Aircraftmaterials Teacher26040

AERONAUTICAL MATERIALS
Tristan Burg and Alan Crosky
School of Material Science and Engineering
University of New South Wales

 2001
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Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 2

 2001 Materials Science and Engineering - UNSW
1. AIRCRAFT MATERIALS - INTRODUCTION
2. THE AIRFRAME
2.1 Aluminium Alloys
2.2 Titanium Alloys
2.3 Steels
2.4 Composites
2.5 Polymers
3. THE ENGINE
3.1. Creep
3.2 Oxidation
3.3 Engine Materials
3.4 Nickel Based Superalloys
3.5 Turbine Blade Design
3.6 Turbine Blade Coatings
4. CORROSION
4.1 Surface Corrosion
4.2 Stress Corrosion Cracking
4.3 Galvanic Corrosion
4.4 Crevice Corrosion
4.5 Pitting Corrosion
4.6 Exfoliation
5. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
5.1 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
5.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection
5.3 Ultrasonic Inspection
5.4 Radiography
5.5 Other Techniques
6. REFERENCES
7. INTERNET LINKS
8. SYMBOLS
Front Page: Boeing F/A 18 [1]
In this set of notes we will

a) examine important design constraints involved with aerospace materials
b) provide an introduction to materials selection
c) consider design constraints of a number of aeronautical devices and detail the
materials in use
The notes are directed towards the materials section of the Aeronautical Engineering
Module of the NSW Engineering Studies Stage 6 Syllabus
It is not the aim of these notes to describe every aeronautical material nor every
aeronautical device.

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
1. INTRODUCTION
Aircraft come in a variety of shapes and sizes and the materials used depend on the
individual performance requirements and budgets. However, aircraft can be broadly
categorised into four groups:
1) Light Aircraft - An example is the Cessna shown in Figure 1. Materials for these
aircraft have less demanding requirements and their cost must be minimum. Typical
materials include steel and aluminium.
Figure 1: Cessna Skyhawk: Cost <US$ 500 000, Structure mainly aluminium alloys.
Empty weight ~ 1000kg, Baggage ~100kg, Max take-off (TO) weight ~ 1500 kg [2,3]
2) Business Jets –An example is the Beech Starship shown in Figure 2. Material cost
is less important for these aircraft and higher performance materials (such as carbon
fibre composites) are used.
Figure 2: Beech Starship: Cost US$4.3 million (1995). Majority of the structure is
CFRP. Empty weight 4590kg, Max TO weight 6758kg, Max baggage 311kg[4,5]

3) Civil Transport – These include aircraft such as the Boeing 747 shown in Figure 3.
Low weight is critical for these aircraft and cost must be minimised. Take off is
typically the most demanding phase of the flight (see Figure 4) and lifetimes extend
from 50 000 to 100 000 hours. Typical materials include aluminium and composites.
Figure 3: Boeing 747

Cost > US$100 million, Structure
mainly consists of Al-alloys and CFRP.
Empty weight 180 895kg, Max TO
weight 362 875kg, Payload ~ 33 00kg
[1,2]
Figure 4: Aircraft operational phases [6]
4) Military Aircraft – These include aircraft such as the Boeing F/A 18 shown in
Figure 5. The take off and operational phases have demanding material requirements.
Thus, material performance is critical and budgets are large. Lifetimes range from 5
000 to 10 000 hours. Composites are used extensively in the airframe.
Figure 5: Boeing F/A 18: Cost ~ US$56 million, Structure mainly consists of
aluminium alloys titanium alloys and CFRP. Empty weight 10 810kg, Max TO weight
16 651kg [1,2]
Since the most commonly experienced aircraft are civil transport aircraft, these notes
will focus on this group. A detailed listing of worldwide aircraft, which is updated
annually, is given in Janes All the Worlds Aircraft [4].
The engines used in aircraft also vary considerably, again depending on the
performance requirements of the aircraft and its budget. Light aircraft frequently use
air-cooled piston engines, but turbine engines are now used in all other classes of
aircraft. Even turbine engines come in a variety of forms, i.e., turboprop, turbojet and
turbofan. In the turboprop engine a gas turbine is used to drive a propeller whereas in
a turbojet, propulsion is provided by the jet of exhaust from the rear of the engine. A
turbofan is essentially a combination of the two in which about 90% of the propulsion
is provided by a multibladed bypass fan located inside the front of the engine with the
remainder coming from the jet thrust. Turbofans are used in all large civil transports
and these engines will be the focus when discussing engine materials.
The materials used for aircraft construction can be split into two broad categories;
airframe materials and engine materials, and these will be considered separately.
However, selection of materials for both applications is based on the design
constraints. These are defined by the mechanical, chemical and thermal property
requirements of each component. Typical design constraints include weight, stiffness,
strength, fatigue performance (high/low cycle), corrosion resistance and cost.
Of major consideration is the specific stiffness (stiffness to density ratio E / ρ), and
specific strength (strength to weight ratio σ / ρ). The broad aim for aircraft design is
to maximise payload in relation to cost. By increasing specific stiffness and strength,
the weight of a given component can be decreased and fuel consumption and running
costs decreased. For example when a fully loaded aircraft takes off, 20% of the weight
is payload, 40% is aircraft structural weight and 40% is fuel. Therefore, a saving in
aircraft weight can increase the possible payload or decrease the power required for a
given payload.
2. THE AIRFRAME
The airframe consists of components such as the wing upper, wing lower, fuselage,
spars, frames, ribs, landing gear and control surfaces. Essentially, the airframe is
required to resist applied loads, provide an aerodynamic shape and protect passengers,
payload and equipment from the external environmental conditions. Each component
has different specific constraints, resulting in different material selection criteria for
each component. The constraints on each component are detailed below and shown in
Figure 6.
Wings
Overall, the wings are subjected to the most complex and highest levels of stress.
However, due to the nature of the wing loading the upper and lower wings are loaded
differently (compression and tension respectively) and thus will be treated separately.

Figure 6: Critical requirements of airframe components [7]
Wing upper
During flight the wing is loaded in bending such that the upper surface is stressed in
compression. Thus, to resist the applied stresses and minimise weight, it requires high
ratios of stiffness to density and yield strength (compression) to density. The upper
wing also requires good resistance to stress corrosion cracking fracture. Based on the
geometry of the wing these constraints are given as:
σ ys (comp )
1
E 3
, , K ISCC
ρ ρ
Wing lower
The bending load on the wing causes the lower surface to be stressed in tension. Thus
to resist the applied stresses and minimise weight, it requires high stiffness to density
and yield strength to density ratios. The lower wing also requires good resistance to
stress corrosion cracking fracture and good corrosion resistance. Due to the tensile
nature of the stresses it also requires good fatigue strength and low fatigue crack
growth rates. Based on the geometry of the wing these constraints are given as:
E σ ys (tension) ∂a
, , K ISCC , Corrosion Resistance, σ FS ,
ρ ρ ∂N
Fuselage
The fuselage carries the whole of the payload and is stressed under tension,
compression, torsion, bending and pressurisation forces. Most of these forces place
the fuselage under tension. Thus to minimise weight it requires high ratios of stiffness
to density and strength to density. It requires good corrosion resistance and, due to the
tensile forces, requires high fatigue strength and low fatigue crack growth rates. Based
on the geometry of the fuselage these constraints are given as:
1
E 3 σ ys ∂a
, , Corrosion Resistance, σ FS ,
ρ ρ ∂N
Spars, Frames and Ribs

These lie under the skin and are used to distribute loads, retain the aerodynamic
shape, and increase the buckling strength of the structure. These components are
loaded in bending and thus their requirements are similar to those of the wing upper
and lower.
E σ ys ∂a
, , K ISCC , σ FS ,
ρ ρ ∂N
Landing Gears
The landing gears, as shown in Figure 7, are subjected to high static and cyclic
loading. Thus they must be stiff and strong enough to withstand this loading and have
acceptable fatigue and fracture resistance. The components must also be resistant to
stress corrosion cracking failure. In addition there is a volume constraint on the size of
the components. Thus the constraints are given as:
∂a
E , σ ys , , K IC , K ISCC
∂N
Figure 7: Landing gears [6]

Control Surfaces
These consist of the rudder, elevators, ailerons and flaps and are, in general, lightly
loaded. Thus they require structural stiffness and light weight.
Skin materials
These require good corrosion resistance as they are under continuous atmospheric
exposure. In supersonic aircraft, skin heating becomes an important factor and is most
pronounced on the nose and leading edges of the aircraft as shown in Figure 8. Table
1 shows the degree of skin heating with increasing speed.
Figure 8: Skin heating across the airframe [8]
Table 1: Skin Temperature at 23 000m (-56°C) with Emissivity Factor 0.9
MACH NUMBER SATURATION TEMPERATURE

(oC)
2.0 100
2.5 150
3.0 200
3.5 300
4.0 370
The materials that best fit the discussed constraints, and are thus used for airframe
construction, are aluminium, titanium, steels and composites. From Figure 9, it can be
seen that while aluminium is the most widely used material for civil transport
airframe construction, composites are increasing their role in airframe construction.
Military aircraft, with their higher performance requirements and higher budgets,
show an even greater use of composite materials in the airframe (see Figure 10).
1990 1995
Misc
Misc
12%
15%
CFC CFC
10% 21%
Al
Ti 55%
10% Al Ti
65%
12%
Figure 9: Civil transport airframe construction materials 1990 & 1995

1990 1995
Misc
Misc
17%
14%
Al
Al
31%
44%
CFC CFC
30% 40%
Ti
12%
Ti
12%
Figure 10: Military aircraft airframe construction materials
2.1 Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium alloys have a low density (2.7g/cm3) and, while their tensile properties are
low compared to steels, they have excellent strength to weight ratios. They have
excellent thermal and electrical conductivity and have excellent resistance to
oxidation and corrosion. The chief limitation of aluminium alloys is their low melting
temperature (~660oC) that limits their maximum service temperature. However they
remain the major materials for civil airframe construction and are used for many
applications, see Figure 11.
Figure 11: Materials in airframe construction [8]
Aluminium is alloyed with a range of alloying elements to tailor its mechanical and
chemical properties. Thus they have a designation system based on:
1) whether they are wrought or cast,
2) their main alloying elements, and if wrought
3) the applied thermal and mechanical treatments
The designations for wrought aluminium alloys are shown in Figure 12.
Figure 12: Wrought aluminium alloy designation system [7]
2.1.1. Strengthening and Age Hardening
Aluminium alloys are strengthened in a number of ways including: solid solution

strengthening, cold working, dispersion strengthening and age-hardening. Age
hardening (otherwise known as precipitation hardening) is a process whereby a fine
precipitate structure is formed in the alloy matrix following an ageing heat treatment.
For an alloy to be age-hardening it requires:
1) decreasing solid solubility with decreasing temperature

2) the ability to suppress the formation of precipitates by quenching from solid
solution
3) the formation of metastable coherent precipitates
A typical phase diagram for an age hardening alloy, and the ageing heat treatment
sequence are shown in Figure 13. The ageing process follows three main steps:
1) The solution treatment: The alloy is heated above the solvus temperature to
dissolve any precipitates and ensure the alloying elements are in solution.
2) Quench: The alloy is rapidly quenched. The alloying elements in solution do not
have time to diffuse and form precipitates. Thus, the alloying elements remain in
solution forming what is known as a supersaturated solid solution (SSSS).

3) Ageing: The alloy is heated to an intermediate temperature below the solvus
temperature. The alloying elements are able to diffuse to form coherent precipitate
clusters (known as GP zones).
Figure 13: Example age hardening 2XXX series aluminium alloy system [9]
The coherent precipitates increase the strength of the alloy by distorting the lattice and
creating resistance to dislocation motion. The number of precipitates increases with
increasing time thus increasing the strength of the alloy. However, with excessive
time the precipitates become large and incoherent and their strengthening effect
decreases. Thus, during ageing there are four main strengthening:
1) solid solution strengthening in the SSSS

2) coherency stress hardening from the coherent precipitates
3) precipitation hardening by resistance to dislocation cutting
4) hardening through resistance to dislocation bowing between precipitates.
This results in the typical shape of the ageing curve, shown in Figure 14, where the
maximum strength (peak aged) is achieved with an optimum dispersion of coherent
precipitates. Increasing ageing temperature allows the peak ageing temperature to be
reached in shorter time. Ageing beyond the peak ageing time to form incoherent
precipitates is known as overaging.
A) B)
Figure 14: A) The effect of ageing temperature and time upon strength [9] B) Age
hardening strengthening effects [10]

The most commonly used aluminium alloys for airframe construction are the age
hardening alloys in the 2XXX and 7XXX series, as shown in Figure 15. Examples of
the tempers given to the airframe alloys are shown in Figure 16.
2224
Figure 15: 2XXX and 7XXX series aluminium alloys used in civil transport aircraft
airframes
2.1.2. 2XXX Series Aluminium Alloys
The 2XXX series aluminium alloys are alloyed with copper from 1.9 to 6.8% and
often contain additions of manganese, magnesium and zinc. Their precipitation
hardening has been widely studied and they are used for applications such as:
forgings, extrusions, liquefied gas storage, civil transport and supersonic aircraft.
∂a
These alloys have lower crack growth rates (lower ) and thus have better
∂N
Figure 16: Aluminium airframe alloy tempers [6]

fatigue performance, than 7XXX series alloys. Therefore, these are used on the lower
wings and fuselage (see Figure 17). The alloys used are 2224, 2324 and 2524 (both
modified versions of 2224). These alloys are often clad with 99.34% pure aluminium
for increased corrosion resistance. Compositions of these alloys are included in Table
2.
2224
Figure 17: 2XXX series alloys in the airframe
Table 2: Aluminium Airframe Alloy Compositions
Alloy Composition
2618 Al – 2.3Cu – 1.6Mg
2224 Al – 4.4Cu – 1.5Mg – 0.6Mn
7050 Al – 6.2Zn – 2.3Cu – 2.2Mg
7075 Al – 5.6Zn – 2.5Mg – 1.6Cu
7150 Al – 6.4Zn – 2.4Mg – 2.2Cu
An example heat treatment for 2X24 alloys is shown in Figure 18. This ageing
treatment produces the ageing sequence:
SSSS → GPB(Cu,Mg)→ S'(Al,Cu,Mg) → S(Al2CuMg)

coherent semi-coherent incoherent

500
Temperature (oC)
250
0
0 60 120 180
Time (min)
Figure 18: Ageing heat treatment for 2x24-Al
As shown in Table 1, the skin temperature of supersonic aircraft increases with

increasing speed. For aluminium clad aircraft the speed must be kept below Mach 2.2
to avoid the skin temperature reaching 150oC. This restriction is to avoid the
aluminium alloy overaging and its mechanical properties degrading.
Another problem with high temperatures is the phenomena known as creep (see
section 3.1) Special alloys such as 2618 are used to provide adequate creep
performance in current supersonic aircraft.
2.1.3. 7XXX Series Aluminium Alloys
The Al-Zn-Mg system offers the greatest potential for age hardening (out of the
aluminium alloys) though copper is often added to improve stress corrosion cracking
(SCC) resistance (with the drawback of reducing weldability). SCC resistance
(detailed in section 4.2) decreases with increasing Zn:Mg ratio as shown in Figure 19.
The SCC problems have been the biggest restriction upon the use of these alloys but
they have still been used in lightweight military bridges, railway carriages, and
military and civil aircraft. The use of 7XXX series alloys in the airframe is shown in
Figure 20, with the most common alloys being 7075, 7010, 7055 and 7150. All these
alloys are used in the overaged T7 temper as this temper provides the best resistance
to exfoliation corrosion and SCC.
An example T7 heat treatment for 7XXX-Al series alloys is shown in Figure 21. The
solutionising and quench is followed by an ageing treatment and then a higher
temperature overaging treatment. This treatment produces the ageing sequence:
AlSSSS → GP → η'(MgZn2) → η(MgZn2)
T1(Mg32(Al,Zn)49) → T1(Mg32(Al,Zn)49)

Figure 19: Zn:Mg ratio effect of SCC in Al-Zn-Mg alloys [7]
Figure 20: 7XXX series alloys in airframe construction
500
Temperature (oC)
250
0
0 1000 2000 3000
Time (min)
Figure 21: T7- heat treatment for 7XXX-Al

2.1.4. Aluminium – Lithium alloys
These alloys have been developed especially for the aerospace industry with the focus
on the low density of lithium (0.534 g/cm3). These alloys offer the attractive benefits
of being 10% lighter, 10% stronger and 10% stiffer than conventional aluminium
alloys, Figure 22. However, these alloys lack toughness and thus their use is very
limited except in specialty aircraft as shown in Figure 23.
Figure 22: Effect lithium on modulus of Al-alloys [7]
Figure 23: Al-Li alloys in the new Eurofighter (EF2000) [11]
2.2. Titanium Alloys
Titanium alloys are strong, stiff, corrosion resistant and have a low density (density of
pure Ti is 4.5g/cm3). Titanium alloys are stronger and stiffer than aluminium alloys
and thus titanium components can be smaller in size than a comparable aluminium
component. Thus, they are used in applications where volume is important, such as
landing gears and attachment points. Titanium alloys can also be used in applications
where the temperature is too high for aluminium, such as near the engine or in high-
speed aircraft. The biggest restrictions on titanium are its higher density than Al, and
high cost (approximately seven times that of aluminium or steel).
The most common titanium alloy in airframe construction is Ti-6Al-4V, otherwise

known as Ti-6-4. This is a two phase (α and β) alloy, as is shown in Figure 24, and
provides a good combination of strength, ductility, toughness and creep resistance.
The dual phase nature of the alloy allows for a range of processing techniques and
microstructures to tailor the final properties of the alloy as shown in Figure 25. There
are a wide range of α− β titanium alloys available with various strengths and
temperature resistance. Other titanium alloys, such as Ti-6Al-4Sn-3.5Zr-0.5Mo-
035Si-0.7Nb-0.06C (IMI 834) are used for higher temperature applications. The
maximum operation temperature of titanium alloys is approximately 600oC. Above
this temperature creep and rapid oxidation occur.
a)
b) c)
Figure 24: Microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V. A) Widmanstatten α, B) Equiaxed α (white)

and transformed β (Widmanstatten α, grey), C) Transmission electron microscope
high magnification image of the structure in B). [7]

Figure 25: Many possible thermal treatments for Ti-6Al-4V [7]
Titanium has been used for compressor blades and discs (Figure 26), fans, space
vehicles, storage tanks, undercarriage components, flap tracks, engine mountings and
fasteners, and has the potential to be used for supersonic passenger aircraft skin and
structure (the proposed speed of Mach 2.4 is too high for Al-alloys).
Figure 26: Forged Ti-6Al-4V fan blades [7]

2.3. Steels
Like titanium, steels are stronger and stiffer than aluminium alloys and thus are used
in applications where volume is important, such as landing gears, attachment points,
gears and bearings . They are used in parts where the required tensile strength is
greater than can be supplied by Ti-alloys. The high density of steel is the limiting
factor in their use, which has been declining with time (now down to approximately
10% of the structural weight). The most commonly used steels are ultra high strength
low alloy steels, maraging steels and precipitation hardening (PH) steels.
2.4. Composites
Composites consist of two or more materials combined to give a material with

properties distinct from the original constituents. Composites can be designed to
produce a material with desired combinations of properties such as stiffness, strength
and density. Typically, composites consist of a matrix material and a reinforcing
material. The matrix and fibre materials may be metals, ceramics or polymers, but the
composites used in airframe construction are fibre reinforced polymer matrix
composites. These have the advantages of:
1) high specific strength and stiffness
2) tailored directional properties
3) non-corroding in salt environments
4) excellent fatigue resistance
5) dimensional stability
5) reduced number of parts required (compared to metal components)
But they are susceptible to impact damage, moisture pick-up and lightning strikes,
have a relatively high cost, do not yield plastically in regions of high stress
concentration and are subject to random property variation due to the nature of
composite manufacturing.
The use of these advanced composites in airframe construction has increased

substantially over the past few decades as evidenced in Figures 9 and 10. They are
used as floor beams, doors, aerodynamic fairings and for control surfaces, such as
rudders, elevators and ailerons, due to their low weight and high stiffness. These
applications can be seen in Figures 27 to 29 and Table 3.
Figure 27: Composite applications in the Boeing 767 [12]

Figure 28: Composite applications in the Boeing 737-600 [13]
Figure 29: Composite applications in the Boeing 757 [13]
Table 3: Composite Applications in Selected Aircraft [14]

Composite F-14 F-15 F-16 F-18 B1 727 757 767 Lear Fan*
(non production)
Component
Doors ü ü ü ü ü ü
Rudder ü ü ü ü
Elevator ü ü ü ü
Vertical Tail ü ü ü ü ü
Horizontal Tail ü ü ü ü ü ü ü ü
Aileron ü ü
Spoiler ü
Flap ü ü
Wing Box ü ü
Body ü
Miscellaneous Fairings Speed Speed Slats, Fairings Fairings Propeller
Brake Brake, Inlet Blades
Fairings
2.4.1 Composite Properties
The properties of fibre reinforced polymer matrix composites depend on the volume
fractions of fibre, length of the fibres and the orientation of the fibres with respect to
the applied load. The fibres provide virtually all the load carrying characteristics of
the composite, most importantly strength and stiffness. For example the modulus of
elasticity of a unidirectionally reinforced fibre composite in the direction of the fibres
(EC) is given by:
EC = (1 − f f ) E m + f F E f
where ff is the volume fraction of fibres, Ef is the modulus of the fibres and Em is the
modulus of the matrix. However, for loading perpendicular to the fibres the modulus
of the composite (EC’) is given by:
1
EC ' =
(1 − f f ) f f 
 + 
 E E 
 m f 
The properties of a range of epoxy matrix composites are shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30: Properties of various composites [14]
2.4.2. Fibres
Fibre materials for polymer matrix composites include (in order of increasing cost):
E-glass, aramid (eg., Kevlar, see Figure 31), carbon, alumina, silicon carbide and
boron. The properties of the fibres are shown in Figure 32. The fibre materials all
have high specific strength and stiffness imparting high strength and stiffness to the
composite.

Figure 31: Structure of aramid (Kevlar) [13]
Figure 32: Properties of common reinforcing fibres [13]
The most widely used fibre reinforcement is E-glass, which is used as the
reinforcement in fiberglass. Glass reinforced composites are used in aircraft window
surrounds, storage compartments and flooring panels. However, the most common
fibre reinforcement for polymer composites in airframes is carbon fibre, and the
resulting composites are known as carbon fibre reinforced polymers (CFRP). Carbon
fibres are used because:
1) they have a good combination of strength, stiffness and cost which can be varied
according to the manufacturing route.
2) they retain their strength and stiffness at service temperatures
3) they show good chemical resistance at room temperature
4) their manufacturing process is well developed and relatively inexpensive.
Carbon fibres are available in continuous and chopped fibre forms, in diameters
ranging between 4 and 10µm and are often classified according to their tensile
modulus as: standard, intermediate, high and ultrahigh modulus. However, carbon
fibres are difficult to handle and brittle and thus require a matrix material to be used
effectively. Additionally, due to the fact that they are a high resistance conductor,
CFRP parts must be fitted with copper lightning conductors to avoid explosion if
struck by lightning.
2.4.3. The Matrix
The purpose of the matrix is to support the fibres in the required position, transfer
load between the fibres, increase the toughness of the composite and protect the fibres
from damage. While the longitudinal tensile properties are dominated by the fibres,
the properties of shear, compression and transverse tension are dominated by the
matrix properties. Matrix polymers can be thermoplastics or thermosets.
Thermoplastics are fully polymerized materials that are solid at room temperature but
may be melted and shaped at high temperature. Thermosetting resins consist of a base
and a curing agent. When mixed together they react to form a heavily crosslinked
solid resin that cannot be reshaped once set.
Traditionally the most common matrices are thermosets with the most common
matrix being either polyesters or vinyl esters, both used in fiberglass products.
However, the most common polymer matrix employed in airframe construction is
thermosetting epoxy resin (see Figure 33). Epoxy resin is used because it has good
adhesion to fibres, good resistance to water and high mechanical properties.
Additionally, manufacture of epoxy based composites is well developed and well
understood. Second generation epoxies such as rubber toughened epoxy resin are
currently being used as composite matrices to increase matrix toughness and to
compete with advanced thermoplastics such as PEEK (polyetheretherketone, see
Figure 34) PPS (poly-phenylene sulfide) and PEI (polyetherimide) which generally
have increased temperature resistance.
A)
B)
Figure 33: Structure of epoxy resins A) DGEBPA, B)TGDDM [6]
Figure 34: Structure of PEEK [6]

2.5. Polymers
Polymers (plastics) are also used in parts of the airframe, namely the windows, lightly
stressed parts, interior trim and as electrical insulators. Windows require both
transparency and acceptable mechanical properties due to the pressurised nature of the
aircraft. Usually the window consists of three layers:
1) a glass load bearing layer
2) a back-up glass load carrying layer in case the first layer cracks
3) a plastic shield on the inside to prevent scratching by passengers. These plastic
shields are often acrylics (e.g. perspex) although polycarbonates are also used.
3. THE ENGINE
The main components and design of a gas turbine engine are shown in Figure 35.
Figure 35: Gas turbine engine [6]
One of the main differences in material requirements for engine components as

opposed to airframe components is the operating temperature. This is due to the high
temperatures encountered inside the engine, as shown in Figure 36. Thus the primary
requirements of engine materials are:
1) high specific strength (strength / weight ratio) at the relevant operating temperature
2) creep resistance
3) oxidation/corrosion resistance
4) microstructural stability at high temperature
5) low density
6) high stiffness
7) good fabricatability
8) acceptable cost
9) reproducible performance

Figure 36: Turbine engine temperature profile [6]
3.1 Creep
Creep is a process whereby the material permanently strains as a function of stress

time and temperature. The creep process begins when the absolute temperature is
greater than 0.3 – 0.5 of the melting temperature measured in Kelvin. Thus, low
melting point materials such as lead (and also polymers since their glass transition
temperature is close to room temperature) will often creep at room temperature. The
general shape of creep curves (strain as a function of time) is consistent across metals
ceramic and polymers (see Figure 37). In metals creep occurs by dislocation climb
and grain elongation, both aided by atomic diffusion. To avoid catastrophic failure in
the engine the materials selected must have adequate creep performance at the
operating temperature. This involves the material having:
1) a high melting point

2) obstacles to dislocation motion (solid solution and precipitates)
3) lattice resistance to creep (e.g. covalently bonded materials)
4) large grain size to increase diffusion distances and minimise grain boundary
diffusion
5) grain boundary precipitates to avoid grain boundary sliding
Figure 37 : Creep curves [15]

3.2 Oxidation
Oxidation involves material reacting with oxygen. It is also known as scaling or dry
corrosion. Most metals react with oxygen at room temperature. However the rate of
reaction at room temperature is low and the oxide layer that forms on the surface acts
as a barrier to further oxidation. For example, from thermodynamic data it is predicted
that aluminium will rapidly bulk oxidise in air. However, the rapid formation of a
natural oxide (alumina, Al2O3) film on the surface protects the aluminium from
further oxidation in most environments.
However, at high temperature the rate of material oxidation is rapid. The oxide film
grows at a parabolic rate consuming the base metal. The rapid oxidation is the result
of the increased diffusion rates at increased temperatures and the decreased
effectiveness of the oxide layer as a barrier. Factors that improve the effectiveness of
the oxide barrier at high temperatures are a high melting point and high electrical
resistivity of the oxide layer. Thus Al2O3 and Cr2O3, which have high melting points
(low diffusion rates) and high resistivity, are effective barriers to oxidation.
Another consideration is the volume of the oxide layer with respect to the base metal.
If the oxide has less volume than the metal from which it was formed, then it will
crack and expose new metal to the atmosphere. If the volume of the oxide is larger
than the metal from which it formed it will buckle and spall, Figure 38. Both these
situations lead to constant exposure of the atmosphere to unprotected metal and the
rates of oxidation will be high. Thus for high temperature oxidation resistance:
1) the protective oxide layer must have a high melting point and have low electrical
conductivity
2) the oxide volume must be similar to that of the metal from which it formed.
Figure 38: Breakdown of oxide films [16]
The problem with oxidation is that the formation of the oxide decreases the thickness
of the base metal. If oxidation is rapid, then the metal structure will rapidly lose
thickness, and thus load carrying capability, and will fail under service conditions
3.3 Engine Materials
The materials used in the turbine engine are shown in Figure 39. The differences in
material are mainly related to the different operating temperatures. In the forward
section, where the temperature is low to medium, titanium parts are often used. In the
high temperature rear combustion areas nickel based superalloys and some ceramics
are used. The outer casing experiences low temperatures and thus aluminium and
composites are suitable materials. The materials used are summarised in Table 4.
Composite
Aluminium
Titanium
Steel
Nickel
Kevlar
Figure 39: Turbine engine materials
Table 4: Materials Used in the Gas Turbine Engine [6,17]

Component Materials
Fan Blades Superplastically formed titanium alloy
skin diffusion bonded to a titanium
honeycomb core
Compressor Vanes, Discs and Blades With Increasing temperature the materials
change from titanium alloys to 12% Cr
steel to nickel based superalloys
Combustor High temperatures means nickel based
superalloys are used
Turbine Blades Discs and Vanes High temperatures means nickel based
Figure 40 shows a turbine blade superalloys are used (see sections 3.4 and
3.5)
Shafts The shafts are made of steel
Casings Aluminium alloys and composites
3.4. Nickel Based Superalloys
Nickel based superalloys were developed from Ni-Cr heating elements. Nickel based
superalloys possess high strength and toughness at high temperature, creep resistance
up to 1000oC and corrosion resistance making them ideal materials for turbine
engines. The strength of various aircraft materials with increasing temperature is
shown in Figure 41. The development of superalloy microstructure and composition
over time is shown in Figures 42 & 43. The function of the alloying elements used in
these alloys is shown in Table 5. Superalloy microstructures are shown in Figure 44

Figure 40: A single crystal turbine blade [6]
Figure 41: Strength of aircraft materials with increasing temperatures [6]
Figure 42: Superalloy alloying elements over time [17]

Figure 43: Microstructure of Ni based superalloys over time [17]
Table 5: Function of alloying elements in Ni based superalloys

Alloying Elements Function
Cr Oxidation resistance
Al, Ti, Nb Strengthening from ordered γ ’precipitates
Cr, Mo, W, V Carbide strengthening
Cr, Mo, W Solid solution strengthening
Hf Grain boundary pinning
Figure 44: Ni based superalloy microstructures. A) Carbides at the grain boundary

and γ’precipitates in the matrix B) Superalloy aged at two temperatures to produce
large and small cubic γ ’precipitates [9]
The combination of strengthening techniques from all the alloying elements gives the
superalloys their outstanding high temperature properties. The solid solution
strengthening lasts to high temperatures and the large atomic species used means
diffusion is slow and creep is retarded. The carbides pin both dislocations and
boundaries, strengthening the alloy and preventing creep. The γ
’precipitates that form
are coherent and of the form Ni3 Al or Ni3Ti. The low surface energy of the
precipitates minimises overaging and thus provides good strength and creep resistance
at high temperatures. By varying ageing temperatures, combinations of small and
large precipitates can be formed giving higher fractions of precipitate and increasing
strength.
3.5 Turbine Blade Design
Turbine blades operate at 1400oC and are required to have a service life of 10 000-20
000 hours. The techniques used to meet these requirements are:
1) the use of nickel based superalloys (containing many precipitates, solid solution
atoms and having high oxidation resistance)
2) the blades are cast a single crystal. This means that there are no grain boundaries
within the structure and thus minimises creep see Fig 45
3) the blades are internally cooled to allow increased operating temperatures. Typical
cooling design features are shown in Figure 46
4) the blades are coated to increase the oxidation resistance as shown in Figure 47.
A timeline of techniques to raise engine operating temperatures is shown in Figures

48 & 49
Figure 45: Turbine blades cast to promote different grain structures [15]
Figure 46: Blade cooling techniques [16]

Figure 47: History of turbine blade coating systems [17]
Figure 48: Developments to increase engine operating temperatures [16]
Figure 49: Developments to increase turbine metal capability [9]

3.6 Turbine Blade Coatings
There are two types of coating for turbine blades. The first are metallic coatings such
as chromium or aluminium or complex NiCoCrAlY alloys. These provide corrosion
and oxidation protection by forming protective Cr2O3 and Al2O3 surface oxide layers.
The second type of coating is the thermal barrier coating (TBC) as shown in Figure
50. The superalloy substrate provides the structural strength. The ceramic coating
provides a thermal barrier between the superalloy and the hot combustion gas while
the metallic coating provides oxidation and corrosion protection and provides a
surface for the ceramic layer to adhere to.
Superalloy Substrate:
Provides - strength
Metallic Bond Coat :
Provides - oxidation / corrosion
protection
- surface for ceramic to
Cooling Ceramic Top Coat:
Air Provides - thermal insulation
TBC System
Figure 50: Thermal barrier coatings
4. CORROSION
Corrosion control is of extreme importance to the aircraft industry because of its

potential impact on human safety and expensive aircraft structures. Thus, corrosion
resistance is a vitally important factor to consider when choosing aircraft materials .
Corrosion is experienced as aircraft may be in service for up to 30 years in exposure
to many varied environments: sub zero temperatures, high humidity, tropical
conditions, rain, salt spray, ice, UV radiation, atmospheric oxygen and pollutants. For
the airframe, corrosion in the form of stress corrosion cracking, pit, and crevice
corrosion are the most important factors. For engine components, high temperature
oxidation is the most important consideration due to the high temperature operating
conditions.
Corrosion resistance is often improved by adding a coating to the material to protect

the surface. For example; the anodising of aluminium promotes a thick alumina
coating on the surface of the material. This both protects the aluminium from the
atmosphere and corrosive chemicals. Chromate conversion coating of aluminium is a
similar technique widely used in aircraft structures, again to prevent corrosion. The
main types of aircraft corrosion are detailed below.

4.1.Surface Corrosion
Surface corrosion is a superficial, uniform corrosion that is only objectionable from

an aesthetic viewpoint. Dulling of a bright surface or discolouration are examples of
this. However, surface corrosion can be an indication of a protective barrier break-
down and thus should be examined closely to avoid the development of more serious
corrosion.
4.2. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
This is a process whereby a typically ductile alloy fails in a brittle manner when
subject to the simultaneous effects of a tensile surface stress and a corrosive
environment – neither of which would cause major damage if acting alone. Where
alternating stresses are involved, it is known as corrosion fatigue. The cracks grow
from stress induced flaws (therefore a threshold stress is required) but may have
origins in features such as corrosion pits. The stress does not need to be applied
externally, but may be the result of residual manufacturing stresses or thermal
stresses. SCC is the major source of corrosion failure in thick aircraft structures such
as thick plate and forgings. In aluminium alloys, the cracking is intergranular and only
occurs in alloys when appreciable amounts of solute elements such as Cu, Mg, Si, Zn
and Li are present after certain heat treatments are applied. The factors thought to
contribute to the SCC effect in Al-alloys include:
1) precipitate free zones at the grain boundaries

2) peak aged microstructures (due to Guinier Preston / GP zones)
3) dispersion of precipitates at the grain boundaries
4) differences in solute concentrations at boundaries
5) hydrogen embrittlement at the grain boundaries
6) chemisorption of atomic species at the crack tip
Titanium was considered immune to SCC for a long time though it has been shown to
be susceptible in specific environments. However, titanium SCC failures in service
are rare. Nevertheless, care must be taken during manufacture and overhaul of
titanium parts as some alloys are embrittled by common degreasing solvents (such as
organic chlorides).
4.3. Galvanic corrosion
This occurs when two different metals of different galvanic potential are in contact in
the presence of water (electrolyte). The more anodic material will corrode at an
accelerated rate resulting in a build up of corrosion product near the contact area.
Galvanic corrosion can be a problem for aluminium alloys as it is anodic to most
other structural metals. However, the occurrence of galvanic corrosion depends on
factors other than just the electrode potential. Impurity elements and alloying
elements can pose problems in aluminium alloys. At localised regions of high or low
alloying element concentration, localised regions of high and low corrosion resistance
(electrode potential) form. This leads to pitting type corrosion in the areas where the
corrosion resistance is lowest. In addition, segregation of certain elements can lead to
intergranular corrosion (where the corrosion follows the grain boundaries) and
exfoliation where corrosion products force surface layers and grains to delaminate.
4.4.Crevice corrosion
This is where local differences in electrolyte ionic concentrations on the metal surface
cause corrosion to occur. In the crevice or gap in a structure the electrolyte is deprived
of oxygen and thus oxidation reactions occur within the crevice. An example of this is
shown in Figure 51. Crevice corrosion often occurs at rivets and metal joints. Crevice
corrosion is the major corrosion problem with titanium alloys.
Figure 51: Crevice corrosion [15]
4.5. Pitting Corrosion
Pitting corrosion is a form of localised corrosion in which small pits form in the
material surface, see Figure 52. Pitting can occur due to chemical variations within
the base material or due to a crevice corrosion type effect in preexisting flaws. An
example of pitting corrosion occurs when a water droplet shields the underlying metal
from oxygen. It is most common in marine environments as Cl- ions locally attack
protective oxide layers. Titanium is stable in most corrosive environments but is
subject to pitting corrosion in halide containing aqueous solutions at high temperature.
4.6. Exfoliation
Exfoliation corrosion, shown in Figure 53, occurs in high strength aluminium alloys
where the grains have become elongated and flattened during processing. The
corrosion is intergranular (occurs along grain boundaries) and proceeds along planes
parallel to the surface. The corrosion products, which have greater volume than the
metal from which they formed, then cause delamination of the surface metal. This is
the main corrosion problem in airframe sheet materials.

Figure 52: Pitting corrosion [16]
Figure 53: Exfoliation corrosion [7]
5. NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
The critical safety requirement of aircraft components means that they must be
regularly tested for flaws. To avoid damaging the components during testing
specialised non-destructive testing (NDT) techniques are used. The most common
non-destructive testing techniques are:
5.1 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
This is a simple method of testing for surface defects and may be used on complex
shapes. The piece to be tested is first cleaned and dried. Then the penetrant is applied
to the surface of the material. The penetrant is a highly wetting liquid capable of being
drawn into small cracks and is often brightly coloured or fluorescent to enable easy
detection. After a period of time to allow the liquid to be drawn into cracks, the excess
surface penetrant is removed. A thin film of absorbent material, the developer, is then
added to the surface. The developer draws the penetrant from defects back to the
surface where it can be seen and detected by visual inspection (Figure 54). However,
the technique does not detect sub-surface flaws and coatings can often prevent
detection.
Figure 54: Liquid penetrant inspection: a) the penetrant is applied, b) excess
penetrant is removed leaving penetrant in crack, c) developer applied drawing
penetrant out and delineating the crack [18]
5.2 Magnetic Particle Inspection
This testing is based on the principle that the magnetic field around a magnetised
ferromagnetic material (such as steel) will be distorted in the vicinity of defects
(Figure 55A). To test the component it is first cleaned and then a magnetic field is
applied. Once magnetised, magnetic particles are applied to the component surface.
These are attracted to sites where the magnetic field is distorted and thus delineate the
flaws. Both surface and sub-surface flaws can be detected. The surface is then re-
cleaned and de-magnetised. As flaws parallel to the magnetic field will not be
detected it is important to test the material in a range of magnetic field orientations
(Figure 55B).
5.3 Ultrasonic Inspection
Ultrasonic inspection involves sending high frequency sound waves through a

material. The transmitted or reflected sound waves are monitored and interpreted
(Figure 56). The surface of the component is coated with a coupling agent to allow
transmission of the ultrasonic waves from a sending transducer. The sending
transducer emits the ultrasonic vibrations into the part while a receiving transducer
measures the reflected or transmitted vibrations, which are then displayed on an
oscilloscope. The received vibrations from a defect will appear different to those from
an unflawed part. If the receiver is on the same side of the component as the
transmitter then it measures the vibration echoes and is known as the pulse-echo
technique. If the transmitter and receiver are on different sides of the component the
receiver measures the transmitted vibrations and is known as the through transmission
technique. While ultrasonic inspection has high sensitivity to flaws and is a rapid
testing procedure, it can be difficult to use with complex shapes and extensive
operator training may be required.
A) B)
Figure 55: A) Effect of defects on the induced magnetic field. B) Crack detection in
different magnetic field orientations [18]
A)
B)
Figure 56: Ultrasonic testing; A) transmission and echo, B) oscilloscope output [9]
5.4 Radiography
Radiography covers X-ray, gamma ray and neutron beam inspection. It involves
measuring the differential penetration and absorption of radiation through a material.
The radiation penetration is recorded on photographic film. The extent of exposure of
the film is proportional to the amount of radiation passing through the component
(Figure 57). By examining the exposure of the film it is possible to detect the
composition and thickness of the component as well as the presence of flaws (eg
cracks do not absorb radiation and thus in these regions the radiation has high
penetration). This is the most expensive NDT method, due to the expensive radiation
sources, film and processing. In addition it is difficult to apply to complex shapes and
safety precautions are necessary when dealing with radiation. However the technique
is good for examining the internal regions of a material.
Figure 57: X-ray radiography [9]
5.5 Other Techniques
There are a range of other NDT techniques used in the aerospace industry, such as:
5.5.1: Eddy Current Inspection

This involves measuring the surface currents produced in conductive material when
brought near an alternating current coil. It is possible to detect surface and near
surface flaws with high speed and low cost. However the response is sensitive to a
number of variables so interpretation can be difficult and extensive training is
required.
5.5.2 Acoustic Emission Monitoring

This involves measuring the high frequency sounds emitted when a material deforms
or cracks. In critical components constant surveillance is possible to give warning of
impending danger. However, the technique can only detect growing flaws.
5.5.3 Thermography
This involves monitoring the temperature of a material as it undergoes a temperature
change. In the vicinity of flaws the rate of heat flow will be altered and thus the flaw
can be detected. Similar techniques are used to detect the presence of unwanted
water/ice in aircraft composite structures.
6. REFERENCES
1. Boeing Aircraft Company Website : http://www.boeing.com, 2001
2. Janes All the Worlds Aircraft: 1999-2000 Edition, Ed. P.Jackson, Surrey, UK,
1999
3. Cessna Aircraft Company Website : http://www.cessna.com, 2001
4. Janes All the Worlds Aircraft: 95-96 Edition, Ed. P.Jackson, Surrey, UK, 1995
5. Airliners Website : http://www.airliners.net, 2001
6. Flower, H.M. ed., High Performance Materials in Aerospace, Chapman &

Hall, London, 1995
7. Polmear, I.J., Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the Light Metals, Arnold, London,
1995
8. Charles, J.A., Crane, F.A.A. & Furness, J.A.G., Selection and Use of
Engineering Materials: Third Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 1997
9. Askeland, D.R., The Science and Engineering of Materials: Third SI Edition,

Chapman and Hall, London, 1996
10. Ashby, M.F. & Jones, D.R.H., Engineering Materials 2: An Introduction to

Microstructures, Processing and Design, Pergammon Press, Oxford, 1994
11. Interavia, December 1997 ‘Eurofighter Gets the Go’
12. Niu, C-Y. M, Airframe Structural Design: Practical Design Information and
Data on Aircraft Structures, Conmilit Press Ltd, Hong Kong, 1988
13. Middleton, D.H. ed., Composite Materials in Aircraft Structures, Longman

Scientific & Technical, UK, 1990
14. Engineered Materials Handbook Volume 1: Composites, Ed. T.J. Reinhart,

ASM International, Ohio, 1987
15. Callister, W.D., Jr, Materials Science and Engineering an Introduction: 5th
Edition, John Wiley and Sons Inc, New York, 2000
16. Ashby, M.F. & Jones, D.R.H., Engineering Materials 1: An Introduction to

their Properties and Applications, 2nd Edition, Butterworth Heinemann,
Oxford, 1997
17. Sims, C.T., Stoloff, N.S. & Hagel, W.C. eds., Superalloys II, John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1987

18. Degarmo, E.P., Materials and Processes in Manufacturing, Macmillian
Publishing Company, New York, 1988
19. Schlenker, B.R., Introduction to Materials Science: SI Edition, John Wiley &
Sons, Milton, 1974
20. Cutler, J., Understanding Aircraft Structures: Third Edition, Blackwell

Science, Oxford, 1999
21. Megson, T.H.G., Aircraft Structures for Engineering Students: Third Edition,
Arnold, London, 1999
22. ASM Handbook Volume 20: Materials Selection and Design, Ed. G.E. Dieter,
ASM International, Ohio, 1997
23. Metals Handbook Ninth Edition: Volume 13: Corrosion, Eds. L.J. Korb &
D.L. Olson, ASM International, Ohio, 1987
7. INTERNET LINKS
7.1 General aerospace

http://www.howstuffworks.com/sc-aviation-transportation.htm
http://www.matweb.com/
http://www.howstuffworks.com/airplane.htm
http://www.howstuffworks.com/search/index.htm?words=materials+engineering
http://smc.larc.nasa.gov/coe/
http://as.wm.edu/Nondestructive.html
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/HSR/EPMAirf.html
http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/HSR/index.html
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/aeromagazine/aero_07/corrosn.html
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/background.html
http://www.boeing.com/commercial/747family/index.html
http://www.boeing.com/news/feature/new747/passenger.html
7.2 Aluminium
http://www.aluminum.org/default.cfm/0/2
http://www.capral-aluminium.com.au
7.3 Titanium
http://www.ife.no/media/446_FactsTiAlloy.pdf
http://www.ife.no/media/485_Faktaark_oversikt21.pdf

http://www.ramcast.com/whytitan.htm
7.4 Composites
http://www.compositesone.com/product.html
http://www.aero.usyd.edu.au/wwwcomp/cssgmain.html
http://www.dupont.com/cgi-bin/corp/proddbx.cgi
http://www.composite-solutions.com/FAQinfo.htm
http://www.advancedcomposites.com
http://www.compositetek.com/benefits.htm
7.5 Turbines and materials

http://www.gas-turbines.com/begin/index.htm#HISTORY
http://www.howstuffworks.com/turbine.htm
7.6 Corrosion
http://nace.org/nace/index.asp
http://www.corrosionsource.com
8. SYMBOLS
E Youngs Modulus
Ef Youngs Modulus, Fibres
Em Youngs Modulus, Matrix
fF Volume Fraction of Fibres
K ISCC Stress Corrosion Cracking Fracture Toughness
ρ Density
σy Yield Stress
σ FS Fatigue Strength
∂a
Fatigue Crack Growth Rate, Crack growth (a) per cycle (N)
∂N


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AERONAUTICAL MATERIALS

Tristan Burg and Alan Crosky

School of Material Science and Engineering

University of New South Wales

Copyright Regulations 1969

This material has been reproduced and communicated to you

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Do not remove this notice.

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 2

In this set of notes we will

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 3

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 4

Figure 3: Boeing 747

Figure 4: Aircraft operational phases [6]

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 6

Spars, Frames and Ribs

Figure 7: Landing gears [6]

Figure 8: Skin heating across the airframe [8]

Table 1: Skin Temperature at 23 000m (-56°C) with Emissivity Factor 0.9

MACH NUMBER SATURATION TEMPERATURE

Figure 9: Civil transport airframe construction materials 1990 & 1995

Figure 10: Military aircraft airframe construction materials

2.1 Aluminium Alloys

Figure 11: Materials in airframe construction [8]

2.1.1. Strengthening and Age Hardening

Aluminium alloys are strengthened in a number of ways including: solid solution

1) decreasing solid solubility with decreasing temperature

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 11

1) solid solution strengthening in the SSSS

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 12

2.1.2. 2XXX Series Aluminium Alloys

Figure 16: Aluminium airframe alloy tempers [6]

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 13

Figure 17: 2XXX series alloys in the airframe

Table 2: Aluminium Airframe Alloy Compositions

SSSS → GPB(Cu,Mg)→ S'(Al,Cu,Mg) → S(Al2CuMg)

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 14

Figure 18: Ageing heat treatment for 2x24-Al

As shown in Table 1, the skin temperature of supersonic aircraft increases with

2.1.3. 7XXX Series Aluminium Alloys

AlSSSS → GP → η'(MgZn2) → η(MgZn2)

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 15

Figure 20: 7XXX series alloys in airframe construction

Figure 21: T7- heat treatment for 7XXX-Al

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 16

Figure 22: Effect lithium on modulus of Al-alloys [7]

Figure 23: Al-Li alloys in the new Eurofighter (EF2000) [11]

2.2. Titanium Alloys

The most common titanium alloy in airframe construction is Ti-6Al-4V, otherwise

Figure 24: Microstructure of Ti-6Al-4V. A) Widmanstatten α, B) Equiaxed α (white)

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 18

Figure 26: Forged Ti-6Al-4V fan blades [7]

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 19

Composites consist of two or more materials combined to give a material with

The use of these advanced composites in airframe construction has increased

Figure 27: Composite applications in the Boeing 767 [12]

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 20

Figure 29: Composite applications in the Boeing 757 [13]

Table 3: Composite Applications in Selected Aircraft [14]

Figure 30: Properties of various composites [14]

Aeronautical Materials – Teacher Reference 22

Figure 32: Properties of common reinforcing fibres [13]