BRONCHI TO TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES

Bronchi are defined as conducting airways that have cartilage (rings or plates) whereas
those conducting airways without cartilage are termed bronchioles. The branching of the
conducting airways in rodents occurs as an asynchronous, monopodial branching pattern in
which smaller airways branch off of the larger parent airway through the lung. Size and shape of
rodent airways can vary between strains. Humans also have asynchronous branching, but
undergo what is called dichotomous branching, in which the larger parent airway segment
divides at an approximately 45° angle into two smaller daughter segments.

In the lungs we find the last segments of the conductive portion of the respiratory system.
The main bronchi divide into lobar bronchi which in turn give rise to segmental bronchi. The
latter supply the bronchopulmonary segments of the lungs. Bronchial branches are accompanied
by branches of the pulmonary artery, nerves and lymph vessels. These structures usually travel in
intersegmental and interlobar sheets of connective tissue. Conductive structures of a size down to
~1 mm are termed bronchi. Smaller ones are called bronchioles. Aside from their different sizes,
bronchi are characterized by the presence of glands and supporting cartilage. The cartilage
supporting the bronchi is typically found in several small pieces.

Bronchioles are the terminal segments of the conductive portion. At the transition from
bronchi to bronchioles the epithelium changes to a ciliated columnar epithelium, but most of the
cell types found in the epithelium of other parts of the conductive portion are still present.
Glands and cartilage are absent. The layer of smooth muscle is relatively thicker than in the
bronchi.

In humans, the right main bronchus is shorter, wider, and more vertical in direction than
the left. The right bronchus divides into three lobar bronchi that respectively supply the three
right lung lobes.

The bronchopulmonary segments contain a centrally located segmental bronchus running

together with a pulmonary artery and are drained by pulmonary veins that run peripherally within
the intersegmental septum.

BRONCHI

At the level of the fifth thoracic vertebrate, the trachea bifurcates into the right and left
principal bronchi. The right and left principal bronchi are 2.5 and 5 cm long, respectively, with
the right bronchus being more vertical and wider than the left. The right principal bronchus
branches into the superior lobar bronchus, which runs superolaterally to enter the hilum and
approximately 1 cm from its origin it divides into three segmental bronchi, the apical, posterior,
and anterior. The narrower and longer left principal bronchus is anterior to the descending aorta,
esophagus, and thoracic duct, and branches into the superior and inferior lobar bronchi. The left
superior bronchus supplies the left superior lobe. Unlike the right principal bronchi, the left
principal bronchus only splits into two segmental bronchi due to the absence of a middle lobe in
the left lung. The distribution of the left inferior lobar bronchi to the left inferior lobe is similar
to the right inferior lobe.

BRONCHIOLES

The bronchioles are further divisions of the trachea and are also essential for cleaning,
warming, and moistening the incoming inhaled air (Berend et al., 1991; Horsfield et al., 1987).
The left and right bronchi further divide into lobar and segmental bronchi and bronchioles within
the lungs. Bronchioles are made up of smooth muscle layers to facilitate bronchodilata- tion and
bronchoconstriction. The epithelial cells mainly lining the bronchial tree are ciliated columnar
cells that are tightly packed and coupled by gap junctions. Each columnar cell has up to 300 cilia
projecting from its apical surface that facilitate mucociliary clearance from the lower respiratory
tract. The cilia project through a watery fluid into a layer of thick mucus secreted by the goblet
cells in the submucosal glands.

HISTOLOGY

BRONCHI

In rodents, the trachea bifurcates at the carina into two extrapulmonary bronchi that enter
the right and left lung lobes. Differences in epithelial cell thickness and composition of cell types
between rodents and humans are present in the primary bronchi

In humans, the main bronchi are histologically similar to the trachea, but the segmental or
tertiary bronchi are not. As the bronchi undergo successive divisions, they also undergo gradual
histologic changes. The epithelium diminishes in height, becoming simple columnar with little
pseudostratification; the number of goblet cells decreases; the density of elastic fibers in the
lamina propria increases; and the elastic fiber distribution becomes more uniform throughout the
connective tissue.

BRONCHIOLES

The transition from bronchi to bronchioles involves the reduction of airway cartilage,
submucosal glands, and surface epithelial height. As mentioned above, all intrapulmonary
airways of rodents lack cartilage and submucosal glands so are defined as bronchioles.

BRONCHUS-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE

Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT) is a localized accumulation of lymphoid cells that

participate in airway immune responses. This lymphoid tissue, located within the airway
submucosa, is composed predominantly of T and B lymphocytes, but also contains plasma cells,
dendritic cells, and macrophages. Although the distribution of BALT along human airways
appears random, some reports have suggested increased localization to airway bifurcations.
BALT is also frequently found between airways and arteries.