BASIC STATISTICS

- Is a branch of Mathematics dealing with gathering, organizing, presenting and interpreting data
the method of gathering facts of interest on every use it of the population is called census. Data
gathering is a very important part in statistics analysis since conclusion will be based on data.
Collecting data must be as accurate as possible

Sampling and Sampling Techniques

 Sampling – is a method in which that data from a small representative of the population are
systematically and scientifically collected and analyzed.
o Data can be classified as:
 Primary Data – refers to information directly gathered from the respondents.
 Secondary Data – refers to the information taken from published or unpublished
sources gathered by other person

Some of the methods used in collecting data are:

1. Direct or interview Method – is a person – person interaction between an interviewer

and an interviewee.
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method – is an alternative method for the interview method.
3. Registration Method – is enforced by private organizations or government agencies for
recording purposes.
4. Observation Method – is a scientific method of investigation that makes possible use of
all senses to measure or obtain outcomes / responses from the object of study.
5. Experimentation – is used when the objective is to determine the cause-and-effect of a
certain phenomenon under some controlled conditions.

Descriptive Statistics is concerned with the

methods of collecting, organizing, and
presenting data appropriately and creatively to
describe or assess group characteristics.

Inferential Statistics is concerned with

inferring or drawing conclusions about the
population based from preselected elements
of that population.

Constants and Variables

Constant refer to the fundamental quantities

that do not change in value.

Variables on the other hand, are quantities

that may take anyone of a specified set of
values. These set of values can be classified as
qualitative (categorical) and quantitative
(numerical) variables.
Data and Information

Data – usually refers to facts concerning things such as status in life of people, defectiveness of objects
or effect of an event to the society.

Information – is a set of data that have been processed and presented in a form suitable for human
interpretation, usually with a purpose of revealing trends or patterns about the population.

Sources of Data

Primary Source – from which a firsthand information obtained usually by means of personal interview
and actual observation.

Secondary Source – information is taken from other’s works, news reports, readings, etc.

Scales of Measuring Data

1. Nominal Scale – classifies objects or people’s responses so that all of those in single category are
equal with respect to some attributes and then each category is coded numerically. Example:
Respondents can be group according to marital status based on the four nominal scales, single –
1, married – 2, separated – 3, or widow - 4.
2. Ordinal Scale – classifies objects or individual’s responses according to degree or level, then
each level is coded numerically. Customers responses regarding their satisfaction towards
company’s services can fall between an ordinal scale, Excellent – 1, Very Satisfactory – 2,
Satisfactory – 3, Fair – 4, or Poor/Needs Improvement – 5.
3. Interval Scale – refers to quantitative measurements in which lower and upper control limits are
adapted to classify relative order and differences of item numbers or actual scores. Households
socioeconomic status are classified based from what income level and age bracket they belong.
4. Ratio Scale – takes into account the interval size and ratio of two related quantities, which are
usually based on a standard measurement. Weight, time, height, rate of change in production,
return on investments, and economic order quantity are measured with the use of a ratio scale.

Population and Sample

Population – is a finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or individuals with specified class or
characteristics under consideration, such as students in a certain university.

Sample – is a finite or limited collection of objects, events, or individuals selected from the population.
This sample is expected to possess characteristics identical to those of the population, otherwise, the
validity and reliability of information regarding the population will be in question. A capital letter “N” is
used to denote population size whereas small letter “n” denotes sample size.

Random and Non-random Sampling

Random Sampling – is the most commonly used sampling technique in which each member in the
population is given an equal chance of being selected in the sample.

Non-random Sampling – is a method of collecting a small portion of the population by which not all the
members in the population are given chance to be included in the sample.
Sampling Techniques

1. Lottery or Fishbowl Sampling – This is done by simple writing the names or numbers of all the
members of the population in small rolled pieces of paper which are later placed in a container.
The researcher shakes the container thoroughly then draws n out of N pieces of papers as
desired for a sample. This is usually done in a lottery.
2. Sampling with the use of Table of Random Numbers - If the population is large, a more practical
procedure is the use of Table of Random Numbers which contains rows and columns of digits
randomly ordered by computer. A sample of size n can be generated by beginning at an
arbitrary point in Table of Random Numbers, closing your eyes and haphazardly pointing at an
entry in the Table. Then proceed in any direction, vertically, horizontally, or diagonally until n
distinct numbers could represent the numerically coded elements in the population.
3. Systematic Sampling This method of sampling is done by taking every kth element in the
population. It applies to a group of individuals arranged in a waiting line or in a methodical
manner. For instance, the objective is to get the opinion of employees regarding employee-
management relations, a sample of size n will be selected from a list of employees arranged
alphabetically or according to age experience, position or academic rank. By systematic
sampling, every kth employee from the listed order will be included in a sample. If N is known, k
value can be calculated.
4. Stratified Random Sampling - When the population can be partitioned into several strata or
subgroups, it may be wiser to employ the stratified technique to ensure a representative of each
group in the sample. Random samples will be selected from each stratum. Selecting sample with
this technique is quite difficult and costly since it requires a complete listing, called frame, of all
elements in the population. There are two kinds of stratified random sampling as illustrated
below.
a. Stratified Random Sampling When the population is grouped into more or less
homogeneous classes, that is, different groups but with a relatively common
characteristic, then each can be sampled independently by taking equal number of
elements from each stratum. This method is called simple random sampling.
Suppose population of students taking History of size N 800 can be grouped
according to year levels, then using simple random sampling, 50 students will be
taken randomly from each of the 4 groups and that comprises a sample size of 200
students.
b. Stratified Proportional Random Sampling In some cases, the characteristic of the
population is such that the proportions of the subgroups are grossly equal. The
researcher may wish to maintain these characteristics in the sample with the use of
the stratified proportion technique.
5. Multi-stage or Multiple Sampling This technique uses several stages or phases in getting the
sample from the population. However, selection of the sample is still done at random. This
method is an extension or a multiple application of the stratified random sampling technique.
The number of stages depends on the number of population and the sample size needed in the
survey.
B. Non-random Sampling Techniques

1. Judgement Purposive Sampling This method is also referred as non-random or non-probability

sampling. It plays a major role in the selection of a particular item and/or in making decisions in
cases of incomplete responses or observation This is usually based on a certain criteria laid
down by the researcher or his adviser.
2. Quota Sampling This is a relatively quick and inexpensive method to operate since the choice of
the number of persons or elements to be included in a sample is done at the researcher's own
convenience or preference and is not predetermined by some carefully operated randomizing
plan.
3. Cluster Sampling-This is sometimes referred to as an area sampling because it is usually applied
on a geographical basis. The population is grouped into cluster or small units, eg blocks or
districts, in city or municipality Area sampling usually requires larger samples of elementary
units than those required in simple random sampling. It is not a common practice, however, that
every individual located in selected area is interviewed. Often additional sampling stages are
introduced.
4. Incidental Sampling This design is applied to those samples which are taken because they are
the most available. The investigator simply takes the nearest individuals as subjects of the study
until it reaches the desired size. In an interview, for instance, an interviewer can simply choose
to ask those people around him or in a coffee shop where he is taking a break.
5. Convenience Sampling This method has been widely used in television and radio programs to
find out opinions of TV viewers and listeners regarding a controversial issue. While the issue is
being discussed in a talk show, the hosts will immediately get response and comments from
those who will call their telephone operators This method, of course, is bias against those
without telephones in their houses.