Steps of cellular respiration

Cellular respiration is a metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose and produces ATP. The stages
of cellular respiration include glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid or Krebs cycle, and
oxidative phosphorylation.
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Introduction
Cellular respiration is one of the most elegant, majestic, and fascinating
metabolic pathways on earth. At the same time, it’s also one of the most
complicated. When I learned about it for the first time, I felt like I had
tripped and fallen into a can of organic-chemistry-flavored alphabet
soup!

Luckily, cellular respiration is not so scary once you get to know it. Let's
start by looking at cellular respiration at a high level, walking through
the four major stages and tracing how they connect up to one another.

Steps of cellular respiration

 Overview of the steps of cellular respiration.

1. Glycolysis. Six-carbon glucose is converted into two pyruvates (three

carbons each). ATP and NADH are made. These reactions take place in
the cytosol.

2. Pyruvate oxidation. Pyruvate travels into the mitochondrial matrix and is

converted to a two-carbon molecule bound to coenzyme A, called acetyl
CoA. Carbon dioxide is released and NADH is made.
3. Citric acid cycle. The acetyl CoA combines with a four-carbon molecule
and goes through a cycle of reactions, ultimately regenerating the four-
carbon starting molecule. ATP (or, in some cases, GTP), NADH, and
FADH_2 are made, and carbon dioxide is released. These reactions take
place in the mitochondrial matrix.

4. Oxidative phosphorylation. The NADH and FADH_2 produced in other

steps deposit their electrons in the electron transport chain in the inner
mitochondrial membrane. As electrons move down the chain, energy is
released and used to pump protons out of the matrix and into the
intermembrane space, forming a gradient. The protons flow back into the
matrix through an enzyme called ATP synthase, making ATP. At the end
of the electron transport chain, oxygen accepts electrons and takes up
protons to form water.

During cellular respiration, a glucose molecule is gradually broken down

into carbon dioxide and water. Along the way, some ATP is produced
directly in the reactions that transform glucose. Much more ATP,
however, is produced later in a process called oxidative phosphorylation.
Oxidative phosphorylation is powered by the movement of electrons
through the electron transport chain, a series of proteins embedded in
the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

These electrons come originally from glucose and are shuttled to the
electron transport chain by electron carriers \text{NAD}^+NAD+start
text, N, A, D, end text, start superscript, plus, end
superscript and \text{FAD}FADstart text, F, A, D, end text, which
become \text{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D, H, end
text and \text{FADH}_2FADH2start text, F, A, D, H, end text, start
subscript, 2, end subscript when they gain electrons. To be clear, this is
 what's happening in the diagram above when it says ++plus \text
{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D, H, end
text or ++plus \text{FADH}_2FADH2start text, F, A, D, H, end text, start
subscript, 2, end subscript. The molecule isn't appearing from scratch,
it's just being converted to its electron-carrying form:

\text {NAD}^+NAD+start text, N, A, D, end text, start superscript, plus,

end superscript ++plus 2 e^-2e−2, e, start superscript, minus, end
superscript ++plus 2 \text H^+2H+2, start text, H, end text, start
superscript, plus, end superscript \rightarrow→right arrow \text
{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D, H, end text ++plus \text H^+H+start
text, H, end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript

\text {FAD}FADstart text, F, A, D, end text ++plus 2e^-2e−2, e, start

superscript, minus, end superscript ++plus 2 \text H^+2H+2, start text, H,
end text, start superscript, plus, end superscript \rightarrow→right
arrow \text {FADH}_2FADH2start text, F, A, D, H, end text, start
subscript, 2, end subscript

To see how a glucose molecule is converted into carbon dioxide and how
its energy is harvested as ATP and \text{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D,
H, end text//slash\text{FADH}_2FADH2start text, F, A, D, H, end text,
start subscript, 2, end subscript in one of your body's cells, let’s walk step
by step through the four stages of cellular respiration.

1. Glycolysis. In glycolysis, glucose—a six-carbon sugar—undergoes a

series of chemical transformations. In the end, it gets converted into two
molecules of pyruvate, a three-carbon organic molecule. In these
reactions, ATP is made, and \text{NAD}^+NAD+start text, N, A, D, end
text, start superscript, plus, end superscript is converted
to \text{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D, H, end text.
2. Pyruvate oxidation. Each pyruvate from glycolysis goes into the
mitochondrial matrix—the innermost compartment of mitochondria.
There, it’s converted into a two-carbon molecule bound to Coenzyme A,
known as acetyl CoA. Carbon dioxide is released
and \text{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D, H, end text is generated.

3. Citric acid cycle. The acetyl CoA made in the last step combines with a
four-carbon molecule and goes through a cycle of reactions, ultimately
regenerating the four-carbon starting molecule.
ATP, \text{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D, H, end text,
and \text{FADH}_2FADH2start text, F, A, D, H, end text, start subscript, 2,
end subscript are produced, and carbon dioxide is released.

4. Oxidative phosphorylation. The \text{NADH}NADHstart text, N, A, D,

H, end text and \text{FADH}_2FADH2start text, F, A, D, H, end text, start
subscript, 2, end subscript made in other steps deposit their electrons in
the electron transport chain, turning back into their "empty" forms
(\text{NAD}^+NAD+start text, N, A, D, end text, start superscript, plus,
end superscript and \text{FAD}FADstart text, F, A, D, end text). As
electrons move down the chain, energy is released and used to pump
protons out of the matrix, forming a gradient. Protons flow back into the
matrix through an enzyme called ATP synthase, making ATP. At the end
of the electron transport chain, oxygen accepts electrons and takes up
protons to form water.

Glycolysis can take place without oxygen in a process

called fermentation. The other three stages of cellular respiration—
pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation—
require oxygen in order to occur. Only oxidative phosphorylation uses
oxygen directly, but the other two stages can't run without oxidative
phosphorylation.

Each stage of cellular respiration is covered in more detail in other

articles and videos on the site. Try watching the overview video, or jump
straight to an article on a particular stage by using the links above.

Bear, Robert, David Rintoul, Bruce Snyder, Martha Smith-Caldas,

Christopher Herren, and Eva Horne. "Overview of Cellular Respiration."
Principles of Biology. OpenStax CNX. Last modified May 13,
2016. http://cnx.org/contents/24nI-
KJ8@24.18:R_v3DfP5@9/Overview-of-Cellular-Respirati.

OpenStax College, Anatomy & Physiology. "Carbohydrate Metabolism."

OpenStax CNX. Last modified February 24,
2014. http://cnx.org/contents/FPtK1zmh@6.17:nWir-
Uwu@3/Carbohydrate-Metabolism.

Raven, P. H., G. B. Johnson, K. A. Mason, J. B. Losos, and S. R. Singer. "How

Cells Harvest Energy." In Biology, 122-46. 10th ed. AP Edition. New York,
NY: McGraw-Hill, 2014.

Reece, J. B., L. A. Urry, M. L. Cain, S. A. Wasserman, P. V. Minorsky, and R.

B. Jackson. "Cellular Respiration and Fermentation." In Campbell Biology,
162-84. 10th ed. San Francisco, CA: Pearson, 2011.

Chemiosmosis
The actual production of ATP in cellular respiration takes place through the process of
chemiosmosis (see Chapter 4). Chemiosmosis involves the pumping of protons through
special channels in the membranes of mitochondria from the inner to the outer
compartment. The pumping establishes a proton (H+) gradient. After the gradient is
established, protons diffuse down the gradient through a transport protein called ATP
synthase. The flow of hydrogens catalyze the pairing of a phosphate with ADP, forming
ATP.

The energy production of cellular respiration is substantial. Most biochemists agree that
36 molecules of ATP can be produced for each glucose molecule during cellular
respiration as a result of the Krebs cycle reactions, the electron transport system, and
chemiosmosis. Also, two ATP molecules are produced through glycolysis, so the net
yield is 38 molecules of ATP. These ATP molecules may then be used in the cell for its
needs. However, the ATP molecules cannot be stored for long periods of time, so
cellular respiration must constantly continue in order to regenerate the ATP molecules
as they are used. Each ATP molecule is capable of releasing 7.3 kilocalories of energy
per mole.

Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Definition Aerobic respiration uses oxygen. Anaerobic

respiration is
respiration
without
oxygen; the
process uses
a respiratory
electron
transport
chain but
does not use
oxygen as
the electron
acceptors.

Cells that use it Aerobic respiration occurs in most cells. Anaerobic

respiration
occurs
mostly in
prokaryotes

Amount of energy released High (36-38 ATP molecules) Lower

(Between 36-
 Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

2 ATP
molecules)

Stages Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Glycolysis,

Chain Krebs cycle,
Electron
Transport
Chain

Products Carbon dioxide, water, ATP Carbon

dixoide,
reduced
species, ATP

Site of reactions Cytoplasm and mitochondria Cytoplasm

and
mitochondria

Reactants glucose, oxygen glucose,

electron
acceptor (not
oxygen)

combustion complete Incomplete

Production of Ethanol or Lactic Acid Does not produce ethanol or lactic acid Produce
ethanol or
lactic acid
 Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Definition Aerobic respiration uses oxygen. Anaerobic

respiration is
respiration
without
oxygen; the
process uses
a respiratory
electron
transport
chain but
does not use
oxygen as
the electron
acceptors.

Cells that use it Aerobic respiration occurs in most cells. Anaerobic

respiration
occurs
mostly in
prokaryotes

Amount of energy released High (36-38 ATP molecules) Lower

(Between 36-
2 ATP
molecules)

Stages Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron Transport Glycolysis,

Chain Krebs cycle,
Electron
Transport
Chain

Products Carbon dioxide, water, ATP Carbon

dixoide,
reduced
species, ATP
 Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration

Site of reactions Cytoplasm and mitochondria Cytoplasm

and
mitochondria

Reactants glucose, oxygen glucose,

electron
acceptor (not
oxygen)

combustion complete Incomplete

Production of Ethanol or Lactic Acid Does not produce ethanol or lactic acid Produce
ethanol or
lactic acid

3 Written questions

1. The Kreb's cycle occurs in the _______________ of the mitochondria.

TYPE THE ANSWER

2. The ETC occurs in the ______________ of the mitochondria.

TYPE THE ANSWER

3. The Kreb's cycle and the ETC are both _______________ because they require oxygen to
operate.

TYPE THE ANSWER

3 Matching questions

1.
glucose

2.
anaerobic

3.
glycolysis

A. Glycolysis is considered to be ___________________ because it does not require oxygen.

B. Glycolysis is the process that breaks down a molecule of ______________ into two pyruvic acid
molecules.

C. Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid during the process of ____________________.

2 Multiple choice questions

1. The process of _________________ uses electrons to produce 32 molecules of ATP.

1. electron transport chain

2. glycolysis

3. aerobic

4. anaerobic

2. ______________________________________ is a process that begins with a glucose molecule

that is used to break down into carbon dioxide and 36 ATP molecules.

1. cellular respiration

2. pyruvic acid

3. Kreb's cycle

4. electron transport chain

2 True/False questions

1. Pyruvic acid enters the _____________________________ to be converted to carbon dioxide

and produces a net gain of 2 ATP. → pyruvic acid
 True False

2. _____________________________ is a product of glycolysis and a reactant of the Kreb's

cycle. → cellular respiration

True False

Written questions

1. The Kreb's cycle occurs in the _______________ of the mitochondria.

INCORRECT

No answer given

THE ANSWER

matrix

2. The ETC occurs in the ______________ of the mitochondria.

INCORRECT

No answer given

THE ANSWER

cristae

3. The Kreb's cycle and the ETC are both _______________ because they require oxygen to
operate.

INCORRECT

No answer given

THE ANSWER

aerobic

3 Matching questions

1. glucose

INCORRECT

No answer given

THE ANSWER

B. Glycolysis is the process that breaks down a molecule of ______________ into two pyruvic acid
molecules.
 2. anaerobic

INCORRECT

No answer given

THE ANSWER

A. Glycolysis is considered to be ___________________ because it does not require oxygen.

3. glycolysis

INCORRECT

No answer given

THE ANSWER

C. Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid during the process of ____________________.

A. Glycolysis is considered to be ___________________ because it does not require oxygen.

B. Glycolysis is the process that breaks down a molecule of ______________ into two pyruvic acid
molecules.

C. Glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid during the process of ____________________.

2 Multiple choice questions

1. The process of _________________ uses electrons to produce 32 molecules of ATP.

1. No answer given

2. electron transport chain

3. glycolysis

4. aerobic

5. anaerobic

2. ______________________________________ is a process that begins with a glucose molecule

that is used to break down into carbon dioxide and 36 ATP molecules.

1. No answer given

2. cellular respiration

3. pyruvic acid

4. Kreb's cycle
 5. electron transport chain

2 True/False questions

1. Pyruvic acid enters the _____________________________ to be converted to carbon dioxide

and produces a net gain of 2 ATP. → pyruvic acid

INCORRECT

True

THE ANSWER

False

It should be → Kreb's cycle

2. _____________________________ is a product of glycolysis and a reactant of the Kreb's

cycle. → cellular respiration

INCORRECT

True

THE ANSWER

False

It should be → pyruvic acid