Candidate’s Declaration

I hereby declare that the Summer Training, which is being presented in the
Report, entitled “Technologies in Networking and Communication” in partial
fulfillment for the award of Degree of “Bachelor of Technology” in Dept. of
Computer Science and Engineering submitted to the Department of Computer
Science And Engineering, Sri Balaji college of Engineering and Technology,
Rajasthan Technical University is a record of my own investigations carried
under the Guidance of Mr. Rahul Sharma, Asst. Prof., Department of Computer
Science And Engineering, Sri Balaji college of Engineering and Technology.
I have not submitted the matter presented in this Report anywhere for the
award of any other degree.

(Name and Signature of Candidate)

Shubham Gupta
Enrollment No: 16E1SBCSF35P201

Counter Signed By:

Mr. Rahul Sharma
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science & Engineering
Sri Balaji College of Engineering & Technology
 Acknowledgement

With great pleasure, I would like to extend my sincere gratitude and thanks to
Mr. Amit Kumar Mishra (Head of Department, Computer Science), Mr. Rahul
Sharma, Asst. prof. CSE and all faculty members for giving me such
opportunity to make seminar Report and guiding through all the aspects of a
Report.
I express my thanks to Dr. Engr. I.P. Meel, Principle, Sri Balaji college of
Engineering and Technology, Jaipur for extending support.
The aim of this summer training is to be familiar to the practical aspects and
uses of theoretical knowledge and clarifying the career goals, so I have
successfully completed the internship and complete this report as the
summery and conclusion that I have drawn from the seminar experience.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to our project coordinator Mr.
Rahul Sharma (Asst. prof, CSE) who gave their valuable time and grave me
chance to learn something despite having a busy schedule guided me all
through the project. Their careful and precious guidance, which were extremely
valuable for my study both theoretically and practically.
I am incredibly thankful to all my friends for their help, moral support and
their valuable suggestion. Most importantly, I would like to thank my family,
my brother, my sister and other supporting person for their unconditional
support.
I perceive this opportunity as a big milestone in my career development. I will
strive to use gained skills and knowledge in the best possible way, and I will
continue to work in their improvement, in order to attain desired career
objectives.
Shubham Gupta
Enrollment No.: 16E1SBCSF35P201
 Abstract

The aim of the network is to provide highly available and scalable environment
for collocation of Internet, Intranet and Extranet services, and applications. It
providing high-speed access to data, voice and internet-based applications. The
network is planned such that it will provide the necessary backbone
connectivity between the different offices to ensure that the network becomes
an enabler for business plans.
Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between
two or more computers and a computer network or data network is a
telecommunications network that allows computers to exchange data. The
physical connection between networked computing devices is established using
either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the
Internet.
This report signifies basics of Data Communication and Computer Network
(DCN) and will also showcase various advance concepts related to Data
Communication and Computer Network.
 Contents
Candidate’s Declaration
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Introduction
1.1 Introduction to Summer Training
1.2 Importance of Summer Training
1.3 Company Profile
1.3.1 Services
1.3.2 Organization Structure
1.3.3 Services provided by BSNL
2. Technology I Learned
3. Transmission
3.1 Types of Transmission
3.2 Types of Network Connection
4. Mobile Communication
4.1 Journey from 1G to 4G
4.2 Mobile system Architecture
4.3 Types of Identification Numbers
5. C-DOT and OCB
5.1 C-DOT
5.1.1 General description of C-DOT
5.1.2 NGN
5.1.3 C-DOT to NGN
5.2 OCB
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Division of OCB-283
5.2.3 Functional Architecture
5.2.4 Call Processing
5.2.5 PCM
6. Leased Lines and Broadband
6.1 Broadband
6.1.1 Types of Broadband Technologies
6.2 Leased Lines
6.2.1 Uses and Benefits
7. Conclusion and Future Work
8. References
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction to Summer Training

My training was in Networking, which I successfully completed from BSNL
which is the largest provider of fixed telephony and broadband services with
more than 60% market share, and is the fourth largest mobile telephony
provider in India.
Incorporated in 2000, Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (abbreviated BSNL) is an
Indian state-owned telecommunications company headquartered in New Delhi.
Keeping the quality and industry specific training as main motto to skill the
youth of INDIA, we have trained more than 2 lacs+ students and professionals
from colleges and corporates over the years to make them job ready.
1.2 Importance of Summer Training
The best part of an Internship is that it teaches a young person about a specific
industry and company. An internship gives you an opportunity to learn the
ropes in an environment where everyone knows you are new at this, and
ideally, they will mentor you and give you a guiding hand. A good experience
will give us hands on experience with the company.
1.3 Company Profile
I have completed my Internship in Networking from BSNL which is a leading
training network of India in the field of networking.

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited (BSNL) is an Indian state-owned

telecommunications company headquartered in New Delhi. It was incorporated
on 15 September 2000 and assumed the business of providing telecom services
and network management from the erstwhile Central Government Departments
of Telecom Services (DTS) and Telecom Operations (DTO) as of 1 October 2000
on a going-concern basis. It is the largest provider of fixed telephony and
broadband services with more than 60% market share, and is the fourth
largest mobile telephony provider in India.
BSNL is India's oldest communication service provider and its history can be
traced back to the British era. During the British era, the first telegraph line,
was established between Calcutta and Diamond Harbour. The British East
India Company started using the telegraph in 1851 and till Pehle Indians
telegraph lines were laid across the country. In 1854, the telegraph service was
opened to the public and the first telegram was sent from Mumbai to Pune. In
1885, the Indian Telegraph Act was passed by the British Imperial Legislative
Counsel. After the bifurcation of post and Telegraph department in 1980s, the
creation of Department of Telecom by 1990s eventually led to the emergence of
the State-owned telegraph and telephone company BSNL.

Type Government-owned

Industry Telecommunications

Founded 15 September 2000; 18 years ago

Headquarters New Delhi,

India

Key people Pravin Kumar Purwar

(Chairman & MD)

Services Fixed line telephone

Mobile phone

Broadband

Internet television

IPTV

Revenue ₹19,308 crore (US$2.8 billion) (2019)

Operating ₹-14,000.00 crore (US$−2.0 billion)

income (2019) Estimated

Net income ₹3,879.92 crore (US$560 million)

(2016)
 Total assets 70,746.75 crore (US$10 billion) (2016)

Owner Government of India

Members 114.342 million

(December 2018)

Number of 174,216 (2018)

employees

Website www.bsnl.co.in

Services
BSNL Mobile is a major provider of GSM cellular mobile services under the
brand name Cellone. BSNL provides a complete telecom services solution to
enterprise customers including MPLS, P2P and Internet leased lines. It
provides fixed line services and landline using CDMA technology and its own
extensive optical fiber network. BSNL provides Internet access services through
dial-up connections as prepaid, NetOne as Postpaid and DataOne as BSNL
Broadband.
BSNL offers value-added services such as Free Phone Service (FPH), India
Telephone Card (Prepaid card), Account Card Calling (ACC), Virtual Private
Network (VPN), Tele-voting, Premium Rate Service (PRM)India. BSNL also offers
the IPTV which enables customers to watch television through the Internet and
Voice and Video Over Internet Protocol (VVoIP).
In 2007, BSNL announced plans to provide 5 million broadband connections
and secured 80% of the INR 25 billion rural telephony project of the
Government of India. On 20 March 2009, BSNL launched blackberry services
across India. BSNL paid Rs. 101.87 billion for 3G spectrum in 2010. As of
2011, BSNL offered coverage in over 800 cities across India. BSNL launched in
2012 a 3G wireless pocket-sized router called Wink net Mf50. BSNL 3G
provides HSPA+ service with a top speed of 21.1 Mbit/s downlink and 5.76
Mbit/s uplink.
After providing it for 160 years, BSNL discontinued its telegraph service on 15
July 2013. It began delivering telegrams to the public in February 1855; this
service was upgraded to a web-based messaging system in 2010 and had been
offered through 182 telegraph offices across India.
Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, a Public Sector Enterprise, also provides fiber
plans for the home, which are generally known as BSNL FTTH broadband
service. This is the fastest broadband service provided by BSNL, offering speeds
up to 100Mbit/s to home-based Internet users.

ORGANISATION STRUCTURE

SERVICES PROVIDED BY BSNL

WiMAX is a unique technology being deployed by BSNL for the first time in
India. This technology provides fixed as well as fully mobile high-speed
broadband connectivity along with roaming feature. It provides users a thrilling
Internet browsing experience.
BSNL offers large variety of Customer Premises Equipment (CPE) including
Outdoor, Indoor and USB dongles from which customers can choose as per
their application requirements.
Indoor: Best suited for Home/Office users. Can be used in moving vehicle also
Dongle: Small Dongle can be connected directly to PC / Laptop via USB port.
Outdoor: Suitable for remote and rural areas. Can be used up to 15 Km
distance (Line of sight) from BTS site.
 2. TECHNOLOGY I LEARNED

Synchronous Transport Module

Synchronous Transport Module level-1 (STM-1) is a fiber optic network
standard for synchronous digital hierarchy. The transmission format is
considered the fundamental building block for synchronous digital hierarchies.
Apart from the fact that higher rate signals are created by multiplexing
numerous STM-1 signals, lower rate payloads are also mapped into STM-1.
The Synchronous Transport Module level-1 frame structure has nine rows and
270 columns of bytes, totaling 2,430 bytes. It is a byte-oriented arrangement
with a bit rate of 155.52 Mb/s.

4G System
4G is the current mainstream cellular service offered to cell phone users,
performance roughly 10 times faster than 3G service. One of the most
important features in the 4G mobile networks is the domination of high-speed
packet transmissions or burst traffic in the channels. The same codes used in
the 2G-3G networks are applied to 4G mobile or wireless networks, the
detection of very short bursts will be a serious problem due to their very poor
partial correlation properties. A recent study has indicated that traditional
multilayer network architecture based on the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model may not be well suited for 4G mobile network, where transactions
of short packets will be the major part of the traffic in the channels.

Next Generation Network

The Next-generation network (NGN) is a body of key architectural changes in
telecommunication core and access networks. The general idea behind the NGN
is that one network transports all information and services (voice, data, and all
sorts of media such as video) by encapsulating these into IP packets, similar to
those used on the Internet. NGNs are commonly built around the Internet
Protocol, and therefore the term all IP is also sometimes used to describe the
transformation of formerly telephone-centric networks toward NGN.

Satellite broadband
Satellite Broadband, also referred to as internet-by-satellite, is a high-speed bi-
directional internet connection established via communications satellites
located in the geostationary orbit. The end customer sends and receives data
via a satellite dish e.g. located on the rooftop.
 TRANSMISSION

The transmission model of communication is the one that is most prominent

both in our society, and most industrial cultures. The transmission model of
communication focuses on the transportation of a message from a sender to a
receiver in hopes of disseminating information.
One example of transmission is the sending of a signal with limited duration,
for example a block or packet of data, a phone call, or an email. Transmission
of a digital message, or of a digitized analog signal, is known as data
transmission.

Transmission Modes in Computer Networks

Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between
two devices connected over a network. It is also called Communication Mode.
These modes direct the direction of flow of information. There are three types of
transmission modes. They are:
1. Simplex Mode
2. Half duplex Mode
3. Full duplex Mode

SIMPLEX Mode
In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e.
communication is unidirectional. We cannot send a message back to the
sender. Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where we
just need to send a command/signal, and do not expect any response back.
Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television
and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.
HALF DUPLEX Mode
Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be transmitted in both
directions on a signal carrier, but not at the same time.
For example, on a local area network using a technology that has half-duplex
transmission, one workstation can send data on the line and then immediately
receive data on the line from the same direction in which data was just
transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one
that can carry data in both directions) but data can be sent in only one
direction at a time.
Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which message is sent one at a
time but messages are sent in both the directions.

FULL DUPLEX Mode

In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions as it is
bidirectional at the same time in other words, data can be sent in both
directions simultaneously.
Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which there is
communication between two persons by a telephone line, using which both can
talk and listen at the same time.
In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the
other for receiving data.

TYPES OF TRANSMISSION
Analog and Digital Transmission
There are a number of differences between analog and digital transmission,
and it is important to understand how conversions between analog and digital
occur. Let's look first at the older form of transmission, analog.

Analog Transmission
An analog wave form (or signal) is characterized by being continuously variable
along amplitude and frequency. In the case of telephony, for instance, when
you speak into a handset, there are changes in the air pressure around your
mouth. Those changes in air pressure fall onto the handset, where they are
amplified and then converted into current, or voltage fluctuations. Those
fluctuations in current are an analog of the actual voice pattern—hence the use
of the term analog to describe these signals.
When it comes to an analog circuit—what we also refer to as a voice-grade
line—we need to also define the frequency band in which it operates. The
human voice, for example, can typically generate frequencies from 100Hz to
10,000Hz, for a bandwidth of 9,900Hz.
But the ear does not require a vast range of frequencies to elicit meaning from
ordinary speech; the vast majority of sounds we make that constitute
intelligible speech fall between 250Hz and 3,400Hz. So, the phone company
typically allotted a total bandwidth of 4,000Hz for voice transmission.
Remember that the total frequency spectrum of twisted-pair is 1MHz. To
provision a voice-grade analog circuit, bandwidth-limiting filters are put on
that circuit to filter out all frequencies above 4,000Hz. That's why analog
circuits can conduct only fairly low-speed data communications. The maximum
data rate over an analog facility is 33.6Kbps when there are analog loops at
either end.
How 56Kbps Modems Break the 33.6Kbps Barrier?
With 56Kbps modems, only one end of the loop can be analog. The other end of
the connection has to be digital. So, in other words, if you're using a 56Kbps
modem to access your Internet service provider (ISP), you have an analog
connection from your home to the local exchange. But the ISP has a digital
subscriber line (DSL) or a digital termination facility from its location to its
exchange.

Digital Transmission
Digital transmission is quite different from analog transmission. For one thing,
the signal is much simpler. Rather than being a continuously variable wave
form, it is a series of discrete pulses, representing one bits and zero bits. Each
computer uses a coding scheme that defines what combinations of ones and
zeros constitute all the characters in a character set (that is, lowercase letters,
uppercase letters, punctuation marks, digits, keyboard control functions).
The digital pulse, like an analog signal, is eroded by impairments in the
network. But the weakened and impaired signal enters the regenerative
repeater, where the repeater examines the signal to determine what was
supposed to be a one and what was supposed to be a zero. The repeater
regenerates a new signal to pass on to the next point in the network, in essence
eliminating noise and thus vastly improving the error rate.

Analog Versus Digital Transmission

Feature Analog Digital Characteristics

Characteristics

Signal Continuously variable, Discrete signal, represented as either

in both amplitude and change in voltage or change in light
frequency levels
Feature Analog Digital Characteristics
Characteristics

Traffic Hz (for example, a Bits per second (for example, a T-1

measurement telephone channel is line carries 1.544Mbps, and an E-1
4KHz) line transports 2.048Mbps)

Bandwidth Low bandwidth High bandwidth that can support

(4KHz), which means high-speed data and emerging
low data transmission applications that involve video and
rates (up to 33.6Kbps) multimedia
because of limited
channel bandwidth

Network Low; one conversation High; multiplexers enable multiple

capacity per telephone channel conversations to share a
communications channel and hence
to achieve greater transmission
efficiencies

Network Poor; a lot of labor is Good; smart devices produce alerts,

manageability needed for network alarms, traffic statistics, asnd
maintenance and performance measurements, and
control because dumb technicians at a network control
analog devices do not center (NCC) or network operations
provide management center (NOC) can remotely monitor
information streams and manage the various network
that allow the device elements
to be remotely
managed

Power High because the Low because only two discrete

requirement signal contains a wide signals—the one and the zero—need
range of frequencies to be transmitted
and amplitudes

Security Poor; when you tap Good; encryption can be used

into an analog circuit,
you hear the voice
stream in its native
Feature Analog Digital Characteristics
Characteristics

form, and it is difficult

to detect an intrusion

Error rates High; 10–5 bits (that is, Low; with twisted-pair, 10–7 (that, is
1 in 100,000 bits) is 1 in 10 million bits per second) will
guaranteed to have an have an error, with satellite, 10–9
error (that is, 1 in 1 billion per second) will
have an error, and with fiber, 10–11
(that is only 1 in 10 trillion bits per
second) will have an error

Channels
A channel defines a logical conversation path. It is the frequency band, time
slot, or wavelength over which a single conversation flow. A channel is a child
of the digital age because digital facilities enable multiple channels. The
number of channels on a transmission line determines the number of
simultaneous conversations that can be supported. Because we are becoming
more digitalized all the time, you often hear people refer to the number of
channels rather than the number of circuits.

Lines and Trunks

Lines and trunks are basically the same thing, but they're used in different
situations. A line is a connection that is configured to support a normal calling
load generated by one individual. A trunk is a circuit that is configured to
support the calling loads generated by a group of users; it is the transmission
facility that ties together switching systems. A switching system is a device that
connects two transmission lines together. There are two major categories of
switching systems:
CPE switches—The most prevalent form of switch in the customer premises
equipment (CPE) environment is the private branch exchange (PBX), which is
called a private automatic branch exchange (PABX) in some parts of the world.
A PBX is used to establish connections between two points. It establishes
connections between telephones that are internal to the organization, and it
establishes connections between internal extensions and the outside world
(that is, the PSTN).
Network switches—A hierarchy of network switches has evolved over time,
and the appropriate switch is called into action, depending on which two points
the switches are connecting together.
The customer environment attaches to the PSTN, and the first point of access
is the local exchange, which is also referred to as a Class 5 office (and in North
America, as a central office). The traditional local exchange switch can handle
one or more exchanges, with each exchange capable of handling up to 10,000
subscriber lines, numbered 0000 to 9999. The only kind of call that a local
exchange can complete on its own, without touching any of the other switches
in the network, is to another number in that same local exchange.
For a local exchange to call a neighbor that resides 10 miles (16 kilometers)
away and who draws a dial tone from a different local exchange, the connection
between those two different exchanges is accomplished through the second
part of the hierarchy—a junction exchange. The tandem switch is used to
connect local exchanges throughout the metropolitan area. When it's time to
make a toll call, one that is long-distance in nature, another switching center is
called into action—the toll center (also called the Class 4 office, transit switch,
or trunk exchange). The toll center is responsible for establishing and
completing national, long-distance communications.
The top of the hierarchy is the international gateway, whose exchanges are
specifically designed to connect calls between different countries.
A trunk supplies the connections between the numerous switches within the
PSTN, between customer-owned switches such as the PBX, and between the
PBXs and the PSTN. On the other hand, a line supports a single user in the
form of a subscriber line in the PSTN or an extension provisioned from the
PBX.

Virtual Circuits
Today, because of the great interest in and increased use of packet switching,
most networks use virtual circuits. Unlike a physical circuit, which terminates
on specific physical ports, a virtual circuit is a series of logical connections
between sending and receiving devices. The virtual circuit is a connection
between two devices that acts as though it's a direct connection, but it may, in
fact, be composed of a variety of different routes. These connections are defined
by table entries inside the switch.
A connection is established after both devices exchange agreement on
communications parameters that are important to establishing and
maintaining the connection and on providing the proper performance for the
application they are supporting. The types of communication parameters that
could be included are message size, the path to be taken, how to deal with
acknowledgements in the event of errors, flow-control procedures, and error-
control procedures.
The term virtual circuit is largely used to describe connections between two
hosts in a packet-switching network, where the two hosts can communicate as
though they have a dedicated connection, although the packets may be taking
very different routes to arrive at their destination.
There are two types of virtual circuits: permanent virtual circuits (PVCs) and
switched virtual circuits (SVCs). The vast majority of implementations today
involve PVCs. PVCs and SVCs are commonly used in packet-switching
networks (for example, X.25, Frame Relay, ATM).

Types of Network Connections

Three major types of networks connections can be made:
Switched network connections—A switched connection is referred to as a
dialup connection. This implies that you're using a series of network switches
to establish the connection between the parties.
Leased-line network connections—A leased line is also referred to as a
private line. With a leased line, the same locations or the same devices are
always connected, and transmission between those locations or devices always
occurs on the same path.
Dedicated network connections—In essence, a dedicated line works exactly
like a leased line. It is always connected and it always uses the same path for
transmission. However, the end user may own the transmission facility (rather
than lease it) such that it is exclusive to that user.

Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that make up a signal. There are three
major classes of bandwidth that we refer to in telecommunications networks:
narrowband, wideband, and broadband.

Narrowband
Narrowband means that you can accommodate up to 64Kbps, which is also
known as the DS-0 (Digital Signal level 0) channel. This is the fundamental
increment on which digital networks were built. Initially, this metric of 64Kbps
was derived based on our understanding of what it would take to carry voice in
a digital manner through the network. If we combine these 64Kbps channels
together, we can achieve wideband transmission rates.
Wideband
Wideband is defined as being n ∴ 64Kbps, up to approximately 45Mbps. A
range of services are provisioned to support wideband capabilities, including T-
carrier, E-carrier, and J-carrier services. These are the services on which the
first generation of digital hierarchy was built.
T-1 offers 1.544Mbps, and because the T-carrier system is a North American
standard, T-1 is used in the United States. It is also used in some overseas
territories, such as South Korea and Hong Kong. E-1, which provides a total of
2.048Mbps, is specified by the ITU. It is the international standard used
throughout Europe, Africa, most of Asia-Pacific, the Middle East, and Latin
America. J-carrier is the Japanese standard, and J-1 offers 1.544Mbps.
Not every office or application requires the total capacity of T-1, E-1, or J-1, so
you can subscribe to fractional services, which means you subscribe to
bundles of channels that offer less than the full rate. Fractional services are
normally provided in bundles of 4, so you can subscribe to 4 channels, 8
channels, 12 channels, and so on. Fractional services are also referred as n ∴
56Kbps/64Kbps in the T-carrier system and n ∴ 64Kbps under E-carrier. High-
bandwidth facilities include T-3, E-3, and J-3. T-3 offers 45Mbps, E-3 offers
34Mbps, and J-3 supports 32Mbps.

Broadband
The future hierarchy, of course, rests on broadband capacities, and broadband
can be defined in different ways, depending on what part of the industry you're
talking about. Technically speaking, the ITU has defined broadband as being
anything over 2Mbps. But this definition was created in the 1970s, when
2Mbps seemed like a remarkable capacity.

The Impact of Fiber Optics on Bandwidth

Today, fiber optics very easily accommodates 10Gbps (that is, 10 billion bits
per second). But what does that really mean? At 10Gbps you'd be able to
transmit all 32 volumes of the Encyclopedia Britannica in 1/10 second—the
blink of an eye. That is an incredible speed. Not many people have a computer
capable of capturing 10Gbps.
Given today's environment, for wireline facilities, it may be more appropriate to
think of broadband as starting where the optical network infrastructure starts.
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) and Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET) are part of the second generation of digital hierarchy, which is based
on fiber optics as the physical infrastructure. The starting rate (that is, the
lowest data rate supported) on SDH/SONET is roughly 51Mbps.
So, for the wireline technologies—those used in the core or backbone network—
51Mbps is considered the starting point for broadband. In the wireless realm,
though, if we could get 2Mbps to a handheld today, we'd be extremely happy
and would be willing to call it broadband. So, remember that the definition of
broadband really depends on the situation. But we can pretty easily say that
broadband is always a multichannel facility that affords higher capacities than
the traditional voice channel, and in the local loop, 2Mbps is a major
improvement.

Conversion: Codecs and Modems

The fact is that today we don't have all-digital or all-analog networks; we have a
mix of the two. Therefore, at various points in a network, it is necessary to
convert between the two signal types. The devices that handle these
conversions are codecs and modems.
A codec (which is a contraction of coder-decoder) converts analog signals into
digital signals. There are different codecs for different purposes. For the PSTN,
for example, there are codecs that minimize the number of bits per second
required to carry voice digitally through the PSTN. In cellular networks,
because of the constraints and available spectrum, a codec needs to compress
the voice further, to get the most efficient use of the spectrum. Codecs applied
to video communication also require very specific compression techniques to be
able to move those high-bandwidth signals over what may be somewhat limited
channels today.
A modem (which is a contraction of modulator-demodulator) is used to infuse
digital data onto transmission facilities. Some modems are designed specifically
to work with analog voice-grade lines. There are also modems that are designed
to work specifically with digital facilities (for example, ISDN modems, ADSL
modems). A modem manipulates the variables of the electromagnetic wave to
differentiate between the ones and zeros.

Multiplexing
Multiplexers, often called muxes, are extremely important to
telecommunications. Their main reason for being is to reduce network costs by
minimizing the number of communications links needed between two points.
As with all other computing systems, multiplexers have evolved. Each new
generation has additional intelligence, and additional intelligence brings more
benefits. The types of benefits that have accrued, for example, include the
following:
The capability to do data compression so that you can encode certain
characters with fewer bits than normally required and free up that additional
capacity for the movement of other information.
The more intelligent the multiplexer, the more actively and intelligently it can
work on your behalf to dynamically make use of the transmission resources
you have. Remember that the use of leased lines is a very expensive type of
network connection. Because this network resource has been reserved for one
company's usage only, nobody else has access to that bandwidth, and
providers can't make use of it in the evenings or the weekends to carry
residential traffic, so the company pays a premium.
Even though it is the most expensive approach to networking, the vast majority
of data networking today still takes place using leased lines, because they
make the network manager feel very much in control of the network's destiny.
With leased lines, the bandwidth is not affected by sudden shifts of traffic
elsewhere in the network, the company can apply its own sophisticated
network management tools, and the network manager feels a sense of security
in knowing who the user communities are at either end of that link. But leased
lines have another negative attribute: They are mileage sensitive, so the longer
the communications link, the higher the cost. And in a network that doesn't
efficiently make use of that communications link all day long, leased lines
become overkill and an expensive proposition.

A network with multiplexers

Various techniques—including Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM), Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM), Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM),
intelligent multiplexing, inverse multiplexing, and Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (WDM)/Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)—enable
multiple channels to coexist on one link. The following sections examine each
of these techniques.

FDM
FDM is an environment in which the entire frequency band available on the
communications link is divided into smaller individual bands or channels.
Each user is assigned to a different frequency. The signals all travel in parallel
over the same communications link, but they are divided by frequency—that is,
each signal rides on a different portion of the frequency spectrum. Frequency,
which is an analog parameter, implies that the type of link you see with FDM is
usually an analog facility. A disadvantage of frequency division muxes is that
they can be difficult to reconfigure in an environment in which there's a great
deal of dynamic change.
TDM
The second multiplexing technique to be delivered to the marketplace was
TDM. There are various levels of TDM. In the plain-vanilla TDM model, as
shown in a dedicated time slot is provided for each port or point of interface on
the system. Each device in a predetermined sequence is allotted a time slot
during which it can transmit. That time slot would enable one character of
data, or 8 bits of digitized voice, to be placed on the communications link. The
allocated time slots have to be framed in order for the individual channels to be
separated out.
A problem with a standard time-division mux is that there is a one-to-one
correlation between each port and time slot, so if the device attached to Port 2
is out for the day, nobody else can make use of Time Slot 2. Hence, there is a
tendency to waste bandwidth when vacant slots occur because of idle stations.
However, this type of TDM is more efficient than standard FDM because more
subchannels can be derived.
FDM and TDM can be combined. For example, you could use FDM to carve out
individual channels and then within each of those channels apply TDM to carry
multiple conversations on each channel. In fact, this is the way that some
digital cellular systems work (for example, Global Systems for Mobile
Communications [GSM]).

STDM
STDM was introduced to overcome the limitation of standard TDM, in which
stations cannot use each other's time slots. Statistical time-division
multiplexers, sometimes called statistical muxes or stat muxes, dynamically
allocate the time slots among the active terminals, which means that you can
actually have more terminals than you have time slots.
A stat mux is a smarter mux and it has more memory than other muxes, so if
all the time slots are busy, excess data goes into a buffer. If the buffer fills up,
the additional access data gets lost, so it's important to think about how much
traffic to put through the stat mux to ensure that performance variables are
maintained. By dynamically allocating the time slots, you get the most efficient
use of bandwidth.
Additionally, because these are smarter muxes, they have the additional
intelligence mentioned earlier in terms of compression and error-control
features. Because of the dynamic allocation of time slots, a stat mux is able to
carry two to five times more traffic than a traditional time-division mux. But,
again, as you load the stat mux with traffic, you run the risk of delays and data
loss occurring.
Intelligent Multiplexing
An intelligent multiplexer is often referred to as a concentrator, particularly in
the telecom world. Rather than being a device used in pairs, it is used as a
singular device, a line-sharing device whose purpose is to concentrate large
numbers of low-speed lines to be carried over a high-speed line to a further
point in the network.
A good example of a concentrator is in a device called the digital loop carrier
(DLC), which is also referred to as a remote concentrator or remote terminal. In
twisted-pairs go from the local exchange to the neighborhood. Before the
advent of DLCs, you needed a twisted-pair for each household. If the demand
increased beyond the number of pairs you had available out of that local
exchange, you were out of luck until a new local exchange was added.

Intelligent multiplexing: Concentrators

With digital technology, you can make better use of the existing pairs. Instead
of using each pair individually per subscriber from the local exchange to the
subscriber, you can put a DLC in the center. You use a series of either fiber-
optic pairs or microwave beams to connect the local exchange to this
intermediate DLC, and those facilities then carry multiplexed traffic. When you
get to the DLC, you break out the individual twisted-pairs to the household.
This allows you to eliminate much of what used to be an analog plant leading
up to the local exchange. It also allows you to provide service to customers who
are outside the distance specifications between a subscriber and the local
exchange. So, in effect, that DLC can be used to reduce the loop length.

Inverse Multiplexing
The inverse multiplexer arrived on the scene in the 1990s. It does the opposite
of what the multiplexers described so far do. Rather than combine lots of low-
bit-rate streams to ride over a high-bit-rate pipe, an inverse multiplexer breaks
down a high-bandwidth signal into a group of smaller-data-rate signals that
can be dispersed over a range of channels to be carried over the network.
A primary application for inverse multiplexers is to support of high-bandwidth
applications such as videoconferencing. In a videoconference is to occur at
1.5Mbps. The channels are carried across the network separately. At the
destination point, a complementary inverse mux again reaggregates,
resynchronizes, and reproduces that high-bandwidth signal so that it can be
projected on the destination video monitor.
Inverse multiplexing therefore allows you to experience a bit of elastic
bandwidth. You can allocate existing capacity to a high-bandwidth application
without having to subscribe to a separate link just for that purpose.

WDM/DWDM
WDM was specifically developed for use with fiber optics. In the past, we could
use only a fraction of the available bandwidth of a fiber-optic system. This was
mainly because we had to convert the optical pulses into electrical signals to
regenerate them as they moved through the fiber network. And because
repeaters were originally electronic, data rates were limited to about 2.5Gbps.
In 1994, something very important happened: optical amplifiers called erbium-
doped fiber amplifiers (EDFAs) were introduced. Erbium is a chemical that's
injected into the fiber. As a light pulse passes through the erbium, the light is
amplified and continues on its merry way, without having to be stopped and
processed as an electrical signal. The introduction of EDFAs immediately
opened up the opportunity to make use of fiber-optic systems operating at
10Gbps.
EDFAs also paved the way to developing wavelength division multiplexers.
Before the advent of WDM, we were using only one wavelength of light within
each fiber, whereas the visible light spectrum engages a large number of
different wavelengths. WDM takes advantage of the fact that multiple colors or
frequencies of light can be transmitted simultaneously down a single optical
fiber. The data rate that's supported by each of the wavelengths depends on the
type of light source.
Today, we have light sources that operate at a rate of OC-48, which is
shorthand for 2.5Gbps. We have light sources that operate at OC-192, which is
equivalent to 10Gbps. And there are systems in trial that operate at OC-768,
offering 40Gbps per wavelength.
In the future, we'll go beyond that. Part of the evolution of WDM is that every
year we double the number of bits per second that can be carried on a
wavelength, and every year we double the number of wavelengths that can be
carried over a single fiber. But we have just begun. Soon light sources should
be able to pulse in the terabits per second range, and in five years, light
sources should pulse in the petabits per second (1,000Tbps) range.
WDM furnishes a separate channel for each service at the full rate; you cannot
aggregate smaller channels into one large channel. Systems that support more
than 16 wavelengths are referred to as DWDM.
 MOBILE COMMUNICTION

Journey from 1G to 4G
1G system
1G specifications were released in 1990 to be used in GSM. 1G systems are
analogue systems such as AMPS that use FDM to divide the bandwidth into
specific frequencies that are assigned to individual calls.

2G system
These second-generation mobile systems are digital and use either TDMA or
CDMA method. Digital cellular systems use digital modulation and have several
advantages over analogue systems, including better utilization of bandwidth,
more privacy, and incorporation of error detection and correction.

2.5G system
It was introduced mainly to add latest bandwidth technology to the existing 2G
generation. It supports higher-data-rate transmission for Web browsing and
also supports a new browsing format language called wireless application
protocol (WAP). The different upgrade paths include high-speed circuit-
switched data (HSCSD), GPRS and EDGE.
HSCSD increases the available application data rate to 14.4 kbps as compared
to 9.6 kbps of GSM. By using four consecutive time slots, HSCSD is able to
provide a raw transmission rate of up to 57.6 kbps to individual users.

3G system
To overcome the short-comings of 2G and 2.5G, 3G has been developed. It uses
a wideband wireless network that offers increased clarity in conversations. ITU
has established 2500-2690MHz, 1700-1855MHz and 806-960MHz bands. Here
the target data rate is 2 Mbps. The data is sent through packet switching. Voice
calls are interpreted through circuit switching.

3G W-CDMA (UMTS)
Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS) or W-CDMA assures
backward compatibility with 2G and 2.5G TDMA technologies. W-CDMA, which
is an air interface standard, has been designed for always-on packet-based
wireless service, so that computers and entertainment devices may all share
the same wireless network and connect to the Internet anytime, anywhere.
W-CDMA supports data rates of up to 2.048 Mbps if the user is stationary,
thereby allowing high-quality data, multimedia, streaming audio, streaming
video and broadcast type services to consumers. With W-CDMA, data rates
from as low as 8 kbps to as high as 2 Mbps can be carried simultaneously on a
single W-CDMA 5MHz radio channel, with each channel supporting between
100 and 350 simultaneous voice calls at once, depending on antenna sectoring,
propagation conditions, user velocity and antenna polarization.
Time slots in W-CDMA are not used for user separation but to support periodic
functions. (This is in contrast to GSM where time slots are used to separate
users). The bandwidth per W-CDMA channel is 4.4 to 5 MHz

3.5G
It supports a higher through-put and speed at packet data rates of 14.4 Mbps,
supporting higher data needs of consumers.

4G system
It offers additional features such as IP telephony, ultrabroadband Internet
access, gaming services and HDTV streamed multimedia. Flash-OFDM, the
802.16e mobile version of WiMAX (also known as WiBro in South Korea), can
support cellular peak data rates of approx. 100 Mbps for high-mobility
communications such as mobile access and up to 1 Gbps for low-mobility
communications such as nomadic/local wireless access, using scalable
bandwidths of up to 40 MHz. The infrastructure for 4G is only packet-based
(all-IP).
The GSM network is divided into four major systems −
 Switching System (SS)
 Base Station System (BSS)
 Mobile Station (MS)
 Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC)
The switching system also called as Network and Switching System (NSS), is
responsible for performing call processing and subscriber-related functions.
The switching system includes the following functional units −

 Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

 Home Location Register (HLR)
 Visitor Location Register (VLR)
 Equipment Identity Register (EIR)
 Authentication Center (AUC)

Mobile Switching Center

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) performs all the switching functions for all
mobile stations, located in the geographic area controlled by its assigned BSSs.
Also, it interfaces with PSTN, with other MSCs, and other system entities.

Functions of MSC
 Call handling that copes with the mobile nature of subscribers
considering Location Registration, Authentication of subscribers and
equipment, Handover and Prepaid service.
 Management of required logical radio link channel during calls.
 Management of MSC-BSS signaling protocol.
 Handling location registration and ensuring interworking between mobile
station and VLR.
 Controls inter-BSS and inter-MSC hand overs.
 Acting as a gateway MSC to interrogate HLR. The MSC which is
connected to the PSTN/ISDN network is called as GMSC. This is the only
MSC in the network connected to the HLR.
 Standard functions of a switch like charging.

Home Location Register (HLR)

Home location register contains −
 The identity of mobile subscriber called International Mobile Sub Identity
(IMSI).
 ISDN directory number of mobile stations.
 Subscription information on services.
 Service restrictions.
 Location Information for call routing.
One HLR per GSM network is recommended and it may be a distributed
database. Permanent data in HLR is changed by the man-machine interface.
Temporary data like location information changes dynamically in HLR.

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

The VLR is always integrated with the MSC. When a mobile station roams into
a new MSC area, the VLR connected to that MSC would request data about the
mobile station from the HLR. Later, if the mobile station makes a call, the VLR
has the information needed for call setup without having to interrogate the HLR
each time.
VLR contains information like the following −
 Identity of mobile sub,
 Any temporary mobile sub identity,
  ISDN directory number of the mobile,
 A directory number to route the call to the roaming station,
 Part of the data of HLR for the mobiles that are currently located in MSC
service area.

Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

Equipment Identity Register consists of identity of mobile station equipment
called International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI), which may be valid,
suspect, and prohibited. When a mobile station accesses the system, the
equipment validation procedure is evoked before giving the services.
The information is available in the form of three lists -
White List- The terminal is allowed to connect to the Network.
Grey List- The terminal is under observation from the network for the possible
problems.
Black List- The terminals reported as stolen are not type approved. They are
not allowed to connect to the network. EIR informs the VLR about the list, the
particular IMEI is in.

Authentication Centre (AUC)

It is associated with an HLR. It stores an Identity key called Authentication key
(Ki) for each Mobile subscriber. This key is used to generate the authentication
triplets.
RAND (Random Number),
SRES (Signed Response) -To authenticate IMSI,
Kc (Cipher Key) - To cipher communication over the radio path between the
MS and the network.

Operation and Maintenance Centre (OMC)

It is the functional entity through which the network operator can monitor and
control the system by performing the following functions −

 Software installation
 Traffic management
 Performance data analysis
 Tracing of subscribers and equipment
 Configuration management
 Subscriber administration
 Management of mobile equipment
  Management of charging and billing

Base Station System (BSS)

BSS connects the MS and the NSS. It is composed of the following −
 Base Transceiver Station (BTS) also called Base Station.
 Base Station Controller (BSC).
 BTS and BSC communicate across the standardized Abis interface. BTS
is controlled by BSC and one BSC can have many BTS under its control.

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

BTS houses the radio transceivers and handles the radio-link protocols with
the Mobile Station. Each BTS comprises of radio transmission and reception
devices including antenna, signal processors, etc. Each BTS can support 1 to
16 RF carriers. The parameters differentiating the BTSs are Power level,
antenna height, antenna type and number of carriers.

Functions of BTS: -
 It is responsible for Time and Frequency synchronization.
 The process of channel coding, Encryption, Multiplexing and modulation
for trans-direction and reverse for reception are to be carried out.
 It has to arrange for transmission in advance from the mobiles depending
upon their distance from BTS (Timing Advance).
 It has to detect Random access requests from mobiles, measure and
monitor the radio channels for power control and handover.

Base Station Controller (BSC)

BSC manages the radio resources for one or a group of BTS’s. It handles radio-
channel setup, frequency hopping, handovers, and control of the RF power
levels. BSC provides the time and frequency synchronization reference signals
broadcast by its BTS’s. It establishes connection between the mobile station
and the MSC. BSC is connected via interfaces to MSC, BTS and OMC.

Mobile Station
It refers to the terminal equipment used by the wireless subscribers. It consists
of −
SIM -Subscriber Identity Module
SIM is removable and with appropriate SIM, the network can be accessed using
various mobile equipment.
Mobile Equipment
The equipment is validated separately with IMEI and EIR. The SIM contains an
integrated circuit chip with a microprocessor, random access memory (RAM)
and read only memory (ROM). SIM should be valid and should authenticate the
validity of MS while accessing the network.
SIM also stores subscriber related information like IMSI, cell location identity
etc.

Functions of Mobile Station

 Radio transmission and reception
 Radio channel management
 Speech encoding/decoding
 Radio link error protection
 Flow control of data
 Rate adaptation of user data to the radio link
 Mobility management
Performance measurements up to a maximum of six surrounding BTSs and
reporting to the BSS, MS can store and display short received alphanumeric
messages on the liquid crystal display (LCD) that is used to show call dialing
and status information.
There are five different categories of mobile telephone units specified by the
European GSM system: 20W, 8W, 5W, 2W, and 0.8W. These correspond to 43-
dBm, 39-dBm, 37-dBm, 33-dBm, and 29-dBm power levels. The 20-W and 8-W
units (peak power) are either for vehicle-mounted or portable station use. The
MS power is adjustable in 2-dB steps from its nominal value down to 20mW
(13 dBm). This is done automatically under remote control from the BTS.
Other Network Elements
Other network elements include components such as SMS Service Centre,
Voice Mail Box, and SMS Flow.

SMS Service Centre

It interfaces with MSC having interworking functionality to provide Short
Message Service (SMS) to mobile subscribers. SMS can be destined to fax
machine, PC on the internet or another MS. The location of the recipient MS is
queried by MSC and delivered.

Voice Mail Box

When the mobile subscriber is not in a position to answer the incoming calls
due to busy/out of service area, then the call gets diverted to a mail box which
has already been activated by the subscriber. For this, a separate connectivity
has been established from MSC. The subscriber will be alerted through SMS
later and can retrieve the message.

SMS Flow
When a user sends an SMS, the request is placed via the MSC. The MSC
forwards the SMS to the SMSC where it gets stored. The SMSC queries the HLR
to find out where the destination mobile is and forwards the message to the
destination MSC if the destination mobile is available.
If the mobile is not available the message gets stored in the current SMSC
itself. In most installations if a mobile is not available for SMS delivery the
SMSC does not retry. Instead, the destination MSC informs the SMSC when
the mobile comes back in range. SMS handling is a store and forward operation
unlike USSD.
SMS has got a validity period for which it will wait for the destination mobile to
be available. After that time the SMSC will delete the message. The validity
period can be set by the user. Normal validity is 1 day.

Transmitting/Receiving Processes
There are two major processes involved in transmitting and receiving
information over a digital radio link, coding, and modulation.

Coverage Extension
Multipath propagation allows radio signals to reach behind hills and buildings
and into tunnels. Constructive and destructive interference signals received
through multi paths may add together or destroy each other.
Coding
Coding is the information processing that involves preparing the basic data
signals so that they are protected and put in a form that the radio link can
handle. Generally, the coding process includes the Logical Exclusive OR
(EXOR). Coding is included in −

 Speech coding or Trans coding

 Channel coding or Forward Error Correction coding
 Interleaving
 Encryption

Modulation
Modulation is the processing that involves the physical preparation of the
signal so that the information can be transported on an RF carrier. GSM uses
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying technique (GMSK). Carrier frequency is
shifted by +/- B/4, where B=Bit rate. However, using the Gaussian filter,
reduces the bandwidth to 0.3 instead of 0.5.

Special Features of GSM

Listed below are the special features of GSM that we are going to discuss in the
following sections −
 Authentication
 Encryption
 Time Slot Staggering
 Timing Advance
 Discontinuous transmission
 Power Control
 Adoptive equalization
 Slow Frequency Hopping

Authentication
Since the air interface is vulnerable to fraudulent access, it is necessary to
employ the authentication before extending the services to a subscriber.
Authentication is built around the following notions.
Authentication Key (Ki) resides only in two places, SIM card and Authentication
Center. Authentication Key (Ki) is never transmitted over air. It is virtually
impossible for unauthorized individuals to obtain this key to impersonate a
given mobile subscriber.

Authentication Parameters
It is authenticated by the VLR with a process that uses three parameters −
1. RAND which is completely random number.
2. SRES which is an authentication signed response. It is generated by
applying an authentication algorithm (A3) to RAND and Ki.
3. Kc which is cipher key. The Kc parameter generated by applying the
cipher key generation algorithm (A8) to RAND and Ki.
These parameters (named an authentication triplet) are generated by the AUC
at the request of the HLR to which the subscriber belongs. The algorithms A3
and A8, are defined by the PLMN operator and are executed by the SIM.
Steps in Authentication Phase
The new VLR sends a request to the HLR/AUC (Authentication Center)
requesting the "authentication triplets" (RAND, SRES, and Kc) available for the
specified IMSI.
The AUC using the IMSI, extracts the subscriber’s authentication key (Ki). The
AUC then generates a random number (RAND), applies the Ki and RAND to
both the authentication algorithm (A3) and the cipher key, generation
algorithm (A8) to produce an authentication Signed Response (SRES) and a
Cipher Key (Kc). The AUC then returns an authentication triplet: RAND, SRES
and Kc to the new VLR.
The MSC/VLR keeps the two parameters Kc and SRES for later use and then
sends a message to the MS. The MS reads its Authentication Key (Ki) from the
SIM, applies the received random number (RAND) and Ki to both its
authentication algorithm (A3) and Cipher key generation Algorithm (A8) to
produce an Authentication Signed Response (SRES) and Cipher key (Kc). The
MS saves Kc for later, and will use Kc when it receives command to cipher the
channel.
The MS returns the generated SRES to the MSC/VLR. The VLR compares the
SRES returned from the MS with the expected SRES received earlier from the
AUC. If equal, the mobile passes authentication. If unequal, all signaling
activities will be aborted. In this scenario, we will assume that authentication
is passed.
Encryption/Ciphering
Data is encrypted at the transmitter side in blocks of 114 bits by taking 114-bit
plain text data bursts and performing an EXOR (Exclusive OR) logical function
operation with a 114-bit cipher block.
The decryption function at the receiver side is performed by taking the
encrypted data block of 114 bits and going through the same "exclusive OR"
operation using the same 114-bit cipher block that was used at the
transmitter.
Network Configuration

The configuration of a Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN) is designed so that

active mobile station moving in the network area is still able to report its
position. A network consists of different areas −

 PLMN area
 Location area
 MSC area
 PLMN Area
A PLMN area is the geographical area in which land mobile communication
services are provided to the public by a particular PLMN operator. From any
position within a PLMN area, the mobile user can set up calls to another user
of the same network, or to a user of another network. The other network may
be a fixed network, another GSM PLMN, or another type of PLMN. Users of the
same PLMN or users of other networks can also call a mobile user who is active
in the PLMN area. When there are several PLMN operators, the geographical
areas covered by their networks may overlap. The extent of a PLMN area is
normally limited by national borders.

Location Area
To eliminate the need for network-wide paging broadcasts, the PLMN needs to
know the approximate positions of the MSs that are active within its coverage
area. To enable the approximate positions of any MS to be represented by a
single parameter, the total area covered by the network is divided into location
areas. A Location Area (LA) is a group of one or more radio cells. This group
fulfills the following requirements −

 BTSs in one location area may be controlled by one or more BSCs.

 BSCs those serve the same location area are always connected to the
same MSC.
 Radio cells with BTSs controlled by a common BSC can lie in different
location areas.

Location Area Identity (LAI)

Every radio transmitter in the PLMN broadcast, via a control channel BCCH, a
Location Area Identity (LAI), code to identify the location area that it serves.
When an MS is not engaged in a call, it automatically scans the BCCH
transmitted by the base stations in the locality and selects the channel that is
delivering the strongest signal. The LAI code broadcast by the selected channel
identifies the location area in which the MS is currently situated. This LAI code
is stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) of the mobile equipment.
As the MS moves through the network area, the signal received from the
selected control channel gradually diminishes in strength until it is no longer
the strongest. At this point the MS re-tunes to the channel that has become
dominant and examines the LAI code that it is broadcasting. If the received LAI
code differs from that stored on the SIM, then the MS has entered another
location area and initiates a location update procedure to report the change to
the MSC. At the end of the procedure, the LAI code in the SIM is also updated.

Location Area Identity Format

It is a Location Area Identity (LAI) code to identify the location area in a PLMN.
The LAI code has three components −
Mobile Country Code (MCC)
The MCC is a 3-digit code that uniquely identifies the country of domicile of the
mobile subscriber (for example, India 404). It is assigned by the ITU-T.
Mobile Network Code (MNC)
The MNC is a 2-digit code (3-digit code for GSM-1900) that identifies the home
GSM PLMN of the mobile subscriber. If more than one GSM PLMN exists in a
country, a unique MNC is assigned to each of them. It is assigned by the
government of each country. (For example, Cell one, Chennai 64).
Location Area Code (LAC)
The LAC component identifies a location area within a PLMN; it has a fixed
length of 2 octets and can be coded using hexadecimal representation. It is
assigned by an operator.
MSC areas
An MSC area is a region of the network in which GSM operations are controlled
by a single MSC. An MSC area consists of one more location area. The
boundary of an MSC area follows the external boundaries of the location areas
on its periphery. Consequently, a location area never spans beyond the
boundary of an MSC area.
VLR area
A VLR area is region of the network that is supervised by a single Visitor
Location Register (VLR). In theory, a VLR area may consist of one more MSC
areas. In practice, however the functions of the VLR are always integrated with
those of the MSC so that the terms "VLR area" and "MSC area" have become
synonymous.
Location Related Databases
Two databases are used by Location Management to store MS location related
data.

 Visitor Location Register (VLR)

 Home Location Register (HLR)

Visitor Location Register

A VLR contains a data record for each of the MS that are currently operating in
its area. Each record contains a set of subscriber identity codes, related
subscription information, and a Location Area Identity (LAI) code. This
information is used by the MSC when handling calls to or from an MS in the
area. When an MS moves from one area to another, the responsibility for its
supervision passes from one VLR to another. A new data record is created by
the VLR that has adopted the MS, and the old record is deleted

Home Location Register

The HLR contains information relevant to mobile subscribers who are fee-
paying customers of the organization that operates the PLMN.
The HLR stores two types of information −
Subscription Information
The subscription information includes the IMSI and directory number allocated
to the subscriber, the type of services provided and any related restrictions.
Location Information
The location information includes the address of the VLR in the area where the
subscribers MS is currently located and the address of the associated MSC.
The location information enables incoming calls to be routed to the MS. The
absence of this information indicates that the MS is inactive and cannot be
reached.
When an MS moves from one VLR area to another, the location information in
the HLR is updated with the new entry for the MS, using subscription data
copied from the HLR. Provided that an inter-working agreement exists between
the network operators, concerned data transactions can move across both
network and national boundaries.

Types of Identification Numbers

During the performance of the location update procedure and the processing of
a mobile call different types of numbers are used −

 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)

 Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number (MSRN)
 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)
 Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)
 Local Mobile Station Identity (LMSI)
Each number is stored in the HLR and/or VLR.
Mobile Station ISDN Number
The MSISDN is the directory number allocated to the mobile subscriber. It is
dialed to make a telephone call to the mobile subscriber. The number consists
of Country Code (CC) of the country in which the mobile station is registered
(e.g. India 91), followed by national mobile number which consists of Network
Destination Code (NDC) and Subscriber Number (SN). An NDC is allocated to
each GSM PLMN.
The composition of the MSISDN is such that it can be used as a global title
address in the Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) for routing message to
the HLR of the mobile subscriber.
Mobile Station Roaming Number
The MSRN is the number required by the gateway MSC to route an incoming
call to an MS that is not currently under the control of the gateway MSISDN.
Using a mobile, terminated call is routed to the MSC gateway. Based on this,
MSISDN gateway MSC requests for a MSRN to route the call to the current
visited MSC International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).
Mobile Country Code (MCC)
The MCC component of the IMSI is a 3-digit code that uniquely identifies the
country of the domicile of the subscriber. It is assigned by the ITU-T.
Mobile Network Code (MNC)
The MNC component is a 2-digit code that identifies the home GSM PLMN of
the mobile subscriber. It is assigned by the government of each country. For
GSM-1900 a 3-digit MNC is used.
Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN)
The MSIN is a code that identifies the subscriber within a GSM PLMN. It is
assigned by the operator.

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

The TMSI is an identity alias which is used instead of the IMSI when possible.
The use of a TMSI ensures that the true identity of the mobile subscriber
remains confidential by eliminating the need to transfer a non-ciphered IMSI
code over a radio link.
A VLR allocates a unique TMSI code to each mobile subscriber that is operating
in its area. This code which is only valid within the area supervised by the VLR
is used to identify the subscriber, in messages to and from the MS. When a
change of location area also involves a change of VLR area, a new TMSI code is
allocated and communicated to the MS. The MS stores the TMSI on its SIM.
The TMSI consists of four octets.

Hand Over
This is the process of automatically switching a call-in progress from one traffic
channel to another to neutralize the adverse effects of the user movements.
Hand over process will be started only if the power control is not helpful
anymore.
The Hand Over process is MAHO (Mobile Assisted Hand Over). It starts with the
Down Link Measurements by the MS (Strength of the signal from BTS, Quality
of the signal from BTS). MS can measure the signal strength of the 6best
neighboring BTS downlink (candidate list).

Hand Over Types

There are two types of Hand Over –
 Internal or Intra BSS Handover
 External or Inter BSS Hand over
Internal handover is managed by the BSC and external handover by MSC.
The objectives of Hand Over are as follows −

 Maintain a good quality of speech.

 Minimize number of calls dropped.
 Maximize the amount of time the mobile station is in the best cell.

When will a Hand Over take place?

 Distance (propagation delay) between the MS and BTS becomes too big.
 If the received signal level is very low.
 If the received signal quality very low.
 Path loss situation for the mobile station to another cell is better.
 C-DOT AND OCB
C-DOT

Since time immemorial, a man has tried hard to bring the world as close to
himself as possible. His thirst for information is hard to quench so he has
continuously tried to develop new technologies, which have helped to reach the
objective.
The world we see today is a result of the continuous research in the field of
communication, which started with the invention of telephone by Graham Bell
to the current Avtar as we see in the form INTERNET and mobile phones. All
these technologies have come to existence because man continued its endeavor
towards the objective.

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF CDOT DSS MAX – XL SYSTEM.

1.SCOPE
This engineering instruction describes the general features & facilities provided
by CDOT MAX-XL system.

2.GENERAL
2.1 C-DOT DSS MAX –XL is a universal digital switch, which can be configured
for different application as local, transit or integrated local cum transit switch.
The hardware architecture of C-DOT DSS MAX – XL utilizes state of the art
micro circuitry & modular packaging. It utilizes advanced concept in hardware
design such as duplicated & distributed microprocessor-based control, hybrid
integrated circuit & single chip digital signal processors for MF& DTMF
receivers. The software has been written in high level language(C) & the man
machine interface language is a simple English like language. Now CDOT DSS
Exchange can upgrade to provide ISDN service by adding minimum additional
hardware units.
2.2 The system employs a T-S-T switching configuration and is based on a 32
channel PCM structure. It uses a basic rate of 64 Kbps & 2 mbps primary
multiplexing rate. Basic memory unit has been implemented as a 16MB
dynamic RAM board with 256 KB as basic dynamic RAM chip. Single chip
digital signal processors are used for implementing DTMF & MF receivers.

3. Basic Modules.
CDOT DSS MAX-XL exchanges can be configured from four basic modules.
(Figure- 1)
(i) Base Modules.
(ii) Central Modules.
(iii) Administrative Modules.
(iv) Input-Output Modules.
(v) Line Modules.

4. HARDWARE ARCHITECTURE IN C-DOT DSS MAX-XL.

4.1 BASE MODULE-
BM-XL is the basic growth unit of CDOT DSS. It interfaces the external world
to the switch. The interface may be subscriber lines, analog & digital trunks,
CCM & PBX lines & digital links from remote modules & line concentrators.
Each Base Module can interface up to 2024 terminations. The numbers of BM
directly correspond to the exchange size. COT MAX-L & CDOT MAX-XL can
contain maximum 16 & 32 BM respectively. One BM contains four TUs, one
BPU & one TSU. Base Module can be remotely located as a RSU, parented to
the main exchange using PCM links.
4.1.1 – Function of BM.
Basic function of BM are-
 Analog to Digital conversion of all signals on analog subscriber, trunks
lines and interfacing digital trunks.
 Switching calls between terminals connected to the same BM
 Communication with the AM via CM for administrative & call processing
functions.
 Provision of special circuits for calls processing support e.g. digital tones,
announcements, terminal tester, and MF/DTMF controller etc.
 Provision for local switching & metering in case of RSU application in
standalone mode.
In stand-alone application (i.e. SBM) the BM acts as an independent switching
system & can provide switching of up to 1500 lines & 100 trunks. In such
application, it directly interfaces with the IOM for bulk data storage and
operation & maintenance function. The BM itself carries out the function of the
AM. Clock & synchronization is provided by source within the base module.
BM can be act as a remote switching module & communicate with host
exchange via digital links. Speed of digital link is 2 Mbps. Even when digital
links fail between RSU and main exchange, local call processing function will
not be affected within the RSU.
The BM hardware is spread over following type of units.
1. Analogue Terminal Unit – Analogue TU is used for interfacing analogue
lines & trunks & providing special circuits.
2. Digital Terminal Unit - Digital TU is used for interfacing digital trunks.
3. #7 Signaling Unit Module – to support SS7 protocol handlers and some call
processing function for CCS7 calls.
4. ISDN Terminal Unit - To support termination of BRI/PRI interfaces and
implementation of lower layers of DSS1 signaling protocol.
5. Time Switch Unit - TSU used for voice and message switching and
provision of service circuits.
6. Base Processor Unit – BPU used for control message communication and
call processing functions.

Terminal Unit (TU 1)

Terminal Unit (TU 2)
Terminal Unit (TU 3)
Terminal Unit (TU 4)
Base Processor Unit
(BPU)
Time Switch Unit (TSU)

4.1.1 Terminal Unit - TU provides interface to ordinary subscribers, CCB

subscribers, PABX subscribers, interexchange analog& digital trunks & Digital
links from remote concentrator or remote BM. One TU can support a maximum
of 128 terminals & employs two TIC (one active & other standby) for managing
the processing functions. Each TU consists of 26 slots. TU frame is equipped
with Line circuit cards, TWT cards, power supply units, E & M four wire trunk
cards, Announcement cards lines & trunk cards & duplicated control cards
namely Terminal unit interface cards, TIC cards & signaling processor cards.
Each line card contains eight-termination circuit. The lines & trunk are offered
BORSCHT functions on the Terminal card.
BORSCHT stands for B – battery feed, O – over voltage protection, R – ringing,
S – supervision, C – coding& decoding, H – hybrid & T - testing.
BM also defined the TEN number of subscribers. 2nd, 3rd, 4th & 5th digit of
Terminal Equipment Number shows Rack No., Frame No., Slot No. & Terminal
Circuit No. Of particular BM respectively. While 1st digit of TEN shows
particular BM No. Of exchange.

BM No. Rack No. Frame No Slot No. Termination

circuit No.

(1-32) (1-3) (1-6) (1-26) (1-8)

4.1.2 SS7 Signaling Unit Module (SUM)

Any one of the ATU or DTU in a BM can be replaced by SUM frame to support
CCS7 signaling.
4.1.3 ISDN Terminal Unit (ISTU)
One of the four ATUs/DTUs in a BM can be replaced by ISTU to provide
BRI/PRI interface in CDOT DSS. The only constraint is that ISTU has to be
principal TU i.e. directly connected to TSU on 8 Mbps PCM link. The ATU/DTU
cannot be used in concentration with ISTU.
4.1.4 BASE PROCESSOR UNIT
BPU is the master controller in the BM. It is used for
1. Call processing function (call processing subsystem software)
2. Administration function. (Admn subsystem software).
3. Maintenance (mtce subsystem software).
a) Fault detection (Detect faulty unit).
b). Fault localization (locate particular faulty card).
4. Database – All data available in memory card of BPU.
5.Operating System – Manage all schedules of program.
It is implemented as a duplicated controller with memory unit.
BM-XL is modified at Base Processor shelf to cater for increased BHCA
capacity. The conventional BIC & BID cards are eliminated & only Base
Processor Controller (BPC) card and Base Memory Extender (BME) card having
16 MB memory are provided in MAX-XL exchange. The power supply card in
BPU is KO5. BUT of BM-XL is implemented as a duplicated 16-bit controller
with memory units. These duplicated sub units are realized in the form of the
Base Processor Controller (BPC) & Base Memory Extender (BME) cards.
BPC controls time switching within the BM via the Base Master Switch and the
Time Switch Controller. It communicates with the Administrative Processor via
BMS for operations & maintenance functions. BMS is said to consist of MSC &
MSD card whereas in XL Hardware, BMS consist of HMS card. In SBM
configuration, BPC directly interfaces with the ADP & IOM. Nowadays 32MB
High Performance Processor Cards (HPC) used instead of BPC to support
8,00,000 BHCA.
4.1.5 TIME SWITCH UNIT
Basic function of TSU are -
 Time Switching within BM
 Routing of control messages within the Base Module & across Base
Modules.
 Service unit for providing call processing supports services like MF/
DTMF circuits, answering circuits & tones etc.
4.1.5.1 Service Unit
Service Unit is integrated around three different cards as Tone Generator with
answering circuit (TGA), Service circuit Interface Controller (SCIC) &MF/DTMF
Controller (MFC) card. MF/DTMF Circuit is implemented by using single chip,
4- channel digital signal processors. Two MFC cards are grouped to form a
terminal group. Up to four MFC Cards can be equipped. The TGA & two groups
of MFCs form three terminal groups towards service circuit interface.
4.1.5.2 Base Message Switch
BMS routes the control messages within the BM, across different BMs & also
AM via the CM. It is implemented as a duplicated MSC (16-bit microprocessor)
with six direct HDLC links and the message Switch Device (MSD) card
implementing 16-switched HDLC links. As a unit 22 HDLC channels are
implemented for communication with the Base Processor. Time Switch
Controller, SCIC, TIC within the BM and the four CMS complexes in CM. It acts
as a message transfer points between the Base Processor and these controllers.
It receives messages from the Base Processor and transmits them towards the
appropriate controllers.
4.1.5.3 Time Switch
The Time Switch receives the following PCM links & performs time switching on
them for switching within the BM.
- Four 128 channel multiplexes from four different Terminal Units.
- One 128-channel multiplex from the service Circuits Interface Controllers.
- Three 128-channel links to support on-board three-party conference circuits.
It multiplexes these 128-channel links to from 512 channel, 4Mbps
multiplexed bus towards the CM. The individual buses are called Bus 0& Bus1.
Besides this it also provides network switched path for message
communication between BMs between BM & CM.
4.2 CENTRAL MODULE
The basic function of CM is
 Bus Termination.
 Space Switching.
 Space switching control
 Administration
CM is responsible for space –switching has inter-modules calls &
communication between BMs & AM. For this function, CM has a space switch,
space switch controller and a central message switch. CM-XL provides
connectivity to up to 32 BM-XL. Each BM-XL interface with CM-XL via two 512
channel parallel buses each operating at 4Mbps. It provides control message
communication between any BMs for operation. It also provides clock &
synchronization on a centralized basis.
4.2.1 Space Switch and Space Switch Controller
MUX cards extract time slots 0& 1 from Bus 0& Bus 1 from the BMs. These
Time Slots carrying control information are simultaneously extracted by the
two MUX Cards for higher reliability. Since each MUX cards receives both Bus
0& Bus 1, it extracts total 4 time slots. These time slots from each BM are sent
to the CMS. The CMS sends these time slots to the Space Switch Controller on
a 128-channel link. The SSC controls the space switching based upon this
information. Space Switch is implemented on three cards – two MUX Cards & a
space Switch card.
4.2.2 Central Message switch
CMS is the central message transfer point of switch. It is implemented as four
different message switches, working in load sharing mode. All CMSs are used
for routing of messages across the Base Modules. On the other hand, only
CMS1 & CMS2 interface with the Administrative Processor for routing control
message between Base Processors & Administrative Processor. This
communication is used to access office data for routing inter-module calls and
administration and maintenance function.
 Bus Termination Unit (BTU)
Space Switching Unit (SSU)
Space Switching Unit (SSU
Bus Termination Unit (BTU
Space Switching Controller Unit
(SSCU)
Administration Processor Unit
(APU)

4.3 ADMINISTRATIVE MODULE

AM performs system level resources allocation and processing function on a
centralized basis. It performs all the memory and time intensive call processing
support functions and also administration & maintenance function. AM-XL
consists of a duplicated 16/32-bit controller called the Administrative
Processor Controller. It communicates with Base Processors via the Central
Message Switch for control messages and with the duplicated Input Output
Processors in the Input Output Module for interfacing peripheral devices.
4.4 INPUT OUTPOUT MODULE
IOM-XL consists of a duplicated Input Output Processor. Input Output
Processor –VH consist of single VHC card as against HOC, IAS, PER & SAC
cards of IOP-XL. Input Output Processor is, to a great extent, a 32-bit general-
purpose computer system that interfaces peripheral devices like disk drives,
cartridge tape drive and floppy drive. It supports printer and up to 24 serial
ports for video display units that are used for man – machine communication
interface. IOP-VH is controlled by the Administrative Processor for data
communication and code and data loading during module or system
initialization.
4.5 ALARM DISPLAY PANEL
Alarm Display Panel (ADP) is a microprocessor-based hardware unit, which is
attached to the BP (in SBM configuration) or AP (in MBM configuration) via
HDLC links for providing audio-visual indication of system faults. It is a three-
card implementation. A matrix of LEDs is provided to indicate the maintenance
status of the switch units and their level of initialization. A seven-segment
display shows the count of links and trunks currently faulty. Keys are provided
for manual acknowledgment, initiating self-test and selective audio disable.
 5.SYSTEM CAPACITY
The capacity of CDOT MAX-XL is defined in terms of the following parameters.
I. The termination capacity as lines & trunks – The CDOT MAX-XL can support
up to 40,000 lines & 5500 trunks or up to 14,500 trunks depending upon its
configuration as local exchange or TAX exchange.
II. The amount of traffic that can be switched – The traffic capacity of CDOT
MAX-XL is up to 8000 erlangs. This figure is based on the ideal traffic of one
erlang / switched circuit. Normally a figure of 0.8E traffic per circuit is
considered to be practical & the above capacities may be reduced accordingly.
Capacities are reduced to not less than 7,500 Erlangs.
III. The number of Busy Hour Call Attempts (BHCA) that can be processed –
Base processor has the capability of handling 12,500 BHCA, which can be
increased to 30,000 using upgraded processor card. The CDOT MAX – XL
exchange with 32 BM handle up to 3,00,000 BHCA. By upgrading the
processor card, it is increased to 8,00,000 BHCA.
Various exchange configuration & their traffic capacities are given in below
table.

SN Exchange Configuration Termination BHCA Application

capacity
1. SBM-L 1BM+2LMs 1500 Lines + 8500 Medium size rural
128 Trunks or switch.
450 Trunks only
2. MAX-L 16 BMs-L 20,000 Lines + 1,30,000 Large size
3,000 Trunks or urban/Metropolitan
7200 Trunks switch
only
3. SBM-XL 1BM+2LMs 1500 Lines + 12,500 Medium size rural
128 switch.
4. MAX-XL 32BMs-L 40000 Lines + 3,00,000 Very Large capacity
6000 Trunks or switch for
14500 Trunks Metropolitan area
only
5. RSU 1BM- 2000 Lines 12,500 Remotely located
XL+2LMs switch.
6.0 CCS-7 Signaling Feature
Apart from handling CAS schemes, CDOT MAX-XL also supports CCITT (ITU-T)
Signaling System No. (CCS –7). The implementation of Message Transfer Part
(MTP) is such that the C-DOT MAX-XL can function both as a Signaling Point &
a Signal Transfer Point. The STP function does not affect the call handling
performance of the switch. Presently, among the level 4 user parts, the
Telephone User Part (TUP) & plain telephony services of ISDN User Part (ISUP)
have been implemented. Later software releases will also incorporate the other
features of ISDN user Part (ISUP), signaling connection Control Part (SCCP),
Transaction Capabilities Application Part (TCAP) etc. as per CCITT (ITU-T)
recommendations.

7.0 ISDN – FEATURES

The ISDN traffic is of two distinct types
I – Circuit switched voice & data.
II – Packet switched data.
In case of circuit switched voice & data, the traffic is routed through
ISDN/PSTN network. In case of packet switched data, the packet traffic is
routed /circuit switched to PSPDN where packet processing takes place.
In CDOT MAX-XL architecture the ISDN interfaces are terminated on a new
add – on terminal unit as ISTU. A max. of 256 bearer channels are provided by
integrating one ISTU, which can be configured to support any combination of
BRI or PRI interfaces. If the requirement of BRI / PRI interfaces are more than
256 bearer channels one or more ISTUs can be integrated in CDOT MAX – XL
with the option of equipping them in the same BM or distributed across
different BMs in the exchange. One of the ATUs/DTUs in a BM can be replaced
by ISTU. The only constraint is that ISTU has to be principal TU i.e. directly
connected to TSU on 8 Mbps PCM link. The ATU/DTU cannot be used in
concentration with ISTU.
In CDOT MAX-XL, the entire PSTN feature available for analog subscriber is
also available to ISDN subscribers.

8.0 RSU Status

Remote Switch Unit is an integral part of CDOT MAX-XL. For connectivity of
RSU, the normal switch can be modified for remote location & communication
with the host exchange via 2 mbps digital links.
If ESL card is provided in CM-L one local BM & one RSU can be connected.
ESM card is required for in CM-XL Exchange for connecting remote switch
unit. Total 16 numbers of PSM/ESM cards are provided in copy-1 Base
Termination Unit. Hence the number of RSUs is limited to 16 nos. only in case
of remotely located BM. For RSU working a minimum of 4 PCM s and a max. Of
16 PCMs (2 MB streams) are required. As per the traffic condition and the
number of terminations at RSU the PCM links between the MAX-XL and RSU
can be added by software commands.

9.0 SUBSCRIBER FEATURES OF CDOT MAX-XL EXCHANGES.

9.1 Basic Services

 Subscriber can dial local, national, international calls.

 Push button dialing services provided to subscribers to use push button
telephone sets employing DTMF signals.
 Ordinary & STD Coin collecting Box lines are provided.
 Number Identification service (Calling line identification presentation,
calling line identification restriction & Calling line identification
restriction override)
 Call forwarding facilities.
 Multi- Party (conference) services
 ISDN Supplementary services.
9.2 OTHER SERVICES.
 Hot line Timed & without timed out services.
 Morning alarm facility.
 Call restriction services.
 Call forwarding facility.
 Conference facility.
 Malicious call identification facility.
 Dialing by TEN.
 Trunk offering Facility.
 Priority Subscriber.
BM-XL - BASE MODULE
CM-XL- CENTRAL MODULE
AM-XL – ADMINISTRATIVE MODULE
IOM-XL – INPUT OUTPUT MODULE
ADP - ALARM DISPLAY PANEL
MDF - MAIN DISTRIBUTION FRAME
RSU – REMOTE SWITCH UNIT
 NEXT GENERATION NETWORK

Next generation network is a packet-based network that can be used for both
telephony and data and that supports mobility. Initially, the term Next
Generation Network was used to refer to the transformation of the core network
to IP. Sometimes an NGN is referred to as an all-IP network.
The ITU defined an NGN as:
“A Next Generation Network (NGN) is a packet-based network able to provide
services including Telecommunication Services and able to make use of
multiple broadband, QoS-enabled transport technologies and in which service-
related functions are independent from underlying transport-related
technologies. It offers unrestricted access by users to different service
providers. It supports generalized mobility which will allow consistent and
ubiquitous provision of services to users.”
The NGN is characterized by the following fundamental aspects:
 Packet-based transfer
 Separation of control functions among bearer capabilities, call/session,
and application/ service
 Decoupling of service provision from network, and provision of open
interfaces
 Support for a wide range of services, applications and mechanisms based
on service building blocks (including real time/ streaming/ non-real time
services and multi-media)
 Broadband capabilities with end-to-end QoS and transparency
 Interworking with legacy networks via open interfaces
 Generalized mobility
 Unrestricted access by users to different service providers
 A variety of identification schemes which can be resolved to IP addresses
for the purposes of routing in IP networks
 Unified service characteristics for the same service as perceived by the
user
 Converged services between Fixed/Mobile
 Independence of service-related functions from underlying transport
technologies
 Compliant with all Regulatory requirements, for example concerning
emergency communications and security/privacy, etc.
 C-DOT TO NGN
Centre for Development of Telematics in close cooperation with BSNL, has
upgraded the First Rural Exchange Center at Kittur from C-DOT RAX to MAX-
NG for NGN (Next Generation Network Services).
C-DOT (Centre for Development of Telematics) has already upgraded 3
Exchanges in the Urban Network, namely – Vikas Nagar in Dehradun,
Uttarakhand; Katpadi in Vellore, Tamil Nadu and Nuh in Haryana they are
currently running on Trial phase.
The upgradation of MAX-NG would be implemented through BSNL network
across the country within 2-3 years upgrading around 2.5 crore Exchanges,
both Urban and Rural.
The upgradation program will bring VoIP and other broadband services to the
aging fixed line infrastructure, comprising of its MAX / RAX switches. C-DOT
has also developed NGN, GPON which will build broadband pipes to homes,
SOHO’s and multi-dwelling units.
Exchanges running on RAX/MAX technology enable users to access voice-
based services. Up gradation to MAX-NG technology will give fixed line users
access to next generation services like VoIP and other broadband services. This
upgradation will also provide Broadband services to 2.5 lakh Panchayats
through optical fiber aiming at transforming the economy.
 ORGANE CONTROL BINARIE(OCB)

Introduction
OCB-283 is digital switching system, which supports a variety of
communication needs like basic telephony, ISDN, interface to mobile, data
communication. ALCATEL of France has developed this system. The first OCB-
283 exchange of R11 version were commissioned in Brest (France) and Beijing
(China) in 1991.
OCB-283 exchange came to India in 1993. The system has been upgraded and
current version R20 has fully validated in Jan 1994. The latest version is R24.
All new technology switching system, are based on (SPC) stored program
control concept. The call processing program is distributed over different
control organs of the system and is stored in ROM/RAM of the units. Data
required to handle the calls are also managed in RAM of different control units.

A. Main Divisions of OCB-283

MDF (Main Distribution Frame), this room is used to distribute the
subscriber’s call according to his request. In any type of exchange, there is a
unit called main distribution frame and is used for interconnection of exchange
line and junction unit equipment to external physical lines coming to the
exchange. The distribution frame provides easy and flexible interconnection,
isolation point for testing, protective devices used for safety of exchange
equipment etc. In MDF, all lines are coming from subscribers, non-exchange
lines, telex lines and analog junction lines, are terminated on 100 pair krone
type tag blocks in which gas discharge tubes type protective devices are
provided to tackle voltages and current surges. These tag blocks are located on
one side of the MDF called “line side”. On the other side of the MDF called
“Exchange side” tag blocks are provided for terminating the cables from CSE
for subscriber lines and from transmission room for analog junction lines.

B. Transmission Media
In many communication systems, it is often necessary to interconnect points
that are some distances apart from each other. The transmission of information
as an electromagnetic signal always occur as a transverse electromagnetic
wave.

C. Exploitation Room
The Exploitation Room operates the whole OCB-283 exchange. So it is also
known as operational room. My main responsibilities are come under this
exploitation room. As in this room all the operations are done through system
software by operating different commands over there. I have to operate some of
these commands, which are named as under and discussed in detail with the
help of example as under:
· IDABSE
· INDIN

D. Power Plant of Exchange

The requirements of power plant for main OCB-283 exchange and RSU are
different because of the types of equipment. In OCB-283 equipment there is
very little variation in peak hour and slack hour load of power plant contrary to
electromechanical exchanges where the load varies with traffic. Therefore,
power plants are designed for continuous handling of constant load both at
RSU and main exchange.
The requirement of 220V AC power supply is met through direct main supply
and inverters, which convert –48V DC supply into 220V AC supply. The –48V
DC power is taken from rectifiers (or battery in case of mains failure) and fed to
inverters. The inverter converts the DC supply into 220V AC supply. The
reason for using inverters is, firstly, uninterrupted power supply due to battery
available as standby and secondly, availability of stabilized power supply, free
from variations in voltages and frequency. This ensures safety of both the
equipment and the programs stored in various storage devices. The direct main
220V AC supply is used for various testers.

E. Computer Unit
As the name specified it is the main part of the exchange that deals with the all
services provided by the exchange to the customers with the help of computer.
It also provides the updated data to all other part of the exchange. The
customers are using the services of the exchange by using the internet also
gets connected to the main server present this room via an internet room. It
mainly consists of the servers that are providing the different services.
The main servers of this room are as following:
IVRS is used for the change number services provided by the exchange. CERS
are provided by the exchange to avoid the problems that the users are facing
the repairing of telephone. In this system when the user enters complaint it
gets directly entered to the server and user is allotted with an id number.
LOCAL DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is another service provided by the exchange, by
using this; subscribers calls the particular number and gets the directory
enquiry. The server present in the main computer room provides this service.
INTERNET DIRECTORY ENQUIRY is the latest service by the exchange. In this
type of service makes it enquiry using the internet, which gets connected to the
main server at the internet room in the exchange and further to the main
server in the computer room.

F. Central Air Conditioner

For the function of electrical equipment, cooling system is basic requirement.
The basic advantages of cooling systems are following:
 It provides the thermal stability so that the temperature does not reach the
tolerance limit of electronic equipment
 It saves equipment from dust so to avoid malfunction of equipment’s.

 It protects equipment from excess humidity which can caused rusting of

equipment.
 The basic unit of measurement used in the industry is known as “ton of
refrigeration” (TR) which is equivalent to the heat extracted in 24 hours for
converting thousands kg of liquid to ice at zero degree.

II. FUNCTIONAL ARCHITECTURE OF OCB-283

The hardware equipment of the OCB 283 switching node consists of a set of
control (multiprocessor) station SM interconnected by one or several
communication multiplexers (MIS or MAS).
There are five types of control stations, corresponding to the types of services
they provide:
 SMC: Main Control Station

 SMA: Auxiliary Equipment SM

 SMT: PCM trunk SM

 SMX: Switching Matrix SM

 SMM: Maintenance SM

A. SMC: Main Control Station

It consists of MR, MQ, TR, TX, PC, GX, which helps, in call processing. The
followings are some of the multi registers:
 MR: - Establishes and releases the calls, it takes real true decision for
processing for processing of a call.
 TR (Translator): - TR stores exchange date, it also stores routing and analysis
date.

 MQ (Marker): - MQ carries out messages between common control function

and connection unit for subscribers.
 TX (Charging Unit): - TX carries out charging for each communication set up.
It keeps charge account of all subscriber and send detail billing messages to
SMM.

 GX (Matrix System Handler): - GX monitors the connection in the switching

network also it monitors internal links in the switching network.
 PC (CCS, Controller): - PC carries out routing and traffic management
function for CCS7 signaling

B. (SMA): Auxiliary Multiprocessor Station

B.1 Function of SMA
 Tone generation (GT)

 Conference call (CCF)

 Frequency generation & reception for R2 MF signaling or for receiving DTMF

frequencies (RGF)
 Clock

 CCITT 7 signaling management (PU/PE)

 Access network management (AN).

B.2 SMA Environment
The SMA is connected to the switch by one GLR (i.e. 8 LR links), on the other
side it is connected to MAS token ring over which it communicates with control
units. A MAL ring collects converter alarms of the station.
The SMA obtains the time base from STS via the switch over GLR cable.

C. Functional Architecture of SMA:

A SMA station can provide following functions (O) combination.
 ETA & PU/PE

 PU/PE alone
 ETA alone
 AN (access network) alone.
First two SMAs essentially have GT functions and clock function besides other
ETA or PU/PE functions. For the above functions and to adapt on token ring
different type of couplers and processors are provided. The functional name
and PCB names are listed below:
 CMP - implemented by ACAJA5/ACAJB5 or ACAJAG ACASB4

 PUP - ACJTR5 AB

 PUS - ACUTR5 AB – Only one PUS

 MC (Common memory) – ACMCS

 Coupler CTSV – i.e. coupler Treatment Signal Vocal or Voice signal processing
couplers.
 Coupler CSMP - Coupler signaling Multiprotocol for CCS#7 or V 5.2 signaling
implemented by ACHIL 2 & ACHIL 3 PCBs.
C.1 (SMT): Trunk Multiprocessors Station
GENERAL:
The SMT is an interface for PCM coming from RSU, RLU (E-10 B CSED) and as
junctions from other exchanges. With the initial supply of OCB-283 exchanges
first Generation SMT (SMT – 1G) was supplied and subsequently SMT-2 G
replaced them since no more SMT – 1 G are existent in the field only SMT – 2 G
is included in the hand-out. The functions of SMT are same whether it is SMT
1 G or SMT 2 G. SMT – 2 G is more powerful and intelligence is extended at the
PCM terminal level.
Function of SMT:
(i) Provide terminations of a maximum of 128 PCM from trunks, CSED and
CSND.
(ii) Carrying out URM (Multiplex connection unit function) consisting of:
(a) HDB 3/ Binary code conversion.
(b) Injection and extraction of CAS on time slot 16 and making over to another
functional unit called CLTH for processing
(iii) Transforming the intelligence in PCM TS to LR T/S for switching to
destinations TS and transforming the switched LR time slot into PCM TS.
Specific features of SMT – 2 G:
Beside above-mentioned general functions of SMT following special features are
available in SMT – 2 G.
(i) Digital Access cross connect (DACS) where the additional bits (bit 8 to 12)
can be used to carry channel associated signaling for PABX with linked
numbering scheme.
(ii) Can support higher order PCM multiplexes e.g. 34 M bit /S.
(iii) Can support ISDN PRA (30 B + D) links.
(iv) Reduction of load on MIS/MAS by introducing decentralized processes in a
software way.

D. (SMX): Switching Multiprocessor Station

 ROLE: A SMX is one module of the entire switch matrix system with
independent control. The station is responsible for carrying out connection of
an incoming LR time slot to an outgoing LR Time slot.
 FUNCTIONS: Switching may effect connection between subscribers,
subscriber to junction, junction to junction subs to tone or RF, junction to tone
or RF etc. or there may be a semi-permanent connection for certain data link.
Besides the connection function, the SMX performs following other functions: -
 Clock reception from STS and distribution.

 Fault and alarm processing

 Defense of the station etc.

E. Maintenance Station (SMM A and B)

It works as hot stand by it. One of the two SMM is pilot; it has got two mirror
unique hard disks of 1.2 GB capacities. Pilot SMM is able to access either of
disks; it dialogues with all SMC’s over MIS token ring. It consists of one
streamer for cartridge drive; it receives all alarms from whole exchange on MAL
ring.
Architecture of SMM:
SMM is built around two identical microprocessor 68030; it works in pilot and
hot standby mode. Each of the processor has 16 M bytes primary memory. All
the components viz. processor, memory and complex are connected on the x-
bus.
Each hard disk has a capacity to 1.2 GB and both of them are connected to
active SMM. Date can be read from and written into both the disks Streamer
has a memory capacity of 525 M bytes.

F. CSN (Rack)
It is a subscriber connection unit, it can be equipped with either analog or
digital subscriber or both CSN can be either placed in the exchange, which is
called CSNL i.e. local subscriber connection unit, and at remote location called
CSND (Digital Subscriber Connection Unit). The subscriber’s card shelf called
concentrator it is also known as local or remote concentrator i.e. CNL or CNE.
The CSNL is connected to switching matrix (SMX) through minimum of 1 GLR
(i.e. Group of 8 LR’s is called as a GLR and each LR is PCM having 32 slots).
The CSND is connected to UE or SMT rack through a minimum of 2 PCM and a
maximum of 16 PCM’s.
There are four types of cards:
 For Analog Signal: TABAF, TABASE

 For Digital Signal: TABND, TADPB

 The TABAF card is for STD PCO/CCB PCO’s can accommodated 16

subscribers.
 The TABASE card is for local subscriber can accommodated 16 subscribers.

 The TABNP card is for basic ISDN and TADPB only 2 channels or circuits are
allotted but for TADPB 1(one) PCM allotted @ 64kbps.

III CALL PROCESSING

a) When a subscriber goes off book, it is detected by line equipment. The
change in loop state is detected by microprocessor during its scanning. The
CSNL allots free TS on LR for this call. The CSNL prepares a new call message
and sends it to PU/PE (in SMA) over a signaling link through MCX. The
message is sent in local version of CCS7.
b) PU/PE receives this message and sends it to MR over MAS. It indicates UR
no. UT no. (Line card no.) and equipment no. And T/S allotted.
c) MR allots a free register to handle this call. It notes down UR no. Equipment
number and T/S allotted for the subscriber. Now MR obtains UR-LR to SMX-
LRX correspondence from MQ.
d) MR obtains class of service date from TR.
e) MR orders COM to connect dial tone to the free T/S allotted to subscriber.
If subscriber has DTMF instruments it orders for connection of RGF to the T/S
of subscriber and then orders for dial tone connection.
f) MR also sends acknowledgement message to CSN.
g) On receipt of dial tone, the subscriber dials called party’s number. The UT
(Terminal Unit i.e. subscriber line card) disconnects dial tone from the calling
subscriber.
h) CSN sends these digits to PU/PE through the same path and signaling
system.
i) PU/PE sends these digits to MR over MAS.
j) On reception of first digit, MR orders COM to disconnect dial tone from the
calling sub.
k) On receipt of first two digits, MR calls TR for pre-analysis. TR, after analysis
of first two digits tells MR, the type of call (i.e. local, STD etc.).
l) After receipt of adequate number of digits (or all the digit in case of local call)
MR again calls TR for analysis. TR supplies called party’s address and charging
information to MR.
m) MR carries out party’s test to know whether it is free, or not. (Path MR-
U/PE-CSN).
n) CSN tests the called party’s equipment. If this is free, it connects ringing
current to called subscriber. It also allots free TS to LR and sends a message
to MR indicating LR-T/S of called subscriber.
o) MR orders COM for connection of ring back tone to calling subscriber. It also
obtains UR-LR to SMX LRX correspondence for called subscriber. MR walls for
called sub’s reply.
p) When called subscriber replies, the concerned CSN sends a message to
PU/PE. PU/PE sends the message to MR.

IV PULSE CODE MODULATION

A. Principle
The PCM generator produces a series of numbers or digits. Each digit is a
binary code corresponding to the approximate amplitude of the signal sample
at that instant. A supervisory or a signaling bit is generally added to each
group representing a quantized sample. The major advantage of the PCM is
that the information does not lie in any property of the pulse, but it lies in the
presence or the absence of the pulse. Thus even if the noise distorts the pulse,
it makes no difference so long as the decision regarding the presence or
absence of the pulse is correct. So the PCM is used extensively in telephone
conversation, as it provides large number of channels, which previously had
carried over the one pair of wires and carried only one conversation. PCM is
also used in Space Communication.

B. Token Rings
In OCB-283 exchange the communication-multiplexed highways are utilized for
interchange of messages between various equipment of exchange. These
communication multiplexes work on the principle of computer’s circular LANs
using TOKEN RING protocols. There are three types of communication
multiplexed highway according to their use: -
- MIS INTERSTATION MULTIPLEX
- MAS STATION MULTIPLEX
- MAL ALARM MULTIPLEX
The MIS token ring is provided for interchange of messages between two SMCs
and between an SMC and SMM. The maximum and minimum number of MIS
is only one (duplicated as A&B) The MAS are provided for interchange of
messages between CSNL, SMT, SMA and SMX on one hand and control units
(SMC) on the other hand. A maximum of four MAS token rings can be provided
in a large size exchange, where as no MAS token ring is provided in compact
configuration. While SMCs are connected on the entire MAS token ring, the
other units are connected only on one of the MAS rings.
MAS token ring can be minimum nil & maximum. FOUR duplicated as A&B.
MAL token ring is provided to handle exchange alarms from all the hardware
stations of exchange except CSNL. The token ring conforms to IEEE 802.5
Standard and operates at 4 Mbps.
 Broadband and Leased Line
Broadband

Broadband is a high-speed connection to the internet. Before broadband

narrow band was used for internet access which were very slow as compared

to today’s standard.

Broadband includes several high-speed transmission technologies such as: -

 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

 Cable Modem
 Optical Fiber
 Wireless
 Satellite
 Broadband over Powerlines (BPL)

The broadband technology you choose will depend on a number of factors.

These may include whether we are in located in an urban area or rural area,
how broadband internet access is packaged with other services (such as voice
telephone and home entertainment), price and availability.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
DSL is a wireline transmission technology that transmits data faster over
traditional copper telephone lines which are already installed to home and
business.

DSL- based broadband provides transmission speeds ranging from several

hundred kbps to millions of bits per second (Mbps). The availability and speed
of your DSL service may depend on the distance from your home or business to
the closest telephone company facility.

The DSL technology used for transmission is also classified in two parts based
on the basis of downstream and upstream which are as follows –

 Asymmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

 Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL)

Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL)

This type of transmission technology is used primarily by residential customers
like internet surfers, who receives a lot of data but do not send much.

ADSL typically provides faster speed in the downstream direction than the
upstream direction. ADSL allows faster downstream data transmission over the
same line used to provide voice service, without disrupting regular telephone
calls on that line.

Symmetrical Digital Subscriber Line (SDSL)

Used typically by businesses for services such as video conferencing, which
need significant bandwidth both upstream and downstream.

Faster forms of DSL typically available to businesses include:

 High data rate Digital Subscriber Line (HDSL)

 Very High data rate Digital Subscriber Line (VDSL).

Cable Modem
Cable modem service enables cable operators to provide broadband using the
same coaxial cables that deliver pictures and sound to your TV set. Most cable
modems are external devices that have two connections: one to the cable wall
outlet, the other to a computer. They provide transmission speeds of 1.5 Mbps
or more.
Subscribers can access their cable modem service by simply turning on their
computers, without dialing-up an ISP. You can still watch cable TV while using
it. Transmission speeds vary depending on the type of cable modem, cable
network, and traffic load. Speeds are comparable to DSL.

Fiber
Fiber optic technology converts electrical signals carrying data to light and
sends the light through transparent glass fibers about the diameter of a human
hair. Fiber transmits data at speeds far exceeding current DSL or cable modem
speeds, typically by tens or even hundreds of Mbps.

The actual speed you experience will vary depending on a variety of factors,
such as how close to your computer the service provider brings the fiber and
how the service provider configures the service, including the amount of
bandwidth used. The same fiber providing your broadband can also
simultaneously deliver voice (VoIP) and video services, including video-on-
demand.

Telecommunications providers sometimes offer fiber broadband in limited areas

and have announced plans to expand their fiber networks and offer bundled
voice, Internet access, and video services.

Wireless
Wireless broadband connects a home or business to the Internet using a radio
link between the customer’s location and the service provider’s facility. Wireless
broadband can be mobile or fixed.

Wireless technologies using longer-range directional equipment provide

broadband service in remote or sparsely populated areas where DSL or cable
modem service would be costly to provide. Speeds are generally comparable to
DSL and cable modem. An external antenna is usually required.

Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) provide wireless broadband access over
shorter distances and are often used to extend the reach of a "last-mile"
wireline or fixed wireless broadband connection within a home, building, or
campus environment. Wi-Fi networks use unlicensed devices and can be
designed for private access within a home or business, or be used for public
Internet access at "hot spots" such as restaurants, coffee shops, hotels,
airports, convention centers, and city parks.
Satellite
Just as satellites orbiting the earth provide necessary links for telephone and
television service, they can also provide links for broadband. Satellite
broadband is another form of wireless broadband, and is also useful for serving
remote or sparsely populated areas.

The frequency band in it is between 11GHz- 30GHz.Downstream and upstream

speeds for satellite broadband depend on several factors, including the provider
and service package purchased, the consumer’s line of sight to the orbiting
satellite, and the weather. Typically, a consumer can expect to receive
(download) at a speed of about 500 Kbps and send (upload) at a speed of about
80 Kbps. These speeds may be slower than DSL and cable modem, but they are
about 10 times faster than the download speed with dial-up Internet access.
Service can be disrupted in extreme weather conditions.

VSAT- VSAT is a Very Small Aperture Terminal, aligned towards a designated

Satellite for up-linking and down-linking communication signals. BSNL has
footprints for supporting 512Kbps and above data rate anywhere in the main
land and partly at the islands. Presently Express AM1 Satellite is in use for
BSNL VSAT service.

Broadband over Powerline (BPL)

BPL is the delivery of broadband over the existing low- and medium-voltage
electric power distribution network. BPL speeds are comparable to DSL and
cable modem speeds. BPL can be provided to homes using existing electrical
connections and outlets. BPL is an emerging technology that is available in
very limited areas. It has significant potential because power lines are installed
virtually everywhere, alleviating the need to build new broadband facilities for
every customer.
 LEASED LINE

A leased line, also known as a dedicated line, connects two locations for private
voice and/or data telecommunication service. A leased line is not a dedicated
cable; it is a reserved circuit between two points. The leased line is always
active and available for a fixed monthly fee.

Leased lines can span short or long distances. They maintain a single open
circuit at all times, as opposed to traditional telephone services that reuse the
same lines for many different conversations through a process called switching.

What Are Leased Lines Used For?

Leased lines are most commonly rented by businesses to connect branch
offices of the organization. Leased lines guarantee bandwidth for network traffic
between locations. For example, T1 leased lines are common and offer the same
data rate as symmetric DSL.
Individuals can theoretically rent leased lines for high-speed internet access,
but their high cost deters most people, and far more affordable home options
are available with higher bandwidth than a simple dial-up phone line,
including residential DSL and cable internet broadband service.

Fractional T1 lines, starting at 128 Kbps, reduce this cost somewhat. They can
be found in some apartment buildings and hotels.

How does a leased line work?

A leased line is a reserved circuit between two communication points that is
always active and rented for a monthly fee. Leased lines are dedicated, meaning
that any bandwidth associated with the leased line is solely for private,
organizational use. This is different from traditional telecommunications
methods that reuse the same circuit through switching.

Leased lines create a constant tunnel between two points for continuous data
flow. Typically, the first location is a corporate office with the second location
set as another corporate office, a data center or a corporate wide area network
(WAN). The line itself runs on fiber optic cables that enable large bandwidth
and high speed.

Uses of leased lines

 Large businesses use leased lines for a variety of uses, including:
Providing internet access.
 Linking computers and servers together from multiple locations.
 Making phone calls.
 Enabling staff with remote access.
 Carrying data and internet traffic within a network.
 Streaming multimedia.

Benefits of leased lines

When compared to alternatives, such as ASDL, a leased line can provide the
following benefits:

 Bandwidth is dedicated and is not shared between other organizations or

affected during peak traffic.
 Lines are symmetric, meaning upload and download speeds are identical.
This is ideal for remote access, sending large files, backing up data.
  Comes with a service-level agreement (SLA) that constantly monitors and
troubleshoots performance.
 Higher speeds.
 Greater reliability and support.

USE OF DIFFENT INTERNET TECNOLOGY IN MODERN WORLD?

CONCLUSION & FUTURE WORK

Man is a social being so communication was the first step towards
togetherness. Moreover, since than the model of communication went through
several stages of evolution and now what we are blessed with is the continuous
effort of previous generations. As per the statistical information by 2020 there
would be 285% hike in the current usage of internet itself with 26 billion
devices connected to it by the end of this decade, this terminology is coined as
Internet of Things (IOT). So, these local exchanges together with the trunk
automated exchanges can provide much better connectivity in both the voice &
data segment in coming times to come.

Future Work
There is a vast future scope of this Network. This Design can be improved and
can be used by various banks. If the limitations present in this Design are
removed then, this Network will become very reliable and provide 100% uptime.
We can easily implement any changes to the Network Design as we are using
the latest protocol like Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) in our network which is
having attributes to easily divert or control the flow of data and QOS which can
be used to allocate bandwidth to servers accordingly.
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IC