As we know “Energy neither can be created nor it can be destroyed, it can only be transferred from one form to another”. In DC machine, mechanical energy is converted into the electrical energy. During this process, the total input power is not transformed into output power. Some part of input power gets wasted in various forms. The form of this loss may vary from one machine to another. These losses give in rise in temperature of machine and reduce the efficiency of the machine. In DC Machine, there are broadly four main categories of energy loss.
Fig. 3.1 3.1 Iron Loss in Armature (Pi) Due to the rotation of the iron core of the armature in the magnetic flux of the field poles, there are some losses taking place continuously in the core and are known as iron losses or core losses. Iron losses consist of
a. Hysteresis Loss (Ph)
This loss is due to the reversal of magnetisation of the armature core. Every portion of the rotating core passes under N and Spole alternately, thereby attaining S and N polarity respectively. The core undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal after passing under one pair of poles. If P is the number of poles and N, the armature speed in rpm, then the frequency of magnetic reversals is f = PN/120
The loss depends upon the volume and grade of iron, maximum value of flux density Bmax and frequency of magnetic reversals. For normal flux densities (i.e. upto 1,5 Wb/m2) , hysteresis loss is given by Steinmetz formula. According to this formula, Ph = khB1.6max f V in Watt where: V = volume of the core in m3 kh = steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
Value of kh for: Good dynamo sheet steel = 502 J/m3 Silicon steel = 191 J/m3 Hard cast steel = 7040 J/m3 Cast steel = 750 - 3000 J/m3 Cast Iron = 2700 - 4000J/m3
b. Eddy Current Loss (Pe)
When the armature core rotates, it also cuts the magnetic flux. Hence, an emf is induced in the body of the core according to the laws of electromagnetic induction. This emf though small, sets up large current in the body of he core due to its small resistance. This current is known as eddy current . The power loss due to the flow of this current is known as eddy current loss. This loss would be considerable is solid iron core is used. It is found that eddy current loss Pe is given by the relation:
Pe =ke B2maxf2 t2 V2 in Watts
where: Bmax = maximum flux density t = thickness of each lamination f = frequency of magnetic reversals V = volume of the armature core
3.2 Copper Losses or Electrical Losses in DC Machine or Winding Loss (Pcu)
The copper losses are the winding losses taking place during the current flowing through the winding. These losses occur due to the resistance in the winding. In DC machine, there are only two winding, armature and field winding. Thus copper losses categories in three parts; armature loss, field winding loss, and brush contact resistance loss. The copper losses are proportional to square of the current flowing through the winding.
a. Armature Copper Loss in DC Machine
b. Armature copper loss = Ia2Ra where: Ia is armature current Ra is armature resistance.
These losses are about 30% of the total full load losses. c. Field Winding Copper Loss in DC Machine
Field winding copper loss = If2Rf
where: If is field current Rf is field resistance.
These losses are about 25% theoretically, but practically it is constant.
d. Brush Contact Resistance Loss in DC Machine
Brush contact loss attributes to resistance between the surface of brush and commutator. It is not a loss which could be calculated separately as it is a part of variable losses. Generally, it contributes in both the types of copper losses. So, they are factor in the calculation of above losses.
3.3 Mechanical Losses in DC Machine
The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine are called mechanical losses. These losses occur due to friction in the moving parts of the machine like bearing, brushes etc, and windage losses occurs due to the air inside the rotating coil of the machine. These losses are usually very small about 15% of full load loss.
3.4 Stray Load Losses in DC Machine
There are some more losses other than the losses which have been discussed above. These losses are called stray-load losses. These miscellaneous losses are due to the short-circuit current in the coil undergoing commutation, distortion of flux due to armature and many more losses which are difficult to find. These losses are difficult to determine. However, they are taken as 1% of the whole load power output.
Note: Armature copper loss ( Ia2Ra ) is known as variable loss because it varies with the load current.
Total Losses = Iron Losses + Copper Losses + Mechanical Losses+ Stray Losses
Total Losses = Variable Losses + Constant Losses
Total Losses = Variable Losses + Constant Losses
Power Stages Various power stages in the case of a dc generator are shown in Fig. 3.2:
Fig. 3.2
Efficiency Efficiency is simply defined as the ratio of output power to the input power. Sample Problem 3.1 A shunt generator delivers 195 A at terminal p.d. of 250 V. the armature resistance and shunt field resistance are 0.02 Ω and 50 Ω respectively. The iron and friction losses equal 950W. Find: a. E.M.F. generated b. Cu losses c. Output of the prime mover d. Commercial, mechanical and electrical efficiency
Sample Problem 3.2
A shunt generator has a F.L. current of 196 A at 220V. the stray losses are 720W and the shunt field coil resistance is 55 Ω. If it has a F.L. efficiency of 88%, find the armature resistance. Sample Problem 3.3 A 4-pole d.c. generator is delivering 20A to a load of 10 Ω. If the armature resistance is 0.5 Ω and the shunt field resistance is 50 Ω, calculate the induced e.m.f. and the efficiency of the machine. Allow a drop of 1 V per brush.
Sample Problem 3.4
In a d.c. machine the total iron loss is 8 kW at its speed and excitation. If excitation remains the same, but the speed is reduced by 25%, the total iron loss is found to be 5 kW. Calculate the hysteresis and eddy current loss at; a. Full speed b. Half of the rated speed Sample problem 3.5 The hysteresis and eddy current losses in a d.c. machine running at 1000 rpm are 250 W and 100 W respectively. If the flux remains constant, at what speed will the total iron losses be halved?
Sample Problem 3.6
A long shunt compound generator gives a 240V at field output of 100A. The resistance of armature including brushes is 0.2 Ω, series field is 0.03 Ω, interpole resistance is 0.025 Ω, shunt field is 60 Ω. the iron loss at FL is 1000 W, friction and windage loss is 500W. Calculate the FL efficiency. Sample Problem 3.7 A shunt generator supplies 100 A at 200V. The armature and shunt resistance are 0.025Ω and 100Ω, respectively. If the copper losses is equal to iron losses at this load, find the brake horse power of the engine driving the generator.
Sample Problem 3.8
A shunt generator delivers 195 A at terminal voltage of 250 V. the armature resistance, shunt field resistance of 0.02 Ω, 50 Ω, respectively. The iron and friction losses equal to 950 W. What is the overall efficiency at: a. Full load b. Three quarter load Sample Problem 3.9 The winding of short shunt compound generator have the following resistances: armature, shunt field, interpole and series field are 0.5Ω, 253 Ω, 0.2 Ω and 0.15Ω, respectively. When the generator delivers FL of 20kW at 500V, its total drop is 2 V. the sum of iron and friction losses is 800 W. What is the full load efficiency?
Sample Problem 3.10
A20 kW, 200V shunt generator is operated at rated load. If the driving engine is developing 30 Hp, determine iron and friction losses. Armature resistance is 0.05Ω and shunt field resistance is 50 Ω. Condition for Maximum Efficiency The DC generator efficiency is perpetual but varies with load. Think through a shunt generator supplying a load current IL at a terminal voltage V.
Po = VIL Pin = Po + Ptotal losses = VIL + Variable losses+Constant losses = VIL + I2a Ra + I2fRf + SPL
The shunt field current If is generally small as compared to IL and, therefore, can be neglected. ( ∵ IL ≈ Ia ) Generator input = VTIa + I2a Ra + I2fRf + SPL
Now Efficiency η = output / Input
= VTIa / (VTIa + I2a Ra + I2fRf + SPL)
= 1 / {1+[(IaRa/VT)+(I2fRf + SPL/VTIa)]}
The efficiency is always maximum when the denominator is minimum i.e.,
d/dIa {( IaRa/VT) + (SPL + I2fRf +VTI2a)} = 0
(Ra/VT) – (2fRf + SPL/ VTI2a) = 0
Ra/VT = I2fRf + SPL /VTI2a
I2aRa = I2fRf + SPL
i.e. Variable loss = Constant loss
The armature current corresponding to maximum efficiency Iamax is given by;
Iamax = √ (I2fRf + SPL)/Ra
Therefore, the efficiency of a DC generator will always be maximum once the load current is such that variable loss is the same to the constant loss.
Thus the efficiency increases with increase in load current, reaches a maximum value when load current equals the value given by the above equation and then starts decreasing. Efficiency curve The efficiency of a machine is different at different values of power output. As the output increases, the efficiency increases till it reaches a maximum value. As the output is further increased, the efficiency starts decreasing. A graph of efficiency vs. output is called efficiency curve. The machines are so designed as to give maximum efficiency at or near the rated output of the machine. Since the generators operate at a constant terminal voltage VT, the efficiency curve of a generator can be drawn between efficiency and load current I. Fig. 3.3 shows the deviation of efficiency with load current.
Fig. 3.3 Sample Problem 3.11 The following information is given in connection with a 10 kW, 220 V long shunt compound generator: Rf = 120Ω, Ra= 0.4 Ω, Rse = 0.03 Ω, SPL = 400 W, VBC= 3V. a. Calculate the efficiency at: i. Full load ii. Half load b. Calculate the power output of the generator at maximum efficiency. c. Maximum efficiency Sample Problem 3.12 The long shunt compound generator delivers 65 kW, 250V, 1500 rpm, Ra = 0.03Ω, Rse = 0.07 Ω, Rf = 50 Ω, SPL = 1020W, VBC at full load is 2 V. Calculate the efficiency at HL and FL. Determine also the maximum efficiency and the output power of the generator at which this occurs. Assume VBC at HL is 1 V.
Sample Problem 3.13
A 30 kW series generator has an efficiency of 88% when operating at rated load. If the stray power loss is 15% of the full load loses, calculate the maximum efficiency of the generator. Assume that the stray power loss is constant and the other loss vary as the square of the load. Sample Problem 3.14 250 V shunt generator has a full load armature current of 40 A. Under this conditon the losses are given as : Friction and windage losses = 200 W, shunt field copper losses = 100 W, core losses = 200W, brush contact = 120 W and armature copper losses = 400W. for the operation of maximum efficiency, calculate: a. Iamax b. ILmax c. Pomax d. max. efficiency
