Power System Analysis

Lecture - Circuit concepts

Abdul Basit
US Pakistan Centre for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E)
University of Engineering & Technology (UET), Peshawar

USPCAS-E 1
Three Phase Systems
Phase voltages in a balanced three-phase
system (50 Hz)
Three Phase Systems
The magnetic field generated by a three-phase
system is a rotating field
 Balanced Three Phase System

Vc Ic
• Voltages in the 3 phases have the
same amplitude, but differ 120
electrical degrees in phase Va

• Equal impedances in the 3 phases Ib Ia

Vb
Balanced Three Phase System

Vc Ic

In  I a  Ib  Ic  0
0
Va
Ic
Ia
Ib Ia
Ib
Vb
3 phase  1 Three Phase System
Balanced system  Single Phase calculation

Vc Ic

120º

Va

Ib Ia

Vb 120º
Line-to-Line Voltage
 Three Phase Complex Power

• 3 x 1-phase complex power

Power dissipation

• The instantaneous power dissipated in a component

is a product of the instantaneous voltage and the
instantaneous current
• In a resistive circuit the voltage and current are in
phase – calculation of p is straightforward
• In reactive circuits, there will normally be some phase
shift between v and i, and calculating the power
becomes more complicated
Power in Resistive Components

• Suppose a voltage v = Vp sin t is applied across a resistance R.

The resultant current i will be
v VP sin t
i   IP sin t
R R
• The result power p will be
1  cos 2t
p  vi  VP sin t  IP sin t  VP IP (sin t )  VP IP (
2
)
2
• The average value of (1 - cos 2t) is 1, so
1 V I
Average Power P  VP IP  P  P  VI
2 2 2
where V and I are the R.M.S. voltage and current
Relationship between v, i and p in a resistor
Power in Capacitors

• As in capacitors, the current leads the voltage by 90.

Therefore, if a voltage v = Vp sin t is applied across a
capacitance C, the current will be given by i = Ip cos t
• Then
p  vi
 VP sin t  IP cos t
 VP IP (sin t  cos t )
sin 2t
 VP IP ( )
2
• The average power is zero
Relationship between v, i and p in a capacitor
Power in Inductors

• Also in an inductors, the current lags the voltage by 90.

Therefore, if a voltage v = Vp sin t is applied across an
inductance L, the current will be given by i = -Ip cos t
• Therefore p  vi
 VP sin t  IP cos t
 VP IP (sin t  cos t )
sin 2t
 VP IP ( )
2
• Again the average power is zero
Relationship between v, i and p in an inductor
Time  Phasor
Current in phase

U = IR

Current lagging

U = jLI

Current leading

I = jCU
Circuit with Resistance and Reactance

• When a sinusoidal voltage v = Vp sin t is applied across a

circuit with resistance and reactance, the current will be of the
general form i = Ip sin (t - )
• Therefore, the instantaneous power, p is given by
p  vi
 V P sin  t  I P sin(  t   )
1
 V P I P {cos   cos( 2  t   )}
2
1 1
p  V P I P cos   V P I P cos( 2  t   )
2 2
 1 1
p  V P I P cos   V P I P cos( 2  t   )
2 2

• The expression for p has two components

• The second part (Reactive power) oscillates at 2
and has an average value of zero over a complete
cycle
– this is the power that is stored in the reactive elements
and then returned to the circuit within each cycle
• The first part represents the power dissipated in
resistive components. Average power dissipation is
1 V I
P  VP IP (cos  )  P  P  (cos  )  VI cos 
2 2 2
• The average power dissipation given by
1
P  VP I P (cos  )  VI cos 
2
is termed the active power in the circuit and is measured in
watts (W)
• The product of the R.M.S. voltage and current VI is termed the
apparent power, S. To avoid confusion this is given the units
of volt amperes (VA)
• Active Power represents the component of p utilized for
permanent irreversible consumption.
• Reactive Power is utilized in establishing either a magnetic or
electrostatic field; it is stored in inductance or capacitance
and then returned to the source. It has a zero average value.
– result of the associated component of current being in quadrature
with the voltage
USPCAS-E 21
• From the above discussion it is clear that
P  VI cos
 S cos

• In other words, the active power is the apparent

power times the cosine of the phase angle.
• This cosine is referred to as the power factor
Active power (in watts)
 Power factor
Apparent power (in volt amperes)

P
Power factor   cos 
S
 Power
How to calculate P and Q from the voltage and current phasor ?

I*

 V
I

• Inductive load consumes reactive power (Q>0)

– Current lags the supply voltage
Positive

• Capacitive load generates reactive power (Q<0)

– Current leads the supply voltage
Negative
Power

S Complex power VA

|S| Apparent power VA

P Active power W
Average power

Q Reactive power var

Reactive Power - Sign Conventions

• By convention, the Q associated with:

– Inductive load is positive
– capacitive load is negative
An inductive load absorbs Q
A capacitive load supplies Q

• A synchronous machine:
– when overexcited, supplies reactive power
– when underexcited, absorbs reactive

USPCAS-E 25
Special Comments on Reactive Power
• Although the Reactive Power associated with an element has a zero
average value, it represents power required to store and discharge
magnetic energy in an inductance or electrostatic energy in a
capacitance, twice every cycle.
• In a network the interchange of energy takes place between the
source, inductive elements and capacitive elements. The net
energy associated with reactive power is the sum of various
inductive and capacitive stored energies.
• The oscillatory transfer of reactive power between points in a
power system results in voltage drops and losses in generation and
transmission equipment.
As efficiency and voltage regulation are very important, the transfer
of reactive power over the system is of prime importance.

USPCAS-E 26
 General Observations on Active and Reactive
Power Flow
• In a practical transmission system, normally:
– the active power flow is determined primarily by angular differences between bus
voltages; and the reactive power flow by magnitude differences of bus voltages
• Active Power is supplied only by generators:
– the desired flow of active power from a generator is achieved by control of prime
mover mechanical torque.
– Increasing the mechanical torque advances the generator rotor and hence, the
"internal voltage" with respect to other system voltages.
• Sources of Reactive Power:
– synchronous machines (over excited)
– static capacitors
– capacitance of transmission lines
• Consumers of Reactive Power:
– synchronous machines (under excited)
– induction motors
– inductive static loads
– inductance of transmission lines, transformers
– AC/DC and DC/AC converters

USPCAS-E 27
General Observations on Active and Reactive
Power Flow
• At any junction:
∑P=0
∑Q=0
They can be added arithmetically

• For a system:
– a balance sheet of active and reactive power can be drawn;
– the total injected P and Q are equal to the total extracted P and Q,
plus any P and Q losses.

• Under steady-state conditions;

– P and Q flow over a network are fairly independent of each other and
are influenced by different control actions.

USPCAS-E 28
Power Factor

Power factor  That part of the apparent power that

is related to the mean energy flow
Power Factor Correction

• Power factor is particularly important in high-power applications

• Inductive loads have a lagging power factor
• Capacitive loads have a leading power factor
• Many high-power devices are inductive
– a typical AC motor has a power factor of 0.9 lagging
– the total load on the national grid is 0.8-0.9 lagging
– this leads to major efficiencies
– power companies therefore penalize industrial users who introduce a
poor power factor
Power factor

• The problem of poor power factor is tackled by

adding additional components to bring the power
factor back closer to unity
– a capacitor of an appropriate size in parallel with a lagging
load can ‘cancel out’ the inductive element
– this is power factor correction
– a capacitor can also be used in series but this is less
common (since this alters the load voltage)
Power Transfer

• When looking at amplifiers, we noted that maximum

power transfer occurs in resistive systems when the
load resistance is equal to the output resistance
– this is an example of matching
• When the output of a circuit has a reactive element
maximum power transfer is achieved when the load
impedance is equal to the complex conjugate of the
output impedance
– this is the maximum power transfer theorem
• Thus if the output impedance Zo = R + jX,
maximum power transfer will occur with a
load ZL = R - jX
Key Points

• In resistive circuits the average power is equal to VI, where V and

I are r.m.s. values
• In a capacitor the current leads the voltage by 90 and the
average power is zero
• In an inductor the current lags the voltage by 90 and the
average power is zero
• In circuits with both resistive and reactive elements, the average
power is VI cos 
• The term cos  is called the power factor
• Power factor correction is important in high-power systems
• High-power systems often use three-phase arrangements