PIA Training Centre Module 5 – DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS

Category – A/B1 Sub Module 5.6 – Basic Computer Structure

MODULE 5
Sub Module 5.6

BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE

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Contents

COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY .............................................................. 1

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE ............................................................ 7
COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY AS APPLIED IN AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS
............................................................................................................ 11

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INTRODUCTION
A computer is an electronic device, which can accept and
process data by carrying out a set of stored instructions in
sequence. This sequence of mathematical and logic operations
is known as a Program.
The computer is constructed from electronic circuits, which
operate on an ON/OFF principle. The data and instructions,
used in the computer, must therefore be in logical form.
The computer uses the digits "1" and "0" of the binary
numbering system to represent "OFF" and "ON". All data and
program information must, therefore, be converted into binary
form, before being fed into the computer circuitry.
One of the most important characteristics of a computer is that it
is a general-purpose device, capable of being used in a number
of different applications. By changing the stored program, the
same machine can be used to implement totally different tasks.
Modern aircraft use increasingly sophisticated avionic systems
which involve the use of microprocessor-based computer
systems. These systems combine hardware and software and
are capable of processing large amounts of data in a very small
time.
In general, aircraft computers only have to perform one
particular task so that fixed programs can be used.
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A ‘computer’ today implies much more than just doing the
difficult arithmetic manipulations for the user. Computers can
receive inputs automatically, process them according to the way
it has been instructed through a program, take decisions, and
drive outputs. A complicated industrial process or a safety-
critical aircraft flight control system could be entirely handled by
a computer with minimal human interaction.
The main concern of this module is to establish the construction
and operation of a new generation digital computer used in
general applications or aviation-specific applications.
Somehow, analogue computers and analogue-mechanical
hybrid computers too are in use today in certain applications.
COMPUTER TERMINOLOGY
 Bit: A binary digit is given the name bit. A bit is the basic
unit of information in computing and digital communications.
A bit can have only one of two values, and may therefore be
physically implemented with a two-state device. The most
common representation of these values are 0 and1.
 Byte: A group of eight bits, operated on as a unit, is
referred to as a byte.
 Nibble: Groups of four bits are referred to as nibble.
 Word: The basic unit of data that can be manipulated as an
entity is often referred to as word. Words can be any
convenient length but 16, 32 and 64-bit words are common.
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 Hardware: The physical components and electronic circuits
that comprise a computer are known as its hardware. These
circuits are capable of performing only a small number of
operations. Any additional operational capability of the
computer must be accomplished by programming.
 Program: A program is an organized collection of
elementary computer operations, called instructions, which
manipulate information called data.
 Software: The programs that are written for a computer are
called its software.
 Firmware: An intermediate form between hardware and
software is firmware, which consists of programs embedded
in electronic devices during manufacture.
In electronic systems and computing, firmware is the
combination of persistent memory and program code and
data stored in it. Typical examples of devices containing
firmware are embedded systems (such as traffic lights,
consumer appliances, and digital watches), computers,
computer peripherals, mobile phones, and digital cameras.
The firmware contained in these devices provides the
control program for the device. Firmware is held in non-
volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, or flash
memory. Changing the firmware of a device may rarely or
never be done during its economic lifetime; some firmware
memory devices are permanently installed and cannot be
changed after manufacture.
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 Peripherals: The additional devices connected to a
computer are known as input/output devices or peripherals.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The central processing unit (CPU) is the nucleus of a computer.
In fact, it is the part that is capable of doing the computations.
Further, it controls the rest of the modules comprising the
computer. (Yet it wouldn’t be appropriate to call the CPU the
‘brain’ of the computer as the main memory lies outside!)
When the central processing unit (CPU) is enclosed in a chip
using large-scale integration (LSI) or a higher level of
integration, it is termed a microprocessor. A computer built with
a microprocessor is called a microcomputer.
The CPU has got two sub-modules: the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and the control unit.
 Integrated Circuit (IC):
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also
referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip) is a set of electronic
circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor material,
normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete
circuit made from independent components.
Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment
today and have revolutionized the world of electronics.
Computers, mobile phones, and other digital home appliances
are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies,
made possible by the low cost of producing integrated circuits.
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ICs can be made very compact, having up to several billion  Memory:

transistors and other electronic components in an area the size
of a fingernail. The width of each conducting line in a circuit can
be made smaller and smaller as the technology advances.
The memory unit is used for the storage of binary coded
information. Basically, information consists of instructions and
data where:
 Instructions are the coded pieces of information that
direct the activities of the CPU.
 Data is the information that is processed by the CPU.

The memory hardware contains a large number of cells or

locations. Each location may store a single binary digit or a
group of binary digits. The cells are grouped so that a complete
binary word is always accessed. Word length varies typically
from 4-bits up to 64-bits depending upon machine size. Each
location in the memory is identified by a unique address, which
then allows access to the word. Consequently, to obtain
information from the memory, the correct address must be
placed onto the address bus.

There are fundamentally two types of memory - primary

memory and secondary memory. Primary memory is essential;
no computer can operate without this. Secondary memory is
necessary to supplement or back-up the primary memory on
Figure 5.6.1
large computing systems; hence, it is often called backing
memory.

A large computer will generally require a large amount of

primary memory, plus a substantial amount of secondary or
backing memory. Primary memories are fast, but have limited
capacity; typically only hundreds of K-bits (1K bit = 1024 bits)
are available per IC. Backing memories usually employ
magnetic technology (magnetic disc or tape). Their capacities

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start in the megabit range, but because they are basically
sequential devices, access time is slow, especially if the
information required is at the wrong end of hundreds of metres
of tape
The use of semi-conductor memory elements (bistables) has
been made possible by the use of large scale integrated circuits
(LSI) which provide reliability, ease of application and good
storage capacity per unit volume. There are two types of semi-
conductor primary memory: ROM (Read Only Memory) and
RAM (Random Access memory). Both types employ solid state
circuitry, and are packaged in Integrated Circuit (IC) form.
 ROM:
As would be expected, information can only be read from this
memory unit. Normally the information is fixed into the memory
during manufacture. It is a non-volatile memory; that is, if
power is removed, the contents remain unaltered.
 RAM:
This is read/write memory. Information can be written into the
memory (overwriting the old), or copied out from the memory.
RAM’s are usually volatile - that is, if power is removed, the
information will be lost unless battery back up is available.
Information may be written into the memory in any location;
hence the term random access (as opposed to a serial access
memory such as magnetic tape). These are often referred to as
“Read/Write” memories.
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TYPES OF ROM
 Programmable ROM (PROM):
The user can program a PROM after purchase. Each memory
bit element in the PROM contains a nichrome or silicon link that
acts as a fuse. The user can selectively 'butt out' or 'blow' these
fuses by applying pulses of current to the appropriate pins of the
IC. A memory element with an non-ruptured fuse stores a 1,
whereas one with a ruptured fuse stores a 0. The programming
is irreversible, so it must be right first time.
PROMs are capable of high operating speeds, but consume a
relatively large amount of power. However, since they are non-
volatile, they can be switched off when not being accessed.
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM):
These memory devices can be programmed, erased and then
reprogrammed by the user as often as required. In some
devices the information can be erased by flooding them with
ultraviolet light, whilst in others, voltages are applied to the
appropriate pins of the device.
 Electrical Altered Read Only Memory (EAROM):
This memory device combines the non-volatility of the ROM
with the electrically alterable characteristic of the RAM. It is,
therefore, considered as a non-volatile RAM.
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As part of a general-purpose computer ROM’s may be used to

store information which is unchanged over most, if not all, of the
operational life of the equipment. If all the hardware of a
computer were wired in using ROM’s then we would no longer
have a general-purpose computer and hence have lost the
inherent flexibility. However, saving in circuitry and some
degree of flexibility can be achieved by having interchangeable
ROM’s mounted on printed circuit boards (PCB) which can be
removed from and fitted to the computer. A more practical
solution is to have some other means of storing program
software, in the case of PCs on a hard disk drive for example.

 Flash Memories:

These are high-density read/write memories that are non-

volatile. Data can be stored indefinitely without power. They are
also high-density devices (large bit storage for their size). As
manufacturing technology improves and prices fall, they are
becoming much more common, being used in place of hard disk
drives in many portable applications (e.g. digital cameras, key
ring memories).

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Figure 5.6.2: PDP – Semiconductor Electronic Computer

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Category – A/B1 Sub Module 5.6 – Basic Computer Structure

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

The basic components of a computer system are shown in

Figure 5.6.3.

It has five basic parts: arithmetic logic unit, control unit, memory,
input devices, and output devices.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) is the nucleus of a computer.

In fact, it is the part that is capable of doing the computations.
Further, it controls the rest of the modules comprising the
computer. (Yet it wouldn’t be appropriate to call the CPU the
‘brain’ of the computer as the main memory lies outside!)

When the central processing unit (CPU) is enclosed in a chip

using large-scale integration (LSI) or a higher level of
integration, it is termed a microprocessor. A computer built with
a microprocessor is called a microcomputer.

The CPU has got two sub-modules: the arithmetic logic unit
(ALU) and the control unit.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

The arithmetic logic unit has got combinational logic circuits,

which can do the mathematical operations. Also it carries
sequential logic circuits required to hold data bits and transfer
Figure 5.6.3: Personal Computer with Peripherals
them in and out.

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Control Unit
The function of the control unit is to coordinate and oversee the
operation of the computer.
Cache Memory
Cache is a small memory located in the microprocessor for the
purpose of holding recently accessed data. It is more likely that
the same data would be repeatedly used for some time in the
continued execution of the program. Because the data are
available in the locality of the central processing unit, it can be
accessed fast. A greater time would be needed if the same data
were to be fetched from main memory. This feature helps in
speeding up the computer operation. Nevertheless it is costlier
to have memory on a microprocessor chip than to have the
same on a separate chip in the main memory block.
Main Memory
Main memory is a location where the digital information required
for the computer operation is held. This could be termed as a
sub-storage unit whose hardware is semiconductor integrated
circuits.
By contrast, storage of bulk data is on external hardware whose
access is through input/output devices. These are typically not
semiconductor devices.
The memory of a computer contains two types of information:
data and instructions. An operand is an example of data. The
instructions tell the CPU what to do with the operand: add,
subtract, multiply, divide, move etc.
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Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random access memory consists of registers that can hold data
words. The name random access implies direct accessibility of
a memory location. But it is generally accepted as a volatile
read-write memory. When the power is removed from the
computer, the RAM loses its data – this is why it is called
volatile.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read-only memory does not allow writing into the memory, and
it is a non-volatile memory. An example of a ROM application is
the basic input-output system (BIOS), which contains the
instructions to be carried out at the start-up of the computer.
RAM is not useful at this stage because it cannot hold any
instructions in the absence of power.
Bus Architecture
A bus is a set of lines over which information is transferred from
any of several sources to any of several destinations.
The typical bus structure of a computer consists of three buses:
address bus, data bus, and control bus.
The address bus is unidirectional i.e., information flows in only
one direction. This bus is used to transmit an address from the
microprocessor to the memory, input or output units.
The data bus is bi-directional i.e., information can flow in either
direction on these lines. Data bus is the path for data flow.
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The control bus is the set of lines over which the signals travel
to maintain timing and status information. Some of these lines
are bidirectional; others are unidirectional.
Programs
A program is a collection of instructions aimed at getting a
desirable result.
Operating system is a program that allows the coordination of
various input/output devices for the purpose of executing
application programs.
The programs and data are first stored in the main memory unit
via the input interface. The individual instructions of the program
are then automatically entered, one at a time, into the control
unit where they are interpreted (decoded) and executed.
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The execution usually requires data to be entered into the
arithmetic logic unit (ALU) where the circuitry manipulating the
data is contained. During the course of computation or its
completion, the derived results are sent to at the output
interface.
Clock
Maintaining synchronization between the various computer units
is another function of the control unit. This is achieved by
means of a clock. Several clock periods are needed to handle
an instruction. In general, an instruction must be fetched from
memory, decoded, and then executed. The fetching, decoding,
and executing of an instruction is broken down into several time
intervals. Each of these intervals, involving one or more clock
periods, is called a machine cycle. The entire period of time
associated with the fetching, decoding, and executing of an
instruction is called an instruction cycle.
Power Supply
The computer needs a DC power supply. It should be able to
provide all the voltage levels required by the internal circuitry of
the computer.
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Figure 5.6.4
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COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY AS APPLIED IN AIRCRAFT
SYSTEMS
Since the mid-1960s, computer technology has been continually
developed to the point at which aircraft and engine designs can
be simulated and tested in myriad variations under a full
spectrum of environmental conditions prior to construction. As a
result, practical consideration may be given to a series of
aircraft configurations, which, while occasionally and usually
unsuccessfully attempted in the past, can now be used in
production aircraft. These include forward swept wings, canard
surfaces, blended body and wings, and the refinement of
specialized airfoils (wing, propeller, and turbine blade). With this
goes a far more comprehensive understanding of structural
requirements, so that adequate strength can be maintained
even as reductions are made in weight.
Complementing and enhancing the results of the use of
computers in design is the pervasive use of computers on board
the aircraft itself. Computers are used to test and calibrate the
aircraft’s equipment, so that, both before and during flight,
potential problems can be anticipated and corrected. Whereas
the first autopilots were devices that simply maintained an
aircraft in straight and level flight, modern computers permit an
autopilot system to guide an aircraft from takeoff to landing,
incorporating continuous adjustment for wind and weather
conditions and ensuring that fuel consumption is minimized. In
the most advanced instances, the role of the pilot has been
changed from that of an individual who continuously controlled
the aircraft in every phase of flight to a systems manager who
oversees and directs the human and mechanical resources in
the cockpit.
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Analog Computers
A computer is basically a problem-solving device. In aircraft
radio systems the problem to be solved is concerned with
navigation, in that given certain information, such as range and
bearing to a fixed known point, steering commands need to be
computed to fly the aircraft to the same, or some other fixed
point.
Analogue computers take continuously varying inputs and
process them as currents or voltages and output results in the
same form.
Since the input and output information is continuously changing
during flight, analogue computation provides an obvious means
of solving the navigation problems.
The input devices are radio sensors such as VOR, DME,
Omega, ADF, Doppler, Loran, Decca, ILS, and non-radio
sensors such as the Air Data Unit and Inertial Navigation
System. The output of such sensors will be electrical analogues
of the quantities being monitored. The electrical signals contain
the necessary information needed to solve the navigation
problem, the solution being achieved by the computer.
The computer consists of a variety of analogue circuits such as
summing amplifiers, integrators, comparators, sine cosine
resolvers, servo systems, etc. The patching network
determines the way, in which the analogue circuits are
interconnected, which will be such as to achieve the required
outputs for given inputs.
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There is a disadvantage of analogue computers in that different

patching is needed for different applications. Thus aircraft By using an analogue computer, this signal can be used to
analogue computers are purpose built to solve one particular provide an indication to the pilot of his ground speed.
problem and as such usually form an integral part of particular
equipment. As the input signal represents distance, a sample of change in
distance divided by the lapsed time will provide ground speed.
This lack of flexibility, together with limited accuracy and A suitable block diagram to carry out this calculation is shown in
susceptibility to noise and drift, has led to the introduction of Figure 5.6.5.
digital computers, made possible by integrated circuits. Even
so, the analogue computer, or rather analogue computing
circuits, are still extensively used because as stated above, the
sensors produce analogue signals.

When compared with digital computers, programming of

analogue computers is time consuming and limited in scope.

Consider an aircraft approaching a DME beacon. The distance

to go is given as an electrical analogue signal at the output of
the aircraft's DME equipment.

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ANALOGUE
INPUT OUTPUT
COMPUTING
DEVICES DEVICES
ELEMENTS

Figure 5.6.5: Shows the Example of Analog Devices

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Digital Computers

In the digital computer there are basically two types of input,

namely Instructions, and Data from the various radio and non-
radio sensors, which will be referred to collectively as CONTROL
information. Information must of course, be coded into a form,
which the rest of the computer can understand, such as digital
form.

The essential components of a digital computer are shown in

Figure 5.6.6.
ARITHMETIC

INPUT MEMORY OUTPUT

CENTRAL PROCESSOR UNIT (CPU)

Figure 5.6.6

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Coded information is passed to the memory in which it is stored
until needed by the other units. The memory is divided into a
large number of cells, each of which can store a word
representing a piece of information. Each cell has a unique
address, through which access to the information contained
within that cell can be obtained. There are usually two types of
memory, long term and temporary stores. The latter, often
termed registers, will be used to hold intermediate results in
calculations and data, which is to be processed next in the
calculating sequence.
The arithmetic unit performs the actual arithmetic operations
called for by instructions. It can be compared with a calculator.
The control acts on instructions held in store in the appropriate
sequence. The basic task will be to transfer data from store to
the arithmetic unit, to carry out the necessary calculations using
registers to store the intermediate results, then writing the final
result into the store.
The final control function will be to transfer data from store to
the output as a result of built in instructions, or on specific
instructions from the pilot.
This process of input - store - calculate - store - output is carried
out sequentially in accordance with software requirements.

The results of the calculations must be displayed in a suitable

form easily interpreted by the pilot. This is the function of the
output unit, which reads from the store.

The control unit directs the overall functioning of the computer

according to the program of instructions in store. This program
is known as software as opposed to the actual circuitry, which is
termed hardware. Although control is drawn as a separate unit
in the functional block diagram, the control hardware, which
comprises timing circuits and electronic switches, is spread
throughout the computer.

Information is read into the appropriate address of the store

under the control of the software. In aircraft navigation
applications, incoming data from sensors updates the contents
of the store at a rate dependent upon the timing of the computer
control.

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