Scholar’s Voice: A New Way of Thinking Centre for Defence Sciences

Vol. 2, No. 1, January-June 2011, 13-21 Research & Development

Ethnic conflict and Security Apprehension in

Northeast India
Shivananda H*
Abstract
The northeast region of India has long been projected as one of the
trouble hot spots in the South-Asian region and India’s insurgency
stricken corner. In the mist of disarraying state of affairs, ethnic-conflict
creates a situation where the tribes, non-tribes and even the state
authorities feel insecure to administer appropriately adding another
dimension to its insecurity. The region is already sensitive and vulnerable
both from the military and economic angle connected with the
mainland through the thin Siliguri corridor and lack infrastructures.
Besides, the impact of ethnic-conflict on the security of the region and
the nation at large is enormous and escalating the problems of the
northeastern people requiring a paradigm shift in the approach of the
national policy in resolving the issues for better development.

Characterized by extraordinary ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic

diversity, north-eastern India constituting the seven sisters states of Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura is a
compact region of sub-national states attributing to high levels of ethnic violence.
Generally perceived to be tribal belt area, the north-east is not a tribal-majority
region. But tribal hold a majority of the non-productive land in the hills and two-
thirds of the regional population lives on one-third of the land. The region is
inhabited by three distinct groups of people; the hill tribes, the plain tribes and
non-tribal population of the plains. Historically, immigration from the East-Bengal
(Bangladesh) became illegal after the demarcation of international boundary in
1947 between India and Pakistan. But movement of people from East Bengal, later
East Pakistan and then Bangladesh into different parts of North-east India
continued unabatedly. This has primarily generated a multiple cause for
destabilizing political, social, economic, ethnic and communal tensions in the
region.
Ethnic, linguistic and the cultural diversity of the region are tremendous with
green hills, meandering rivers and lust valleys. Ethnically, it is diverse and
heterogeneous alike the rest of the country. The primary habitants of the region
are tribal ethnic groups with 213 tribes and 400 dialects spoken. Of 5,633
1
communities listed by the “ People of India” , a project by Anthropological Survey
* Research Assistant, Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses (IDSA), New Delhi.

ISSN 0974-6501
© 2011 Centre for Defence Sciences Research & Development
 14 Scholar’s Voice: A New Way of Thinking Shivananda H.

of India in 1990s, 635 categories as tribes of which 213 was found to be living in
north-east India. In disparity with those of the Aryan-Dravidian people of the
heartland of India, the people of the north-east region are Mongoloids and
resemble more with those of East-Asia. Their languages also have much similarity
with those of the Tibeto-Burmese groups than that of Sanskrit or Devnagari.
According to the 2001 Census of India, populations of 38,495,089 persons (3.74
per cent of national population) lives in the region and have more than 160
2
Scheduled Tribes belonging to five different ethnic groups, and a large and
diverse non-tribal population as well. The ‘scheduled tribes’ when referred to the
tribes listed in the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution do not reflect the
actual complexity of the ethnic mosaic of the region, which comprehends over
400 distinct tribal and sub-tribal groupings.
Auxiliary, the tribal population of the region constitutes only about 30 per cent
of the total population, though the distribution is irregular. While the ‘non-tribals’
dominate Assam and Tripura, over 60 per cent of the population of Arunachal
3
Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland are the Scheduled Tribes.
The dichotomy between the ‘hills people’ and the ‘plains people’ has been a
persistent feature of the life of the Northeast. The tribes of the higher mountains
are considered to be minority and are distinguished from the lowland majority
tribes. Nonetheless the people of the hills and that of the plains or valleys are
radically different but have always been interconnected.
Geo-Ethnicity
Geographically, the north-east of India is located between the two great
traditions of the Indic Asia and the Mongoloid Asia. It was only after the British
had merged the entire region under the British-India administration that the
region came to be associated with India, politically. About three quarters of the
region is covered by hilly terrain and one quarter is made up of the four plain
areas of Assam’s Brahmaputra and Barak Valleys; the Tripura plains and the
Manipur plateau. Captivatingly, those people inhabiting the thinly populated hill
areas are called as “tribes”
and in the fertile plains and
plateau are known as “non-
tribes” people.
India’s North-east has
been the meeting place of
many communities, faiths
and cultures. Renowned for
its magical beauty and
bewildering diversity, the
region is home for more
4
than 200 separate tribes
speaking wide range of
Map of North-East India
languages. Some of the
groups have migrated over the centuries from places as far as South East Asia
Ethnic Conflict and Security Apprehension……. Vol. 2, No. 1, Jan-June 2011 15

retaining their cultural traditions and values. It is where South and East Asia meets
and one of the South Asia’s last land frontiers and through much of the twentieth
century. Most part of the region is sparsely populated and has attracted large-scale
migration from the rest of the sub-continent.
Indeed, the Northeast has been an area of great and continuous civilization
intercourse throughout its history and has been thought of as "a gateway of
commerce and culture that linked India overland to east and Southeast Asia", and
5
a "complex transition zone of linguistic, racial and religious streams.” The
‘indigenous tribes’ of the Northeast represent successive waves of migrants, both
th
from East and West, with many entering the region as late as the 19 Century. The
cultural mosaic was made more complex as a result of the British policy of
‘importing’ large numbers of administrators, plantation workers and cultivators
from other parts of India.
Large scale and unabated influx of population from the neighbouring
countries and the recent Bangladesh into India’s north-east has resulted in a
phenomenon that is visibly reshaping and transforming the demographic, ethnic,
linguistic and religious profile of large parts of the region. This has generated a
host of destabilizing political, social and economic condition in the region and a
reason for ethnic and communal conflict in the region.
States of north-east India have also experienced a comparatively high growth
rate of population in the post-independence period. There are various factors
contributing to high demographic growth in the region wherein illegal migration
from the neighbouring countries remains the main. The high growth rate of
population in Tripura during 1951-61 was due to migration of Hindu refugees
from East Pakistan, then Bangladesh in the aftermath of Partition. Likewise, in
Assam the percentage of Hindus in total population has come down from 72.51
percent in 1971 to 67.13 percent in 1991, while that of the Muslims and Christians
has increased from 24.56 percent and 2.61 percent in
1971 to 67.13 percent in 1991 respectively. While the high There are special
growth rate of Christian population might be because of laws,
conversion, the high growth rate of Muslims is attributed constitutional
to migration of Muslim population from Bangladesh. provisions such
Besides, in many of the districts of Assam bordering as the Sixth
Bangladesh, an unusually high growth of Muslim Schedule and
population has been noted and their share in total
Article 371A,
which seek to
population has increased particularly during the post
6 protect the
1971. As a result, the region has opened up to radicalism
traditions, lands
and to a network of fundamentalist campaigns which have and rights of
access to arms and easy connections to sanctuaries across various hill
the porous international borders which had made difficult communities.
for the north-eastern states to comprehend and address.
Moreover, it has led to cultural over dominance amongst the groups and
geographical cultural condition of in-between nests is an important factor for the
reason of conflict and crisis of identity.
 16 Scholar’s Voice: A New Way of Thinking Shivananda H.

Ethnic-Conflicts
Though the unrest in the region has a history of political causes, the regional
conflicts is much related to multi-ethnicity. These conflicts are social, political and
economic conflicts between groups who identify themselves and others in ethnic
terms. They are distinguished as they tend to be asymmetrical ambiguous; tough
to differentiate between associates and opponents; fought unconventionally using
political and psychological means and methods; and these conflicts often develop
7
into protracted wars of attrition. Besides, land encroachment, migration and fears
of loss of identity have shaken the various groups in the region leading to
escalation of conflicts. It’s considered as an anthropologist’s delight and an
administrator’s nightmare. A settlement in one district that satisfies one group will
alienate some communities in another part of the same district and same in case of
the states. There are special laws, constitutional provisions such as the Sixth
Schedule and Article 371A, which seek to protect the traditions, lands and rights
of various hill communities but as the practice of the system on the ground differs
from what was perceive to bring regulations, eruptions of ethnic-conflicts became
an obvious phenomenon.
Among the north-eastern states, when it comes to ethnic-conflicts Assam
(southern part) is the worst effected state followed by Tripura, Nagaland and
Manipur. The rest of the states that of Meghalaya and Arunachal Pradesh has also
started witnessing ethnic violence in lower intensity which could be worst if not
addressed by the authorities in time. Fortunately, when most of the states are
facing tough time in handling the hazards of the ethnic clashes, Mizoram have
resolved much of its issues in this front and represents a role model of peace and
development in the region.
Assam
In Assam the consent for ethnic conflict got nourished in 1979 primarily when
the middle class people headed by the All Assam Student Union (AASU) started
protesting against the illegal migration from Bangladesh and was later joined by
the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA), attacking the Bangladeshis settling in
the state. The eruption of Bodo insurgents was also on the line for dispossession of
their tribal land in the northern part of Brahmaputra River by the Bengali and
Assamese settlers. When the Bodos were driving out the non-Bodos from the
northern part of Brahmaputra River, the Bodos also faced the same fate where
they are the minority and were targeted by the others. In the later half of the
1990s, there was mushrooming of militant organizations along tribal, religious and
8
cultural split paving the way for numerous conflicts. During the last two decades,
Assam has witnessed five ethnic conflict; thrice between the Bodos and the
Santhals in 1993, 1996 and in 1998; between Karbis and Kukis in 2003; and
between the Karbis and Dimasas in 2005. The southern region of Assam, mainly
the Karbi Anglong and the Cachar region has always remain high ethnic-conflict
zone in the north-east. Karbi Anglong with a geographical area of 10,434-sq km
territory is a miniature of Assam in terms of composition of ethnic diversity. The
Cachar and North Cachar Hills districts of Assam located in the southern banks of
Ethnic Conflict and Security Apprehension……. Vol. 2, No. 1, Jan-June 2011 17

river Brahmaputra witnessed the worst ethnic turmoil between the Dimasa and
Hmar tribes. The March 2003 conflict between the two groups continues
unabated with the torching of 60 villages displacing thousands of Dimasas in
which the Hmars acted strategically by shifting their children and women folk to
neighboring Manipur and Mizoram with the Hmar youths detaining in the villages
to slaughter the Dimasas. Of late, on 4 October 2009, Binajuli Village in Sonitpur
district was near to ethnic clashes between the Bodos and non-Bodos when the
banned National Democratic Front of Bodoland (NDFD) killed 14 non-bodos in
their attempt to reactive their demands.
Nagaland
Ethnic conflict in Nagaland is primarily an ongoing conflict extended over
from the neighbouring states of Assam and Manipur. Since, 1993 the continuing
rift of clashes between the Naga and Kuki in Manipur has speared over to
Nagaland where the Naga groups are majority. Initially, it started between the
Thankul and the Kukis in the Chandel district areas wherein the Thankhuls wanted
to drive away the Kukis living in Ukhrul district of Manipur. It is a clash of claim
over a territory as one’s own exclusive homeland by the ethnic armies and
resistance to it. Further a complacency and perplexity of the state-machinery and
their failure to contain from worsening the situation. The vulnerability of
resurfacing the clashes continues to stay alive with the continued existence of the
9
aspirations for exclusive ethnic homelands both by the Nagas and the Kukis. The
ongoing Naga-Dimasa ethnic clashes in North Cachar Hills district of Assam
between the Dimasas and Zeme Nagas which re-erupt in the month of March
2009 has also spread uncontrollably over the northern region of Assam and the
bordering areas of Nagaland having massive impact of insecurity amongst the
10
Zeme Nagas inhibiting in Nagaland. For instances, On 19 May 2009, 10 gunmen
suspected to be that of the NSCN stalled a jeep carrying 14 passengers 7km from
Mahur town in NC hills and gunned down the Dimasa after their ethic identities
are verified. After that attacks and counter-attacks on the unarmed villagers are
common trends in the region. The villagers link the unrest to the handiwork of
militants who can be from either Jeme Naga or Dimasa. They
are believed to be creating clashes for fulfilling their own vested This
11
interests. The enduring conflict has caused 66 killed, emergence
21injured, more than 500 houses burned down and 11, 487 of new
person displaced with the data reported increasing with outfits also
12
increase on violence. created a
Manipur
chaotic
situation and
In Manipur as most of the insurgent groups in the state are has further
formed along the ethnic line, insecurity prevails amongst the escalated the
other groups and have encouraged in taking up arms in the ethnic
name of self protection. Though the issue of ethnic conflict are turmoil.
not found in its history, with the rising of the various outfits
both in the valley and the hills, ethnic clashes over conflicting interest has
increased in the state leading to ethnic conflicts. The clashes between the Naga
 18 Scholar’s Voice: A New Way of Thinking Shivananda H.

and Kuki tribes which erupted in 1992 in the Chandel district remain a major
ethnic conflict in the state sparking a reign of terror in the hills of Manipur. It
resulted to death of nearly a thousand people and an enormous loss of property.
Over 2,000 houses were burnt and hundreds of villages were affected.13 It
continued for about five years and came to end in the early part of 1997 after the
intervention of the Meities and other neutral tribes. Besides, the demand of an
ethnic group has been a reason of conflict with the others. The NSCN demand for
Nagalim (Greater Nagaland) including the four hill district of Manipur namely
Ukhrul, Senapati, Chandel and Churachandpur has brought tension between the
Meities and the Naga groups. For instance, on June 14, in 2001 when the
ceasefire between the NSCN (IM) and the Central government was extended
beyond Nagaland state in all Naga inhabited areas, a mass uprising on June 18 in
the same year torched the state Assembly building while 18 protesters got killed
and many injured in the police firing. The threat of wider Nagalim reunited the
Meities, Kukis and the Muslims into an organization called the United Committee
of Manipur (UCM) against the Nagas dividing the society into two groups and
nearly bring the state to a near ethnic clash.
Tripura
Ethnic conflict of Tripura is as old as its insurgency, a rift involving the native
tribals and the outsider settlers in the state and has transformed into a ball of fire
mostly in its northern part. Since 1980, Tripura has witnessed serious ethnic
conflict between the tribals and non-tribal Bengalis. For instance, it was the March
1980 ethnic violence against the Bengalis primarily for expulsion of Bengali
immigrants who came to Tripura after 1949 that brought the state under the map
of ethnic violence in the north-east region of India. Ever since then the state has
been the most severely ethnic violence infected state in the region. Captivatingly,
the conflict is also a spread of violence from the neighbouring state of Assam that
erupted in 1979. Primarily with ideological inspiration from Assam agitation
against the Bangladeshi foreigners, full support from the natives and logistic
backup from Mizo National Front (armed outfits) for training its cadres in the
Chittagong hill tract of Bangladesh the TNV (Tripura National Volunteers)
assaulted the state forces and launched a massive attack against the Bewngalis.
Emerging as a violent force, they killed over a thousand Bengali immigrants,
torching nearly 20000 of their houses, looting properties and the insurgents
served 'Quit Tripura' notice to them. In response to it the Bengali settlers had also
formed their own arms groups. This emergence of new outfits also created a
chaotic situation and has further escalated the ethnic turmoil.
Security Threats (Observations)
Security is comprehensive and encompasses national integration, security of
life of people; uplift of poor; development of technology; attaining self sufficiency;
increase in industrial as well as agricultural production; high and sustainable
economic growth. Besides, maintenance of internal security is the end and means
by which the society and individual feel fairly secure and provides an environment
where in a nation’s resources can be explored for production and optimized
Ethnic Conflict and Security Apprehension……. Vol. 2, No. 1, Jan-June 2011 19

development of its economic potential. When these factors are affected in most of
the states in the northeast India, primarily worst in Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, and
Tripura, it has not only repressed development in these areas but have cost the live
of many people including those of the security forces. It is also costing heavily to
the states considerably for maintaining the security forces in the ethnic conflict
affected areas so as diverting funds meant for development to maintain security
forces and losses of property by destructions during the conflicts.
When ethnicity in northeast India has turned into ethnic conflicts among the
various groups, demand for homeland has led to the stipulation for division of
states between tribal and non-tribal in case of Tripura between Tripuris and
Bengalis; tribal between tribal of Nagaland and Kukiland in Nagaland and parts of
Manipur; and amongst Khasis, Garos and Jaintias in Meghalaya. Most awful is that
of Bodoland as it not only led to tensions but also the rise of numerous armed
militant of various ethnic groups and further into the aspiration for separate tribal
autonomous council by each group. The Mising, the Tiwa, the Rabha, the Santhals
and other non-Bodo communities had gone raising armed militant groups of their
own when they were driven out from northern parts of Brahmaputra as soon as
the Bodos had gone for ethnic cleansing. In the long run these have shown the
way for disintegration and division of the state into factions which pose a severe
threat to the national integration. Moreover, the Nagas demand for Nagalim
including four districts of Manipur; parts of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh and
some areas of Myanmar causes numerous tensions among the groups.
Nevertheless, these not only calls for redrawing of the states and international
boundary line, but also secession from the Indian nation, negatively influencing
the other groups for the same.
Activities related to ethnic conflict in the region creates a situation where the
tribes, non-tribes and even the state authorities feel insecure to administer
appropriately. The state of affairs in most of these areas is that of lawless and fear
of gut shots, ambushes, bomb-blast, kidnapping and
extortion prevails. The worst are in Karbi-Anglong There is an
areas of Assam and Churachanpur district of Manipur. increasing rise of
Manipur is connected with the rest of the north-east rape, molestation
region by three national highways, NH 39, NH 53 and and fake-encounter
NH 150; however only NH39 is applied as the other allegations against
two passes through the ethnic-conflict prone areas of the security forces in
Tamenglong and Churachanpur districts respectively. these conflicted
In case of NH 36 which passes though Karbi-Anglong, areas. In addition,
most of the time the highway is not apply able without
ethnic tensions have
also overtaken
security convoys as frequent conflicts between the
insurgency and have
Dimasas and Karbis causes bandh, strikes, sabotaging
blurred the line of
and ambushes disrupting the flow of traffic. These action for the state
highways are the most insecure roads but significant and the paramilitary
since it connects the borders areas of Manipur and forces.
Nagaland. Frequent clashes and inability by the
government to secure these ethnic conflict ridden areas has also left most of the
 20 Scholar’s Voice: A New Way of Thinking Shivananda H.

border areas disintegrated, instable and underdeveloped. No major project has

undertaken in state of Manipur, border areas of Nagaland and Tipura; and its
hampering development. Since the far flunk Border States are disconnected by
frequent ethnic-conflict, it is left vulnerable to foreign countries interference. This
also adds to the rise of anti-nationalism and a major factor for the rise of ISI (Inter
Services Intelligence, Pakistan) interference in their attempt to contain India.
States have called on the security forces to control the situation, but pro-long
deployment of security personnel has also added to the woes as it have its own
social dimensions. There is an increasing rise of rape, molestation and fake-
encounter allegations against the security forces in these conflicted areas. In
addition, ethnic tensions have also overtaken insurgency and have blurred the line
of action for the state and the paramilitary forces. Ethnicity does not comply with
the state political demarcation and the international boundary lines. As a reason
when violence breaks out in an area it effects the neighbouring areas and thus
gives a though time for a specific state to deal with the situation. In Karbi-Anglong
conflict, when the Karbis had attacked the Khasis in Assam, the Karbis face the
same fate in Meghalaya. Similarly when the Dimasas attacked the Nagas in Assam,
the Nagas of Nagaland retaliated in the same manner and so in Manipur and
Mizoram with the Kukis and Reangs respectively.
The impact of ethnic-conflict on the security of the region and the nation is
enormous and is adding to the problems of the northeastern people. The region is
already sensitive and vulnerable when it comes to security both from military and
economic angle, as the region is connected through the thin Siliguri corridor and
lack infrastructure. It has been a problem in limiting the conflict to specific
geographical areas and multiplies in manifolds. In addition when the state and the
central government are facing tough time in handling the situation due to
remoteness, less connectivity and other factors, ethnic-conflict in the region is
posing a severe threat to the security of the nation.
Conclusion (Recommendations)
Ethnic conflict has also given a multifaceted dimension to the unrest in the
region with less chance for a drastic change in the near future. There is a need for
state initiatives coordinated by the central government for a multi pronged
approach towards the prevailing insecurity in the region.
Economic development through infrastructure building as projected by most
of the scholars and policy makers will definitely give a boost in restoring most of
the issues in the northeast region including ethnic conflict. Many special packages
are also being allotted to the North East Council (NEC) for further distribution to
the different states. However, to most of the researchers’ surprise, less is countered
on the ground as functioning of the constitutional administration doesn’t apply in
the remote areas of the region. There is a dire requirement for reorganizing and
strengthening of administrative systems in the grass root level so that any policy
framed could be implemented effectively and efficiently.
This should be followed by border trade and border management measures
with mutual coordination among the states to enhance economic growth, stop
Ethnic Conflict and Security Apprehension……. Vol. 2, No. 1, Jan-June 2011 21

illegal migration and anti-national activities undergoing in the states. Checking

illegal migration through Detection and Deportation of foreigners as envisaged in
the Assam Accord of 1985 should be expedited as they are the root causes for
plethora of problems. Moreover, a joined pragmatic policy and strategy at the
national, regional and state level to take stock of the changing facets of the ethnic
conflicts and deal economic development at the grass root level providing
proportionate opportunities to the various groups could go a long way in
resolving the issues and integrating the various ethnic groups.
Endnotes
1. Singh, K.S, People of India: An introduction. Kolkata: Seagull Books, 1992.
2. Annual report 2001, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
3. North East Development Finance Corporation Ltd., NER Databank, North East India, General
Information. <http://databank.nedfi.com/content.php?menu=1003&page_id=356>
4. Annual report 2001, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
5. B.G. Verghese, India’s Northeast Resurgent: Ethnicity, Insurgency, Governance,
Development, New Delhi: Konark Publishers, 1996, p. 1.
6. Annual report 2001, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India.
7. Upadhyay Archana, “Terrorism in the North-East, Linkages and Implications”, Economic and
Polotical Weekly, December 2, 2006. p-4994.
8. Sahni, Ajai, Survey of Conflicts & Resolution in India’s Northeast
<http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/publication/faultlines/volume12/Article3.htm>
9. Singh, Aheibam, Koireng, Ethnicity and Inter-Community Conflicts: A Case of Kuki-Naga in
Manipur <http://manipurcomments.com/ethnicity-and-inter-community-conflicts-a-case-of-
kuki-naga-in- manipur/> 25 August 2009
10. Dimasa-Naga Ethnic Clashes Spill To Cachar, 19 July 2009
<http://www.sinlung.com/northeast/assam/dimasa-naga-ethnic-clashes-spill-
tocachar.html1>
11. Assam villagers erect check gates to keep out miscreants, 7 August 2009
<http://blog.taragana.com/n/assam-villagers-erect-check-gates-to-keep-out-miscreants-
133276/>
12. “Naga rebels attack Dimasa village, kill 1”, Times of India, Guwahati, TNN 7 July 2009.
13. ManipurBackgrounder,http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/manipur/back
grounder/index.html 14/08
___________________

“The moral difference between a soldier and a civilian is that the

soldier accepts personal responsibility for the safety of the body politic
of which he is a member. The civilian does not.”
- Robert Heinlein