would describe the personality of a close friend. Chances are that you would list a
number of traits, such as outgoing, kind and even-tempered.

A trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes individuals to behave in certain
ways.

Some of the most common criticisms of trait theory center on the fact that traits are often poor
predictors of behavior. While an individual may score high on assessments of a specific trait, he or she
may not always behave that way in every situation. Another problem is that trait theories do not
address how or why individual differences in personality develop or emerge.

3. Behavioral psychology is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are
acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment.
According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with
no consideration of internal mental states.
 4. Participative leadership theories suggest that the ideal leadership style is one that takes the
input of others into account. These leaders encourage participation and contributions from
group members and help group members feel more relevant and committed to the decision-
making process.

In participative theories, however, the leader retains the right to allow the input of others.

5. Situational theories propose that leaders choose the best course of action based upon
situational variables.

Different styles of leadership may be more appropriate for certain types of decision-making.

6. Contingency theories of leadership focus on particular variables related to the environment that
might determine which particular style of leadership is best suited for the situation. According to
this theory, no leadership style is best in all situations.

Success depends upon a number of variables, including the leadership style, qualities of the followers
and aspects of the situation.

7. Transactional theories, also known as management theories, focus on the role of supervision,
organization and group performance. These theories base leadership on a system of rewards
and punishments. This theory of leadership was first described in by sociologist Max Weber, and
further explored by Bernard M. Bass in the early 1980s.

Managerial theories are often used in business; when employees are successful, they are rewarded;
when they fail, they are reprimanded or punished.

Importance of Leadership:

Initiating Action: Leadership starts from the very beginning, even before the work actually starts. A
leader is a person who communicates the policies and plans to the subordinates to start the work.

Providing Motivation: A leader motivates the employees by giving them financial and non-financial
incentives and gets the work done efficiently. Motivation is the driving force in an individual’s life.
Providing guidance: A leader not only supervises the employees but also guides them in their work. He
instructs the subordinates on how to perform their work effectively so that their efforts don’t get
wasted.

Creating confidence: A leader acknowledges the efforts of the employees, explains to them their role
clearly and guides them to achieve their goals. He also resolves the complaints and problems of the
employees, thereby building confidence in them regarding the organization.

Building work environment: A good leader should maintain personal contacts with the employees and
should hear their problems and solve them. He always listens to the point of view of the employees and
in case of disagreement persuades them to agree with him by giving suitable clarifications. In case of
conflicts, he handles them carefully and does not allow it to adversely affect the entity. A positive and
efficient work environment helps in stable growth of the organization.

Co-ordination: A leader reconciles the personal interests of the employees with the organizational goals
and achieves co-ordination in the entity.

Creating Successors: A leader trains his subordinates in such a manner that they can succeed him in
future easily in his absence. He creates more leaders.

Induces change: A leader persuades, clarifies and inspires employees to accept any change in the
organization without much resistance and discontentment. He makes sure that employees don’t feel
insecure about the changes.

Often, the success of an organization is attributed to its leaders. But, one must not forget that it’s the
followers who make a leader successful by accepting his leadership. Thus, leaders and followers
collectively play a key role to make leadership successful.
Motivation

Motive is an impulse that causes a person to act. Motivation is an internal process that makes a person
move toward a goal. Motivation, like intelligence, can’t be directly observed. Instead, motivation can
only be inferred by noting a person’s behavior.

Motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
Motivation is what causes you to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to reduce thirst or reading a
book to gain knowledge.

Motivation involves the biological, emotional, social, and cognitive forces that activate behavior. In
everyday usage, the term motivation is frequently used to describe why a person does something. For
example, you might say that a student is so motivated to get into the legal program that she spends
every night studying.

"The term motivation refers to factors that activate, direct, and sustain goal-directed behavior... Motives
are the 'whys' of behavior—the needs or wants that drive behavior and explain what we do. We don't
actually observe a motive; rather, we infer that one exists based on the behavior we observe." (Nevid,
2013)

Components of Motivation

Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose 20 pounds or run a marathon) probably
immediately realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not enough. Achieving
such a goal requires the ability to persist through obstacles and endurance to keep going in spite of
difficulties.

There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity.

Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology class.

Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist. An example of
persistence would be taking more psychology courses in order to earn a degree although it requires a
significant investment of time, energy, and resources.

Intensity can be seen in the concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a goal. For example, one
student might coast by without much effort, while another student will study regularly, participate in
discussions, and take advantage of research opportunities outside of class. The first student lacks
intensity, while the second pursues his educational goals with greater intensity.

Types of Motives: Biological, Social and Personal Motives

Psychologists have divided motives into three types—Biological motives, social motives and personal
motives!
The goal here may be fulfillment of a want or a need. Whenever a need arises the organism is driven to
fulfil that want or need. If there is no need in the organism, there will be no behaviour. For example,
Horse and water. Horse does not drink water unless it has thirst or if it is not motivated. Unlike the
external stimuli, the motives are limited. The behaviour to fulfil such needs is mechanical and alike in all
the organisms. Hunger is a motive which stimulates the organism to have food. We develop hunger
when the food that was taken earlier is exhausted.The need for food drives us to go in search of food
and to have it. Here the hunger motive not only initiated the action, but also continued until the goal
(having food) is reached. The motives are powerful forces. They do not allow us to stop our action or
behaviour until the need is satisfied. Hence, they are called the ‘dynamos’ of behaviour.

Types of Motives:

1. Biological Motivation:

Biological motives are called as physiological motives. These motives are essential for the survival of the
organism. Such motives are triggered when there is imbalancement in the body. The body always tends
to maintain a state of equilibrium called “Homeostasis”- in many of its internal physiological processes.
This balance is very essential for the normal life. Homeostasis helps to maintain internal physiological
processes at optimal levels. The nutritional level, fluid level, temperature level, etc., are maintained at
certain optimal level or homeostasis levels. When there is some variation in these levels the individual is
motivated for restoring the state of equilibrium.

i. Physiological Motives:

a. Hunger motive:

We eat to live. The food we take is digested and nutritional substances are absorbed. The biochemical
processes get their energy from the food in order to sustain life. When these substances are exhausted,
some imbalancement exists. We develop hunger motive in order to maintain homeostasis. This is
indicated by contraction of stomach muscles causing some pain or discomfort called hunger pangs.
Psychologists have demonstrated this phenomenon by experiments.

b. Thirst motive:

In our daily life regularly we take fluids in the form of water and other beverages. These fluids are
essential for our body tissues for normal functioning. When the water level in the body decreases we
develop motive to drink water.

Usually thirst motive is indicated by dryness of mouth. Experiments by psychologists have shown that
just dried mouth getting wetted is not enough. We need to drink sufficient quantity of water to satiate
our thirst.

c. Need for oxygen:

Our body needs oxygen continuously. We get it through continuous respiration. Oxygen is necessary for
the purification of blood. We cannot survive without regular supply of oxygen. Lack of oxygen supply
may lead to serious consequences like damage to brain or death.

d. Motive for regulation of body temperature:

Maintenance of normal body temperature (98.6°F or 37.0°C) is necessary. Rise or fall in the body
temperature causes many problems. There are some automatic mechanisms to regulate body
temperature, like sweating when the temperature rises above normal or, shivering when it falls below
normal.

These changes motivate us to take necessary steps. For example, opening of windows, put on fans, take
cool drinks, remove clothes, etc., when the temperature increases to above normal level; and closing
doors and windows, wear sweaters, take hot beverages when temperature falls down. In this way we try
to regulate the body temperature.

e. Need for sleep:

Sleep is an essential process for normal functioning of body and mind. When our body and mind are
tired they need rest for rejuvenation of energy. It is observed that there is excess accumulation of a
toxin called ‘Lactic acid’ when tired.

After sleep it disappears and the person becomes active. Sleep deprivation also leads to psychological
problems like confusion, inability to concentrate, droopy eyelids, muscle tremors, etc.

f. Need for avoidance of pain:

No organism can continue to bear pain. Whenever we experience pain we try to avoid it. We are
motivated to escape from painful stimulus. For example, when we are under hot sun we go to shade.
When something is pinching we avoid it.

g. Drive for elimination of waste:

Our body cannot bear anything excess or anything waste. Excess water is sent out in the form of urine or
sweat. So also digested food particles after absorption of nutritional substances are sent out in the form
of stools. We experience discomfort until these wastes are eliminated.

h. The society and the law exercise certain codes of conduct. Human being has to adhere to these rules.
Usually this need is fulfilled through marriage. As Maternal drive is an instinct or an inborn tendency.
Every normal woman aspires to become a mother. That is why in many cases the women who cannot
bear children of their own, will sublimate that motive and satisfy it through socially acceptable ways, like
working in orphan schools, baby sittings or adopting other’s children.
2. Social Motives

Physiological motives discussed above pertain to both animals as well as human beings, but the social
motives are specific only to human beings. These are called social motives, because they are learnt in
social groups as a result of interaction with the family and society. That is why their strength differs from
one individual to another. Many social motives are recognised by psychologists. Some of the common
social motives are:

a. Achievement motive:

Achievement motivation refers to a desire to achieve some goal. This motive is developed in the
individual who has seen some people in the society attaining high success, reaching high positions and
standards.

He/she develops a concern to do better, to improve performance. David C Mc Clelland who conducted a
longitudinal study on characteristics of high and low achievers found that the high achievers choose and
perform better at challenging tasks, prefers personal responsibility, seeks and utilizes feedback about
the performance standard, having innovative ideas to improve performance.

On the other hand, low achievers do not accept challenges, puts on average standards and accepts
failures easily. Parents must try to inculcate leadership qualities in children for better achievement in
their future life. They must allow children to take decisions independently, and guide them for higher
achievement from the childhood, so that the children develop high achievement motivation.

b. Aggressive motive:

It is a motive to react aggressively when faced frustrations. Frustration may occur when a person is
obstructed from reaching a goal or when he is insulted by others. Even in a fearful and dangerous do or
die situation the individual may resort to aggressive behaviour. Individual expresses such behaviour to
overcome opposition forcefully, which may be physical or verbal aggression.

c. Power motive:

People with power motive will be concerned with having an impact on others. They try to influence
people by their reputation. They expect people to bow their heads and obey their instructions.

Usually people with high power motive choose jobs, where they can exert their powers. They want
people as followers. They expect high prestige and recognition from others. For example, a person may
aspire to go for jobs like Police Officer, Politician, Deputy Commissioner, etc.

d. Acquisitive motive:
This motive directs the individual for the acquisition of material property. It may be money or other
property. This motive arises as we come across different people who have earned a lot of money and
leading a good life. It is a human tendency to acquire all those things which appear attractive to him.

e. Curiosity motive:

This is otherwise called stimulus and exploration motive. Curiosity is a tendency to explore and know
new things. We see people indulge in a travelling to look at new places, new things and new
developments taking place outside their environment.

People want to extend their knowledge and experiences by exploring new things. Curiosity motive will
be very powerful during childhood. That is why they do not accept any toy or other articles unless they
examine them from different angles, even at the cost of spoiling or breaking the objects.

f. Gregariousness:

This is also known as affiliation need. Gregariousness is a tendency to associate oneself with other
members of the group or same species. The individual will be interested in establishing, maintaining and
repairing friendly relationships and will be interested in participating in group activities.

Individual will conform to social norms, mores and other ethical codes of the groups in which he/she is
interested. To the greater extent gregariousness is developed because many of the needs like basic
needs, safety and security needs are fulfilled.

In addition to the above there are some other social motives like need for self-esteem, social approval,
self-actualization, autonomy, master motive, combat, defense, abasement, etc.

3. Personal Motives:

In addition to the above said physiological and social motives, there are some other motives which are
allied with both of the above said motives. These are highly personalized and very much individualized
motives. The most important among them are:

a. Force of habits:

We see different people having formed different habits like chewing tobacco, smoking, alcohol
consumption, etc. There may be good habits also like regular exercising, reading newspapers, prayers,
meditations, etc. Once these habits are formed, they act as drivers and compel the person to perform
the act. The specialty of habits is that, they motivate the individual to indulge in that action
automatically.
b. Goals of life:

Every normal individual will have some goals in the life. They may be related to education, occupation,
income, sports, acquisition of property, public service, social service, etc. Once a goal is set, he will be
motivated to fulfil that goal. The goals people set, depend upon various factors like knowledge,
information, guidance, support, personality, facilities available, aspirations, family and social
background, etc.

c. Levels of aspirations:

Aspiration is aspiring to achieve or to get something or a goal. But such achievement depends upon the
level of motivation the individual has. Every individual will have a goal in his life and strive to reach that
goal. But the effort to attain that goal varies from one individual to another. The amount of satisfaction
he gains depends upon his level of aspiration.

For example, if a student is expecting 80% of marks in examination, gets only 75%, he may be unhappy.
On the other hand, a student expecting failure may feel very happy if he gets just 35% passing marks,
because, the student with high level of aspiration works hard, whereas the student with low level may
not.

Hence, always higher level of aspiration is advisable. However, it should be on par with his abilities also.
Because, if an individual aspires for higher level of achievement without possessing required ability, he
will have to face frustration and disappointment.

d. Attitudes and interests:

Our attitudes and interests determine our motivation. These are specific to individual. For example, a
person within the family, may have positive attitude towards family planning and all others having
negative attitudes.

So also, interests differ from one individual to another. Example, interest in sports, T.V, etc. Whenever
we have a positive attitude, we will have motivation to attain. In negative attitude, we will be motivated
to avoid. If a person is interested in music, he will be motivated to learn it. In this way, our personal
motives determine our behaviour.

Unconscious motivation:

Sigmund Freud, the famous psychologist has explained elaborately about unconscious motivation.
According to him, there are certain motives of which we are unaware, because they operate from our
unconscious.

These motives or desires which are repressed by our conscious remain in our unconscious and will be
influencing our behaviour.
Our irrational behaviour, the slip of tongue, slip of pen, amnesia, multiple personality, somnambulism,
etc., are some examples of such behaviours for which we do not have answers apparently.

These motives can be delineated only by psychoanalysis. Many times psychosomatic disorders like
paralysis, headaches, gastric ulcers, etc., also may be due to unconscious motivation.

Theories of Motivation

Psychologists have proposed different theories to explain motivation:

Instinct Theory of Motivation

According to instinct theories, people are motivated to behave in certain ways because they are
evolutionarily programmed to do so. An example of this in the animal world is seasonal migration. These
animals do not learn to do this, it is instead an inborn pattern of behavior. Instincts motivation some
species to migrate at certain times each year.

William James created a list of human instincts that included such things as attachment, play, shame,
anger, fear, shyness, modesty, and love. The main problem with this theory is that it did not really
explain behavior, it just described it.

By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside in favor of other motivational theories, but
contemporary evolutionary psychologists still study the influence of genetics and heredity on human
behavior.

Incentive Theory of Motivation

The incentive theory suggests that people are motivated to do things because of external rewards. For
example, you might be motivated to go to work each day for the monetary reward of being paid.
Behavioral learning concepts such as association and reinforcement play an important role in this theory
of motivation.

This theory shares some similarities with the behaviorist concept of operant conditioning. In operant
conditioning, behaviors are learned by forming associations with outcomes. Reinforcement strengthens
a behavior while punishment weakens it.

While incentive theory is similar, it instead proposes that people intentionally pursue certain courses of
action in order to gain rewards. The greater the perceived rewards, the more strongly people are
motivated to pursue those reinforcements.

Drive Theory of Motivation

According to the drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to
reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. For example, you might be motivated to
drink a glass of water in order to reduce the internal state of thirst.
This theory is useful in explaining behaviors that have a strong biological component, such as hunger or
thirst. The problem with the drive theory of motivation is that these behaviors are not always motivated
purely by physiological needs. For example, people often eat even when they are not really hungry.

Arousal Theory of Motivation

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people take certain actions to either decrease or increase
levels of arousal.

When arousal levels get too low, for example, a person might watch an exciting movie or go for a jog.
When arousal levels get too high, on the other hand, a person would probably look for ways to relax
such as meditating or reading a book.

According to this theory, we are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this level
can vary based on the individual or the situation.

Humanistic Theory of Motivation

Humanistic theories of motivation are based on the idea that people also have strong cognitive reasons
to perform various actions. This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which
presents different motivations at different levels.

First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological needs for food and shelter, as well as those of
safety, love, and esteem. Once the lower level needs have been met, the primary motivator becomes
the need for self-actualization, or the desire to fulfill one's individual potential.

Expectancy Theory of Motivation

The expectancy theory of motivation suggests that when we are thinking about the future, we formulate
different expectations about what we think will happen. When we predict that there will most likely be a
positive outcome, we believe that we are able to make that possible future a reality. This leads people
to feel more motivated to pursue those likely outcomes.

The theory proposes that motivations consist of three key elements: valence, instrumentality, and
expectancy. Valence refers to the value people place on the potential outcome. Things that seem
unlikely to produce personal benefit have a low valence, while those that offer immediate personal
rewards have a higher valence.

Instrumentality refers to whether people believe that they have a role to play in the predicted outcome.
If the event seems random or outside of the individual's control, people will feel less motivated to
pursue that course of action. If the individual plays a major role in the success of the endeavor,
however, people will feel more instrumental in the process.

Expectancy is the belief that one has the capabilities to produce the outcome. If people feel like they
lack the skills or knowledge to achieve the desired outcome, they will be less motivated to try. People
who feel capable, on the other hand, will be more likely to try to reach that goal.
While no single theory can adequately explain all human motivation, looking at the individual theories
can offer a greater understanding of the forces that cause us to take action. In reality, there are likely
many different forces that interact to motivate behavior.
Motives to know and be effective

There is no specific term but some call such motives as lucid motives, play motives, non- homeostatic
motives or curiosity motives. Morgan et al have called such motives as “motives to know and to be
effective”. Needs to know and to be effective persist throughout life and are difficult, if not impossible,
to satisfy. Even when our biological and social need have been met, we continue to seek contact with
the environment and to engage in restless and relentless activity.

Following are the different motives “to know and to be effective”:

(a) Stimulation and Exploration Needs.

(b) Effective Motivation.

(c) Self-actualisation Motivation.

(a) Stimulation and Exploration Needs:

Human beings as well as animals engage in activities that give them sensory stimulation. It is because of
this need that we view television and movies or listen to music or indulge in dancing.

Lack of sensory stimulation is unpleasant and leads to abnormal behaviour.

A wide variety of experiments on human beings as well as animals have clearly demonstrated that
human beings have a tendency to seek sensory as well as physical stimulation and are motivated to
explore their surrounding and environment in order to know more about their surrounding and satisfy
their curiosity.

Human beings as well as animals like to explore their environment. When an organism actively moves
about and satisfies curiosity, the motive is said to be exploration.

We spend a great amount of time in exploring novel situations and places than exploring familiar ones. It
is this motive that makes us visit different places. In mountaineers and explorers this motive is highly
active.

(b) Effective Motivation:

The concept of effective motivation was given by White. It is a general motive to act competently and
effectively when interacting with the environment, we try to be effective not only in mastering the
environment but also in our social relationship, work and other activities.
A concept somewhat like effective motivation is intrinsic motivation, defined as “a person’s need for
feeling and self determining in dealing with his environment. The concept is so called because the goals
are internal feelings of effectiveness, competence and self determination.

In contrast, extrinsic motivation is, directed towards goals external to the person, such as money or
grades in school. Extrinsic motivations have their use in guiding behaviour in business and in school, but
reliance in them can sometimes stifle intrinsic-motivation and impair perfor-mance.

(c) Self-actualisation Motivation:

This motive was put forward by Maslow. It is related to effectance and intrinsic motivation. Self
actualisation refers to an individual’s need to develop his or her potentialities, in other words, to do
what he or she is capable of doing. “Self-actualised”, then are the people who make the fullest use of
their capabilities.

Self actualisation is thought to be the top need in the hierarchy of needs, or motives. For Maslow human
needs are organised in a hierarchical order with the basic physiological needs at its, base and other at
higher levels. Maslow believed that when the basic needs arc satisfied, other higher needs emerge.

According to Maslow there are four basic needs and one growth need. These need motivate human
behaviour. Needs lower in the hierarchy (i.e. physiological need, safety and security need, etc.) must be
satisfied first. It is only then that the needs higher in the hierarchy will become motivating.

Physiological needs are:

Basic biological needs like hunger thirst etc.

Safety and security needs:

Refers to the need for protection, stability and order. In today’s highly structured and organized society,
these needs are easily satisfied.

Belongingness need:

Refers to the need for affection, affiliation and acceptance. This need can be satisfied only when the
above two needs are fulfilled.

Self-esteem need:

Refers to the need for repu-tation, success, self-respect and prestige.

Self-actualisation:

Is the highest need in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Very few of us reach at the level of self-actualisation.
It refers to the needs for self-fulfilment to realize one’s potentialities and to become what one is capable
of becoming.
Frustation and Conflict of Motives

Frustation is-

1) When things (obstacles) prevent us from reaching the goals towards which we are driven / pulled or
refers to the blocking of behavior directed towards a goal

2) a common emotional response to opposition. Related to anger and disappointment, it arises from the
perceived resistance to the fulfillment of individual will.

Sources of frustration - environmental, personal, conflict-driven.

The word conflict has been derived from a Latin word ‘Conflicts’ which means ‘strike two things at the
same time’. Conflict is an opposition or a tug-of-war between contradictory impulses. According to
Colman ‘A conflict is the anticipated frustration entailed in the choice of either alternative’. Conflicts
occur in the individual when more than one, equally powerful desires or motives present at the same
time and pressurize for immediate satisfaction.

If any one of the motive is weak, it will be suppressed and the stronger motive gains satisfaction.
Conflicts give rise to a lot of tension in the individual, he becomes completely disturbed. Tension
continues until a decision is taken and conflict is resolved.

In total conflict may be a friction between two desires, motives, needs or values, finally the stronger one
will take upper hand. Sometimes, when he cannot resolve the conflicts, the individual will be put into
severe consequences, which he cannot withstand and try to escape from the field itself through
unhealthy means.

Types of Conflicts:

 approach-approach,

 avoidance-avoidance,

 approach-avoidance,

 multiple approach-avoidance

1. Approach-approach conflict:

In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with positive valence which are equally powerful.
For example, a person has two attractive job offers and he has to choose any one of them- tension
arises.
Such conflicts are not so harmful, because after selecting one, the other one automatically subsides or
loses its importance to him. But in some situation choice will be very difficult. For example, a girl has to
choose either loving parents or a boy friend for inter-caste marriage. Such cases are like ‘you cannot
have the cake and eat it too’.

The individual will be psychologically torn and may lose equilibrium.

conflict between two positive goals or goals that are equally attractive at the same time

- usually easy to resolve

- generate little emotional behavior

2. Avoidance-avoidance conflict:

This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the individual is forced to choose one
among two negative goals. In such conflicts, both are unwanted goals, but he cannot keep quiet without
opting also. For example, a woman must work at a job which she dislikes very much or else she has to
remain unemployed.

Here the individual is caught between two repelling threats, fears or situations. When she cannot
choose either of them she may try to escape from the field itself. But the consequences of the escape
may also be harmful. For example, a person who cannot convince the mother or the wife may resort to
Alcohol consumption which is otherwise dangerous or some people may even commit suicide. In the
event of such conflicts when there is no way to escape- some people may find a way to reduce their
tension by developing ‘amnesia’ or defence mechanisms like regression or fantasy.

- involves two negative goals

- the individual is caught between two repelling / undesirable threats, fears or situations

- In addition, there are usually barriers in the periphery of the situation that prevent the
person from leaving the field in order to escape the conflict

- generates many intense emotions (fear, resentment, anger, confusion)

3. Approach-avoidance conflict:

This is also a most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve. Because in this type of conflict a person
is both attracted and repelled by the same goal object. Here the goal object will have both positive and
negative valences.

The positive valence attracts the person, but as he approaches, the negative valence repels him back.
Attraction of the goal and inability to approach it leads to frustration and tension.

For example, a person is approaching to accept a job offer, because the salary is attractive- but at the
same time he is repelled back as the job is very risky. A man wants to marry to lead a family life, but
does not want the responsibilities of family life.

- the individual is attracted to a positive goal, but this goal also has fear / threat (negative valence)
associated with it

- most difficult to resolve

4. Multiple-approach-avoidance conflict:

Some of the situations in life we come across will involve both positive and negative valences of multiple
nature. Suppose a woman is engaged to be married. The marriage to her has positive valences like-
providing security to life and marrying a person whom she loves very much.

Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her because she has to quit her attractive job
and salary, recognition which makes her dependent, the situation builds up tension in her.

The resolution of this conflict depends upon the sum total of both valences. If the sum total of attractive
valence takes upper hand, she will quit the job and go for marriage; otherwise she may reject marriage
and continue the job if the sum total of negative valence is powerful.

- several goals with positive and negative valences involved

- major life decisions

Resolution of Conflicts:

 The conflicts may arise from frustrations, competing roles or goals having positive or negative
valences. Some conflicts are of great danger to mental health of the individual. Hence, it is
necessary to resolve them as quickly as possible. Otherwise, they may be carried on to the
unconscious level, resulting in psychological problems and psychosomatic disorders. The clash
between the urges, desires and motives may go on without being fully aware of it. These forces
may disturb the individual causing lot of mental turmoil.
Conflicts resolution depends upon the type of conflict. The double approach conflict may be easily
resolved by satisfying first one goal which is more important than the other; for instance, a student
attending the class first, then going for food even if hungry. Alternatively, this conflict is resolved by
giving up one of the goals. Obviously, approach-approach conflict does not generate much anxiety,
because the individual is not going to lose much.

The double avoidance conflict is more complex. Since the individual does not want either of the goals,
he experiences more repelling effect as he moves near one goal by rejecting the other. Finally when it is
unbearable, the individual tries to leave the conflict situation, but the other factors in periphery of the
situation makes it difficult.

For example, a student who cannot face examination or failure may try to run away from home, but the
love and affection of the parents or financial problems may prevent him from doing so. Some people
may resort to other means to get relief from tension, such as day dreaming, taking alcohol, chain
smoking, suicide, etc. Totally avoidance by some means is the goal of the individual.

In approach-avoidance conflict, since there is only one goal object, it is very difficult to decide. Here,
compromise with the situation is the only alternative solution to overcome stress resulting from conflict.

Finally, in multiple approach-avoidance conflict the individual has to take a decision depending upon the
sum total of positive or negative valences resulting in selection of goals.

Though these are the coping strategies at individual level, people facing conflicts may help themselves
by examining the causes of conflicts clearly, trying to choose the best alternative, early decision making,
etc.

They have to make use of their creative thinking, divergent reasoning and proper perception of the
situations. Motives may influence our behaviour, but the individual should not be the slave of his
motives, instead he should be the master of his motives, so that he can have control over them. Finally
taking advice from parents, elders, teachers and counsellors will be of great help to cope with and to
resolve conflicts,

 Interpersonal conflict is caused between individuals. This can be resolved through some
strategies such as avoiding, smoothing, forcing, confronting and compromising. Assertive
behaviour and I am ok, you are ok interpersonal orientation help to resolve such conflicts easily.

 The mental conflict below the level of conscious awareness is called unconscious conflict. The
conflicts in conscious level, when repressed, shifts to unconscious. Here the desires which
cannot be satisfied at conscious level are repressed to unconscious level as a mechanism of
escaping. Many of our wants raised by Id may not be socially acceptable. Such wants are
objected by the Ego and the Super ego. Hence these are repressed to unconscious.
The repressed desires or wishes remain active in the unconscious part of our mind. They slowly gather
strength by making alliance with other similar experiences and become stronger. This group of
repressed wants which is working for the satisfaction try to come back to the conscious. This process is
called complex. As soon as complexes are formed they give rise to conflicts in the unconscious. They try
to come back to conscious, but prevented by censor or preconscious. So they try to enter the conscious
level when censor is at rest or sleep. They may appear in the form of dreams, slip of tongue, slip of pen,
motivated forgetting, etc. Sometimes they may appear in the form of peculiar behavior and
mannerisms.
 Module 5

Client Interviewing & Legal Counseling

Counselling is:

The process that occurs when a client and counsellor set aside time in order to explore difficulties which
may include the stressful or emotional feelings of the client.

The act of helping the client to see things more clearly, possibly from a different view-point. This can
enable the client to focus on feelings, experiences or behaviour, with a goal to facilitating positive
change.

Confidentiality is paramount to successful counselling. Professional counsellors will usually explain their
policy on confidentiality, they may, however, be required by law to disclose information if they believe
that there is a risk to life.

Counselling is Not:

 Giving advice.

 Judgemental.

 Attempting to sort out the problems of the client.

 Expecting or encouraging a client to behave in a way in which the counsellor may have behaved
when confronted with a similar problem in their own life.

 Getting emotionally involved with the client.

 Looking at a client's problems from your own perspective, based on your own value system.

According to the American Counseling Association External link (ACA), professional counseling is the
process of building relationships with individuals that empower them to accomplish mental health and
wellness, education, and career goals. It is a collaborative relationship between the counselor and their
client.

Professional counseling can take the form of:

Individual counseling is the most common type of counseling that focuses on the growth and mental
health of an individual.

Couples or marriage counseling focuses on assisting couples in overcoming conflict and working towards
a stronger relationship.

Family counseling involves the different familial dynamics and how they affect the family structure.
Group counseling is the use of group interaction to facilitate growth.

When you become a counselor, you are likely to engage in many of these types of counseling
throughout your therapeutic work.

The Process of Counseling

The traditional counseling process includes the following six important, yet separate components.

Opening: The opening process is perhaps, one of the most important parts of the interaction with your
client. It is your chance to get to know your client and for them to get to know you. It is also where you
will set the tone for the rest of the therapeutic relationship.

Exploring Client Understanding: The exploration process is where you will begin to understand your
client. You will explore their past and evaluate their current concerns. Here, you will together establish
goals and set expectations.

Understanding: Important in developing a strong relationship with your client, you can demonstrate
understanding by using verbal and nonverbal cues, as well as reflections and paraphrases.

Intervention: The intervention process is about choosing the appropriate counseling techniques that will
encourage growth within your client.

Exploring Problems: Exploration is the process of learning more about your client and why they have
come to counseling. Exploration is necessary in truly understanding a client’s thoughts and feelings in
relation to their pressing problem.

Empower to Create Own Solutions: Empowering your client is not about providing them with all the
answers. It is about empowering them, with your counseling skills, to find their own solutions.

Techique

These are some of the most important counseling techniques you are likely to use in your counseling
sessions.

Listening/Observing: Listening is one of the most valuable counseling skills in the therapeutic
relationship. It can be used in three ways:

Attending: Attending is the ability to be physically present for the client. It means giving them your
undivided attention and making appropriate eye contact, mirroring body language, and nodding. These
attending behaviors show your client that you care. In fact, according to Kevin J. Drab, approximately
80% of communication takes place non-verbally External link .
Active listening: Active listening occurs when you are listening with all of your senses. According to the
Perinatal Mental Health Project External link , active listening involves listening with your body, heart,
ears, eyes, and mouth.

Verbal listening: This is a form of showing you are listening through the words that you use. These
verbal cues are used to show attention and to encourage more exploration from the client. This can be
as simple as ‘yes’, or ‘go on’. It can also be in the form of paraphrasing or repeating a word of emotion
that the client has just said.

Asking Questions: Questions are helpful in the therapeutic environment because they allow you to learn
more about your client. The type of questions that you ask will set the tone of the session and the entire
counseling process. Questions occur in two forms.

Closed: A closed question is the practice of asking a question that can be answered as a ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
Closed questions should generally be avoided in the counseling relationship, as they do not encourage
deeper exploration.

Open: An open question is necessary to gather information. An open question is one that cannot be
answered with a simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’ and it requires reflection or exploration on the client’s end. Every
open question should be intentional and therapeutic. According to Susan Mills of the Nielsen Norman
Group External link , the best open ended questions begin with ‘how’ and ‘what’.

Reflection: Reflections are used in the counseling process to accurately describe the client’s state
External link from their verbal or nonverbal cues.

Feelings reflections: Reflections allow clients to hear the feelings they have just expressed. Sometimes
you have to look for the descriptive feeling in a client’s statement. It can also be helpful to look at a
client’s nonverbal feeling cues.

Restating/Rephrasing: Restating and rephrasing can build a stronger client therapist relationship.
Rephrasing a client’s statement allows you to better understand what a client has just said and to gain
further clarity, if you have gotten it wrong.

Affirmation: Affirmation is a form of encouragement that is used to affirm behaviors or life choices.
Affirmation is important for empowering clients External link . A few common affirmations include
affirming progress that a client has made toward a goal or encouraging a client to do what is important
to them.

Empathy: Empathy is the ability to put yourself in someone else’s shoes. It is much more than sympathy
in that you are able to show your understanding of your clients feeling surrounding an experience.

Genuineness: Begin genuine is creating congruence between yourself and your words. Every therapist is
different and will provide a different therapeutic process. It is important to remain genuine in all
counseling techniques and verbal and nonverbal cues.
Unconditional Positive Regard: Demonstrating unconditional positive regard External link is the idea of
accepting your client for who they are. It is a means of expressing warmth and respect.

Counselor Self-Disclosure: This is a tricky counseling skill to maneuver. A general rule to follow is to only
share personal information that is beneficial to the therapeutic process. It might also be used to help the
counselor relate better with their client.

Counseling Theories

Counseling theories are used as a guideline for understanding human nature and to determine which
counseling skills you will use in your counseling sessions.

Psychoanalytic Theory: This theory was originally developed by Sigmund Freud. It supports the idea
that unconscious forces drive human actions. A psychoanalytic therapy session includes skills such as
dream analysis, free association, resistance analysis, and transference analysis. Much of the personality
is thought to have developed in childhood and similarities are identified and explored in the therapeutic
relationship.

Person-Centered Therapy: This theory is a form of psychotherapy originally developed by Carl Rogers.
Sometimes also known as Rogerian therapy, it operates on the assumption that every human being has
the ability to fulfil their full potential. A client-centered approach in the therapeutic relationship involves
self-actualization, empathy, and unconditional positive regard. When practicing person-centered
therapy, the client therapist relationship is very important because the positive interactions are a form
of therapy themselves. The relationship should be supportive and the therapist acts more as a guide
External link , as the client is the expert of their own life.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): CBT is a shorter term approach External link to the therapeutic
process. This hands-on approach lends its practice to the theory that human problems stem from faulty
patterns of thinking. The counseling process primarily involves the challenge of automatic thinking and
often negative thought patterns. It encourages the client to find logic in their way of thinking. The
counselor plays an important role in challenging these thoughts External link .

The Family Systems Model: Family Systems view all human troubles and conflicts as a familial unit. The
theory, originally developed by Murray Bowen, is focused on the idea that family is the primary source
of emotions External link and personality. A family system can be present in many forms, including
structural, strategic, and intergenerational. Common techniques used in the therapeutic process include
the creation of a genogram, family projection activities, emotional triangles, and the differentiation of
self. This counseling theory is often used in marriage and family counseling sessions.

Counseling is about creating strong relationships with your clients that will empower them to obtain
mental health and to fulfill their goals. Through the use of intentional counseling techniques and an
understanding of human nature developed through counseling theories, you can guide your client in
reaching optimal mental health.
Different types of Counselling

There are three main types of counselling. These are:

 Individual work with one counsellor and either one client, a couple or some members of a
family.

 Group work where a counsellor leads or facilitates the group.

 Self-help groups where there is no leader. Members attend on an equal basis for mutual
support.

A group called a support group may have a counsellor as a leader or facilitator, or it may be a self-help
group without a leader. Some self-help groups follow the 12 step program developed by Alcoholics
Anonymous.

No one has found an approach to counselling that will work with everyone in every situation. Some will
work better for you than others. You need to find a counsellor with beliefs compatible with your own.
Self-help groups usually have some common beliefs about the issue they share. The 12 step groups, for
example, share common beliefs about the causes of addiction and the steps necessary for recovery.

No matter how much knowledge a counsellor has, if she can't listen to you and understand you she
won't be able to help you. In fact, some women believe that the personality of the counsellor is more
important than technical skill or training.

A counsellor may have trained in a particular style of counselling but use other types as well. Very few of
the training courses for counsellors include training in cultural awareness or working with an interpreter.
A counsellor's training may not have challenged her racism or sexism or prejudices about lesbians or
women with mental illnesses.

Some counsellors are trained to use the medical model and only look at what is happening within you,
your body or your mind. They ignore things that are happening to you and the ways you're affected by
other people. For example, you may be very stressed by your family situation in which you're being
abused or not getting enough support. You may be told that 'it's just your nerves' and only be given pills
to take. You may have been diagnosed as having a mental illness but find that it is treated as purely a
physical problem when you also need to talk about traumatic experiences you've had. You need to ask
each individual counsellor about her work.

People who offer counselling

Counsellors

People with many different backgrounds work as counsellors. The name is not used to refer to any one
type of training or qualification. There are many training courses in counselling skills.

Psychotherapists
Psychotherapists have a variety of qualifications. They have usually been in counselling or
psychotherapy themselves and can work on personal change at a deeper level.

Community Health Nurses

They are qualified nurses who have completed extra training in community health which includes some
counselling skills.

Family Therapists

They have a variety of qualifications. Members of the Victorian Association of Family Therapists (VAFT)
have at least two years additional training in working with individuals and families.

Feminist Counsellors

There is no specific qualification in Victoria in feminist counselling. They have an awareness of the
specific experiences and pressures on women. You need to ask each individual what she means by
feminist counselling.

Financial Counsellors

They are trained to help sort out finances and renegotiate contracts and other financial obligations.

Social Workers

Social workers have a degree in social work. Some of them do counselling and they use a variety of
approaches.

Psychiatrists

They are medical doctors with extra training in psychiatry. They deal with the diagnosis and treatment of
mental illness. They can prescribe drugs. Some of them use other approaches as well.

Psychologists

They have university qualifications in psychology. Some with extra training are registered psychologists.
They counsel people in a variety of settings using a range of techniques. They do not prescribe drugs.

Psychoanalysts

They can train in several ways which are regulated by the Psychoanalysts Association. Some are medical
doctors. They use a specific process to explore buried feelings from childhood. It can involve several
sessions per week and take many years.

'Support groups are good later on, particularly with incest the secrecy means that it is incredibly
threatening to start doing that in a group it's very exposing. Later on it's great and what you get is
understanding and not feeling isolated and validating your own experiences.'
'I was on medication prescribed by a psychiatrist, but another doctor said that it was bad for me and
took me off it.'

Difference between Legal Counselling and General Counselling

Legal counseling and General counseling are two separate terms that should be used with difference.
They are certainly not the words that have the same meanings. Legal counseling is the advice given on
legal matters or matters related to law and its proceedings. It is important to know that legal counseling
is given by lawyers or advocates who are in need of help regarding matters of dispute, controversy and
the like.

Legal counseling is given as part of law suits or cases pending on the defendant. Plaintiffs also get legal
counseling from their lawyers in matters relating to the case. They are advised as to how to proceed
with the case. Legal counseling is given in the professional mode. In other words it can be said that legal
counseling is looked upon as a part of the profession of a lawyer. It is quite natural that a lawyer is paid
fees for imparting legal counseling to his client.

General counseling on the other hand is counsel or advice given on matters related to general interest
such as education, job placement, career building and the like. It is of two types, namely, the
professional and the service-oriented. In the professional type of general counseling the practitioner
collects fees for guiding a student or a person as to how to build a career, secure a job overseas or plan
for higher studies. General counseling also aims at solving problems of the people related to psychology
such as anxiety, depression, anger, stress, lack of self confidence, conflict between couples and the like.

In the service-oriented type of general counseling the cell forms a part of an educational institution like
a college or a university and it collects no fees since it becomes a part of the institution. This is the
difference between legal and general counseling.

Legal counselling

Legal counselling is legal aid for a client, representing or protecting the client during and prior to the
proceedings, composing legal documents and doing legal procedures in her interest as well as
communicating with third parties and collecting proofs in the interest of the client where necessary.

Legal counsellor’s tasks are (considering the specific needs of the client):

– provide opinions, explanations and answers to the legal questions;

– explain what kind of legal rules the client has to fulfill and analyze the implementation;

– provide suggestions on how to ensure the legitimacy of her actions and the means to protect her
interests and rights;

– compose or take part of composing or formulating legal documents;

– communicate with third persons in the interest of the client including the public authorities and
perform legal actions in the interest of the client or the employer;

– represent and/or protect the customer outside the court, before and during the trial.

As an example legal counselling can include: reaching agreements outside the court in the areas most
relevant to the victims of domestic violence, such as divorce, child support, dividing common property,
termination of co-ownership, custody rights, communicating with children or representing the client in
the court and achieving positive settlements for the client in civil proceedings.

Legal counselling would be conducted by lawyers who have gained a law degree and preferably have
undergone training on violence against women.

How to Conduct a Client Interview

Conducting a successful client interview requires both tact and expertise. Whether you are an attorney
interviewing a potential client in need of legal help or a human services worker interviewing clients and
their family members to assess their needs, the purpose of a client interview is to collect enough
information to help solve the client’s problem. Your job during the interview is to show the client that
you care and have the ability to help him.

1. Review any information about the client that you may already have available. Learning more
about the client beforehand will help you develop an idea of what specifics you need to get
when you meet. You may be able to communicate better with the person as well. Have ready
any paperwork the client needs to complete.

2. Make the client feel comfortable. Building a rapport from the start can get you better results.
Begin by introducing yourself and shaking hands. Engage in a bit of small talk. Use this
opportunity to get to know your client and let her know that she can trust you.

3. Explain that whatever the two of you discuss will be strictly confidential. Do this first before you
start talking about the client’s situation. Show that you intend to work in the client's best
interest by treating him with respect.

4. Gather information about the client’s background and the problem at hand. This will give you an
idea about what kinds of questions you should ask later in the interview process.

5. Ask the client open-ended questions that provide basic information you will need to assist her.
Look at the problem from the client’s perspective and show her that you empathize with her
situation.

6. Allow the client the chance to explain the situation in his own way. Lean slightly forward, take
brief notes and nod your head when appropriate to show the client that you are listening.
Maintain eye contact to let him see that he has your attention and you are interested in what he
is saying.
 7. Ask the client to clarify any statements she makes that are unclear. One way to show a client
that you understand what she is saying is to rephrase a statement and repeat it back. As you get
to know more about the client and her situation, follow up with additional questions that will
provide you with more details.

8. Watch the client’s body language. Pay particular attention to body posture and facial
expressions. Body language can be a clue that a client may not be telling you all that he is really
thinking. Look for signs that he may be more upset by a situation than he lets on.

9. Offer the client a summary of the information you’ve gathered before concluding the interview.
Ask if she has other questions or anything more she would like to add. If she has no final
comments or questions, explain what your next steps will be. Give a time frame in which the
client can expect to hear back from you.

One of the primary functions of a lawyer is counseling the client. Legal profession like medical profession
is a “helping profession.” Traditionally legal counseling was viewed as the lawyer advising the client
regarding the client’s legal problem. In counseling usually the lawyer exercises a great deal of control
over the outcome of counseling. In this whole exercise, the client becomes a passive spectator if not a
mute spectator. This often results in the lawyer taking decisions on behalf of the client. This in fact had
become an acceptable professional practice.

As times change, legal profession also undergoes tremendous change which resulted in the developing
of “client – centered counseling”. Client centered counseling requires that lawyer assist the client in the
way he/she needs rather than the lawyer taking any decisions on behalf of the client. Counseling is all
about giving such information which a client would like to know regarding his legal problem/case. Client
may require such information to take some decision about the course of action he/she may like to take
in future. You must understand that the client approaches the lawyer because the lawyer has the ability
to understand his/her problem.

Unlike other counseling, in legal counseling, the client may be looking at the lawyer for various
remedies. Therefore, the lawyer needs to understand what the client wants. The lawyer is required to
assess client’s goals, expectations and needs. While assessing so, the lawyer should look at the
expectations of the client.

SUCCESSFUL CLIENT COUNSELING STRATEGIES

A chronological explanation of the process

Make the Client Comfortable. Have as many pleasantries as possible to make the client feel comfortable
(“were you able to find parking easily?” or “how did you hear about us?” or “may I take your coat?”);
you can also tell the client a bit about yourselves.

Overview of Session. Tell the client what to expect from this initial consultation session (“have you ever
been to an attorney before?” then “during this session, we’ll ask you all about your problem, we’ll ask
you questions as we go to clarify things, and we’ll offer a preliminary legal analysis of your situation and
provide some suggestions about potential courses of action”).

Pre Flight List -. Keep it short, but you’ve got to go through some preliminary matters:

1. Client’s full name and address (or “did the secretary give you an information sheet to fill out?”).

2. $50 consultation fee; it’s a bit disingenuous to bring up the fee toward the end; if you forget,
you can always catch yourself by asking whether the secretary had explained the fee.

3. Attorney-client privilege; brief explanation to put the client at ease (everything you say will be
kept in this room; please be open and honest so we can offer the best advice possible).

4. Urge the client to stop you if you’re not being clear or if you’re using language that the client
doesn’t understand.

5. Conflict Check: you need to clear with the secretary at the front desk that you are not precluded
from meeting with the client because of a conflict of interest. Simply call (using an imaginary phone or
pretending with a cell phone) the secretary and ask if you have a conflict. Your partner can do this after
you get the client’s name and while you explain some of the above items.

6. These items should not consume too much of the time allotted.

Client’s Story. Start by asking something like, “tell us what brings you here today” or “our secretary
informed us that you have some sort of problem with your neighbor.”

1. You must decide how you will gather all of the facts from the client. While some clients may
need help in maneuvering through the issues, be careful to not be overbearing.

2. Other items of note:

a. Whether or not the opposing party is represented by counsel.

b. Names and addresses of other potentially adverse parties.

c. Whether the client has brought with him/her, possesses, or has access to any documents or
copies of documents discussed.

3. Be sure to elicit the client’s goals.

4. You may want to “recap” the client’s story to fill in gaps, etc. This demonstrates: (a) your
attention to detail; (b) your ability to listen; (c) your desire for clarity and organization; (d) your
trustworthiness in absorbing your client’s problems; and (e) your interest in accurately and zealously
representing your client’s interests.
Analysis:

1. If you are unsure about something, tell the client that you will research an issue rather than
mistaking the law.

2. Be frank with the client regarding the strengths and weaknesses of their case.

3. Lay out the possible routes the client can take (do not forget about “non-traditional”
alternatives such as: contacting the other party by letter, telephone, or in person; negotiation;
mediation; etc.)

Fees. Lay out your fee schedule in open and honest terms:

1. As previously discussed, the initial consultation fee is $50. Further work will be billed at $100
per hour of either lawyer’s time.

2. “We are mindful of the fact that you’d probably like to keep your legal costs down; to that end,
we really do want to help you keep fees to a minimum; there are several things we can do to keep those
costs down: (a) you should send us copies of all documents as soon as possible; (b) you should send us
names and addresses of all parties involved as soon as possible; (c) you might consider preparing for us a
diary or folder of all relevant information related to this matter; (d) we’re not averse to pursuing less
expensive non-legal options or pre-litigation options.”

3. “If you decide not to retain our services, you are entitled to retrieve all documents prepared for
court and any and all research done; they belong to you, personal notes on the case written by
attorneys assigned to your case, however, do not”;

Action Items. You must identify very specific actions steps and you cannot let the client leave until
he/she knows exactly who will call whom and when to expect that call; “I’ll be the one primarily
handling this case, so I’ll give you a call Friday before noon” or “your workplace is right along my daily
commute to the office, so why don’t I swing by tomorrow morning to pick up the deed, the lease, and
the other documents we discussed”; often, it’s a good idea to give the client a piece of paper and ask
them to write down a “to do” list for him/herself (e.g. find contract, copy deed, make diary, get name
and address for the landlord, etc.)

Questions. In the time remaining, always be sure to ask whether or not the client has any final
questions.

Usher Client Out. Conclude with the requisite pleasantries; be creative (business cards, parking
validation, directions back to highway, etc.)