Cells of the Nervous System
Nervous System
Functions (CRIME)
1. Controlling muscles and glands.
2. Receiving sensory input.
3. Integrating information.
4. Maintaining homeostasis.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity.
Divisions of the Nervous System
I. Central Nervous System
§ Brain and spinal cord
II. Peripheral Nervous System
§ Nerves and ganglia
a. Sensory Division – afferent (toward)
division; conducts action potentials
from sensory receptors to the CNS
• Sensory neurons – neurons
that transmit action potentials
from the periphery to the CNS
i. Somatic Sensory Fibers – carry
info from stimuli coming from
the skin, skeletal, muscles,
joints
ii. Visceral Sensory Fibers –
transmits impulses coming from
the visceral organs
b. Motor Division – efferent (away)
division; conducts action potentials
from the CNS to effector organs
• Motor neurons – neurons that
transmit action potentials
from the CNS toward the
periphery
i. Somatic Motor Nervous
System / Voluntary – divides into 2 processes: extends to the
transmits action potentials
form the CNS to the skeletal
muscles
ii. Autonomic Motor Nervous
System / Involuntary –
transmits action potentials
from the CNS to cardiac,
smooth muscles and glands
1. Sympathetic – figth-or-
flight system
2. Parasympathetic – toxic substances in the blood; allows
resting and digesting
system
iii. Enteric Nervous System –
unique subdivision; both
sensory and motor neurons
contained within the digestive
tract
Neurons
§ Also called nerve cells
§ Receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
transmit signals
Cell body – contains a single nucleus; source of
information for gene expression n
Dendrites – extensions of the cell body; receive
information from other neurons; transmit the info
toward the neuron cell body
Axon – single long cell process; conduct action
potentials from one part of the brain or spinal cord to
another part
Ø Axon of sensory neurons – conduct action
potentials towards the CNS
Ø Axon of motor neurons – conduct action
potentials away from the CNS
Axon hillock – where the axon leaves the neuron cell
body
Nissl bodies – rough ER found in the cell body of a
neuron
Schwann cells – form a myelin sheath (increases speed
of impulse transmission)
Collateral axons – branches of axons
Types of Neurons
1. Multipolar neurons – many dendrites + a single
axon
2. Bipolar neurons – two processes: 1 dendrite + 1
axon
3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons – single process that
periphery + extends to the CNS
Neuroglia
§ Non-neuronal cells of the CNS + PNS
§ More numerous than neurons
§ Retain the ability to divide
1. Astrocytes – major supporting cells in the CNS;
stimulate/inhibit the signaling activity of nearby
neurons; help limit damage to neural tissue
v Blood brain barrier – protects neurons from
exchange of waster products + nutrients
2. Ependymal cells – produce cerebrospinal fluid;
help move the cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS
3. Microglia – act as immune cells of the CNS’
protect the brain by removing bacteria and cell
debris
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 4 – 5. Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells
(PNS) – provide an insulating material that
surrounds axons
Neural Signaling
§ Communication among neurons
1. Reception – stimuli received by visual receptors
in the eye
2. Transmission – sensory neurons transmit info to
CNS
3. Integration – info given is interpreted and an
appropriate response is determined
4. Transmission – the CNS transmits info to motor
neurons
5. Actual response – muscle/glands receive info
and instruction from motor neurons
Myelin Sheaths
§ Highly specialized insulating layer of cells
Unmyelinated axons – action potentials are conducted
slowly bcos in travels along the entire axon
Myelinating axons – action potentials are conducted
rapidly by salutatory conduction
Nodes of Ranvier – gaps in the myelin sheath; where
ion movement can occur
Organization of Nervous Tissue
Gray Matter – groups of neuron cell bodies + their
dendrites; very little myelin
Ø In the CNS;
v Cortex – GM on the surface of the brain
v Nuclei – GM located deeper within the
brain
Ø In the PNS;
v Ganglion – a cluster of neuron cell
bodies
White Matter – bundles of parallel axons + myelin
sheaths
Ø In the CNS
v Nerve tracts – conduction pathways;
propagate action potentials from one
area of the CNS to another
Ø In the PNS;
v Nerves – bundles of axons + connective
tissue sheaths
Electrical Signals and Neural Pathways
Resting Membrane Potential
Polarized cell membrane – uneven distribution of
charge
Resting membrane potential – uneven charge
distribution in an unstimulated/resting cell; polarized
Ø Higher concentration of K+ inside CM
Ø Higher concentration of Na+ outside CM
Ø Greater permeability of CM to K+ than to Na+
Leak channels – always open
Gated channels – closed until opened by specific signals
Chemically gated channels – opened by
neurotransmitters
Voltage gated channels – opened by a change in
membrane potential
Sodium potassium pump – required to maintain the
greater concentration of Na+ outside the CM and K+
inside
Action Potentials
Excitable cells – RMP changes in response to stimuli
that activate gated ion channels
Local current – Na+ diffuses quickly into cell
Depolarization – a change that causes the inside of the
CM to become positive
Local potential – result of depolarization
Threshold value – attainable local potential (critical pt.)
Action potential – constitution of depolarization and
repolarization
Hyperpolarization – the charge on the CM briefly
becomes more negative than the RMP
All-or-none fashion – threshold is reached = action
potential occurs; if the threshold is not reached = action
potential doesn’t occur
Continuous conduction – the action potential is
conducted along the entire axon CM
Saltatory conduction – action potentials jump from one
node of Ranbier to the next
The Synapse
Synapse – a junction where the axon of one neuron
interacts with another
Presynaptic terminal – end of the axon
Postsynaptic membrane – membrane of the dendrite or
effector cell
Synaptic cleft – space separating the presynaptic &
postsynaptic membrane
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Neurotransmitters – chemical messengers

Synaptic vesicles – where neurotransmitters are stored

Hyperpolarized – the inside of the postsynaptic cell

tends to become more negative

Substance Effect Clinical Example

Acetylcholine Excitatory or Alzheimer disease
inhibitory
Norepinephrine Excitatory Cocaine and
amphetamines
Serotonin Generally Mood, anxiety, and
inhibitory sleep induction
Dopamine Excitatory or Parkinson disease
inhibitory
Gamma- Inhibitory Treatment of
aminobutyric epilepsy
acid
Glycine Inhibitory Poison strychnine
Endorphins Inhibitory Opiates morphine
and heroin

Reflexes
Reflex – an involuntary reaction in response to a
stimulus applied to the periphery and transmitted to the
CNS

Reflex arc – neuronal pathway by which a reflex occurs

Ø Sensory receptor
Ø Sensory neuron
Ø Interneurons
Ø Motor neuron
Ø Effector organ (muscle or glands)

Neuronal Pathways
Converging pathway – two or more neurons synapse
with the same neuron

Diverging pathway – the axon from one neuron divides

and synapses with more than one other neuron

Summation – allows integration of multiple sub

threshold local potentials; brings the membrane
potential to threshold and trigger an action potential

Spatial summation – local potentials originate from diff.

locations on the postsynaptic neuron

Temporal summation – local potentials overlap in time

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 Spinothalamic tract – transmits pain, light touch, and
Spinal cord deep pressure
§ Extends from the foramen magnum to the 2nd
lumbar vertebra Dorsal column – transmission of proprioception, touch,
§ Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and deep pressure, vibration
from the brain
Spinocerebellar tracts – proprioception to cerebellum
Cauda equina – inferior end of the SC; spinal nerves
exiting there resemble a horse’s tail Descending Tracts
§ Pathways that carry impulses from the brain to
2 Main Functions the periphery
1. Transmits info to and from the brain.
2. Controls many reflex activities of the body. Lateral corticospinal – muscle tone and skilled
movements (hand)
White Matter of the SC
1. Dorsal (posterior) Anterior corticospinal – muscle tone and movement of
2. Ventral (anterior) trunk muscles
3. Lateral Columns
a. Ascending tracts – conduct action Rubrospinal – movement coordination
potentials toward the brain
b. Descending tracts – conduct action Reticulospinal – posture adjustment
potentials away from the brain
Vestibulospinal – posture & balance
Gray Matter of the SC (shaped like the letter H)
1. Posterior horns Tectospinal – movement in response to visual reflexes
2. Anterior horns
3. Small lateral horns Cranial Nerves
§ Transmit info to the brain form the sensory
Central canal – fluid filled space in the center of the cord receptors
§ 12 pairs
Ventral root – formed by ventral rootlets;
Name Specific Function
Dorsal root – formed by dorsal rootlets I. Olfactory S S: smell
II. Optic S S: vision
Dorsal root ganglion – ganglion in a dorsal root M: 4-6 extrinsic eye
III. Oculomotor M muscles; P: constricts
Relfex Action pupils
§ Predictable, automatic response to a specific IV. Trochlear M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
stimulus S: face + teeth; M: muscles
V. Trigeminal B
of mastification
1. Reception of the stimulus. VI. Abducens M M: 1 extrinsic eye muscle
2. Transmission of info to the CNS. S: taste; M: facial muscles;
3. Integration (interpretation and determination of
nose
eyes VII. Facial B
eyes P: salivary + tear glands
an appropriate response). eyes
chewing Acoustic /
eyes
4. Transmission of info from the CNS to a muscle. face VIII. Vestibulococh- S S: hearing + balance
ears
5. Actual response. taste
pharynx
lear
neck
tongue S: taste + touch to back of
Spinal Cord Reflexes Glossopharyng
IX. B tongue; M: pharyngeal
Knee-Jerk Reflex -eal
muscles; P: salivary glands
Stretch flex – simplest reflex; muscles contract in S: pharynx, larynx, viscera;
response to a stretching force applied to them M: palate, pharynx, larynx;
X. Vagus B
P: viscera of thorax +
Knee-jerk reflex – patellar reflex; used to determine if abdomen
the higher CNS centers that normally influence this M: 2 neck + upper back
reflex are functional XI. Accessory M
muscles
XII. Hypoglossal M M: tongue muscles
Withdrawal Reflex
Withdrawal Reflex – flexor reflex; to remove a limb Spinal Nerves
from a painful stimulus
§ Arise along the spinal cord; contains mixed
nerves
Ascending Tracts
§ 31 pairs
§ Pathways that carry impulses form the
periphery to various parts of the brain v 8 Cervical
v 12 Thoracic
v 5 Lumbar

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 v 5 Sacral Autonomic Nervous System
v 1 Coccygeal § Preganglionic neuron
§ Postganglionic neuron
Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and somatic § Maintain internal homeostasis
motor neurons
Autonomic ganglia – where preganglionic neurons
Plexuses – where nerves come together and then synapse with postganglionic neurons
separate
Ø Cervical plexus I. Sympathetic ANS
Ø Brachial plexus § ‘Fight-or-flight’
Ø Lumbosacral plexus § Prepares the body for action
§ Most active during stressful situations
Cervical Plexus § Norepinephrine (main neurotransmitter)
§ Originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
II. Parasympathetic ANS
Phrenic nerve – most important branc of the CP; § Activities result in conserving and restoring
innervates the diaphragm (responsible for our ability to energy
breathe) § Helps return the body to resting conditions
§ Active during periods of calm and rest
Brachial Plexus § PS fibers are in the vagus nerve
§ Originates from the spinal nerves C5 to T1
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
1. Axillary nerve – innervates 2 shoulder muscles Acetylcholine – neurotransmitters of the
+ the skin over part of it parasympathetic division
2. Median nerve – innervates the anterior forearm Norepinephrine – postganglionic neurons of the
and intrinsic muscles sympathetic division
3. Radial nerve – innervates all the muscles in the Functions of the Autonomic Nervous System
posterior arm and forearm + skin over the Sympathetic Division
posterior surface of the arm, forearm, hand § Prepares a person for action by increasing HR,
BP, respiration, release of glucose
4. Musculocutaneous nerve – innervates the
anterior muscles of the arm + skin over the Parasympathetic Division
radial surface of the forearm § Involuntary activities at rest: digestion of food,
defecation, urination
5. Ulnar nerve – innervates most of the anterior
forearm muscles and some of the intrinsic hand Enteric Nervous System
muscles + skin over the radial side of the hand
§ Consists of plexus within the wall of the
digestive tract
Lumbosacral Plexus
§ Originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4 1. Sensory neurons – connect the digestive tract to
the CNS
1. Obturator nerve – innervates the muscles of the 2. Sympathetic & parasympathetic neurons –
medial thigh + skin over it connect the CNS to the digestive tract
3. Enteric neurons – located entirely within enteric
2. Femoral nerve – innervates the anterior thigh plexus
muscles + skin over it & medial side of the leg
v Capable of monitoring and controlling
the digestive tract independently of the
3. Tibial nerve – innervates the posterior thigh
CNS
muscles, the anterior & posterior leg muscles,
most of the intrinsic foot muscles + skin over the
sole of the foot

4. Common fibular nerve – innervates the muscles

of the lateral thigh & leg, some intrinsic foot
muscles + skin over the anterior & lateral leg,
dorsal surface of the foot

Sciatic nerve – CT sheath that bounds the tibial and

common fibular nerve

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 2. Epithalamus
Brain § Smallest area superior + posterior to the
§ Soft, wrinkled mass of tissue that is highly thalamus
complex and adaptive; 3 pounds § Consists of few small nuclei (emotional and
§ 25 billion neurons visceral response to odors) + pineal gland
§ Requires a continuous supply of oxygen and
glucose Pineal gland – an endocrine gland that may influence
the onset of puberty; role in controlling some long term
I. Brainstem cycles
§ Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the
brain 3. Hypothalamus
§ Controls the heart rate, blood pressure, and § Most inferior part
breathing § Consists of several small nuclei; maintaining
§ Damage can cause death homeostasis
§ Control of body temp., hunger, and thirst
1. Medulla Oblongata § Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
§ Most inferior portion of the brainstem and relaxation
§ Important reflex actions like vomiting, sneezing,
coughing, swallowing Important Homeostatic Mechanisms
§ Gray matter consists of various nuclei that serve 1. Control center of the ANS.
as vital centers 2. The link bet. the nervous and endocrine
systems.
v Cardiac centers – control HR
3. Helps maintain fluid balance.
v Vasomotor centers – regulates BP bu
controlling blood vessel diameter v Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) –
regulates water excretion by the kidneys
v Respiratory centers – initiates and
4. Regulates body temperature.
regulates breathing
5. Regulates food intake (appetite and satiety
§ Pyramids – two prominent enalargements centers).
6. Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
2. Pons (bridge) 7. Influences sexual behavior and emotional
§ Relay information bet. the cerebrum and the aspects of sensory input.
cerebellum
§ Resembles an arched footbridge Infundibulum – controlling the secretion of hormones
§ Regulates respiration, swallowing, sleep from the pituitary gland

3. Midbrain Mammillary bodies – involved in emotional responses

§ Smallest region of the brainstem to odors and in memory
§ 4 mounds called the colliculi
v 2 inferior; major relay centers for the III. Cerebellum
auditory nerve pathways in the CNS § Second largest part of the brain; 2 hemispheres
v 2 superior; visual reflexes and receive § Responsible for coordination of movements
touch and auditory input § Comparator – a sensing device that compares
data from two sources
4. Reticular Formation § Proprioceptive neurons – innervate joints,
§ A group of nuclei scattered throughout the tendons, muscles; provide info about the
brainstem position of body parts
§ Regulating cyclical motor functions; respiration,
walking, chewing 1. Helps in smooth and coordinated body
§ Damage can result in coma movements (comparator function).
§ Reticular activating system – plays an 2. Maintains muscle tone posture.
important role in arousing and maintaining 3. Maintain balance and equilibrium
consciousness 4. Important in learning motor skills.

II. Diencephalon IV. Cerebrum

§ Part bet. the brainstem and the cerebrum § Largest and most prominent part of the brain

1. Thalamus 1. Sensory Function – receives info from sensory

§ Largest part of the diencephalon
§ Major relay center for all sensory info (except
smell) to the cerebrum; plays a gating rol
§ Influences mood and registers an uncomfortable
perception of pain
§ Interthalamic adhesion – connects the two
large, lateral parts of the thalamus
receptors and interprets it
2. Motor Function – responsible for all voluntary
movement and some involuntary ones
3. Association Function – responsible for all of the
intellectual activities of brain

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4 Lobes Right and Left Hemispheres
1. Frontal Lobe Right hemisphere – three dimensional or spatial
§ Control of voluntary motor functions, perception, musical ability
motivation, aggression, mood, olfactory
reception Left Hemisphere – analytical hemisphere; mathematics
§ Primary motor area: consciously move our and speech
skeletal muscles
§ Broca’s area – speech center Memory
§ Prefrontal area – reposible for executive Working memory – stores info required for the
functions immediate performance of a task; 7 digit phone no.

2. Parietal Lobe Short-term memory – last longer; can be retained for a

§ General Sensory Area – receives info from the few mins. to a few days
sensory receptors in the skin and joints
§ Wernicke’s area – sensory speech area Long-term memory – stored for only a few minutes or
become permanent by consolidation
3. Occipital Lobe
Consolidation – a gradual process involving the
§ Receiving and perceiving visual input
formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
§ Primary visual area – receives visual info
§ Visual association area – portion where visual Declarative memory – explicit memory; retains facts and
info is integrated related emotional undertones
4. Temporal Lobe Procedural memory – reflexive memory; development
§ Primary auditory area – center for reception of of motor skills
auditory messages
§ Auditory association area – where auditory Memory engrams – memory traces; long-term retention
messages are integrated of a thought/idea
§ Psychic cortex – abstract thoughts and
judgments Limbic System
§ A group of interconnected nuclei involved in
Gyri – folds and convolutions; increase the surface area memory and regulation of emotion
of the cortex and intervening grooves (sulci)
Hippocampus – formation and retrieval of memories
Sulci – shallow grooves
Amygdala – filter sensory info and evaluates it in terms
Fissures – deep groves of emotional needs
Longitudinal fissure – divides the cerebrum into left Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
and right hemispheres Meninges
§ Surround and protect the brain and spinal cord
Cerebral cortex – outermost layer of the cerebrum;
consists of gray matter 1. Dura mater – most superficial and thickest
meninges
Corpus callosum – connects the right and left v Epidural space – bet. the dura mater &
hemispheres the vertebrae
v Epidural anesthesia – clinically
Central sulcus – separates the frontal and parietal lobes important as the injection site of spinal
nerves; given to women during
Lateral fissure – separates the temporal love from the
childbirth
rest
2. Arachnoid mater – thin, wispy, 2nd meningeal
Insula – fifth lobe; deep within the fissure membrane
v Subdural space – space bet. the dura
Basal Nuclei
mater and the arachnoid mater; contains
§ Group of functionally related nuclei small amt. of serous fluid
v Spinal block – to inject anesthetic into
Corpus striatum – located deep within the cerebrum
the area
Substantia nigra – darkly pigmented cells in the v Spinal tap – to take a sample of CSF
midbrain
3. Pia mater – 3rd meningeal membrane; very
tightly bound to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord; filled with CSF and contains blood
vessels

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 v Subarachnoid space – bet. the Aphasia – absent/defective speech/language
arachnoid and pia matter comprehension

Ventricles Brain Waves and Consciousness

§ Fluid filled cavities Electroencephalogram (EEG) -

Lateral ventricle – relatively large cavity in each cerebral Brain waves – wave like patterns
hemisphere
Alpha waves – awake but in a quiet, resting state with
Third ventricle – a smaller, midline cavity eyes close

Fourth ventricle – located at the base of the cerebellum Beta waves – occur during intense mental activity

Cerebral aqueduct – a narrow canal that connects the 3rd Delta waves – occur during deep sleep in infants and in
and 4th ventricle patients

Cerebrospinal fluid Theta waves – observed in children; also in adults who

§ Provides a protective cushion around the CNS are frustrated or have brain disorders

Choroid plexus – produces CSF; specialized structures
made of ependymal cells
Arachnoid villi – structures that project from the
arachnoid layer; where blood is reabsorbed
Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
§ Motor functions decline
§ Mental functions (memory) decline

Hydrocephalus – accumulation of CSF in the ventricles

Motor Functions
Involuntary movements – occur without a conscious
thought

Voluntary movements – consciously activated to

achieve a specific goal; walking, typing

Upper motor neurons – have cell bodies in the cerebral

cortex

Lower motor neurons – have cell bodies in the anterior

horn

Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex

Primary motor cortex – control voluntary movements of
skeletal muscles

Premotor area – where motor functions are organized

before they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex

Pre-frontal area – where planning and initiating

movements occur

Other Brain Functions

Communication bet. the Right & Left Hemispheres
Commissures – connection bet. the two hemispheres

Corpus callosum – largest commissure

Speech
Sensory speech area – Wernicke area; a portion of the
parietal lobe

Motor speech area – Broca area; inferior portion of the

frontal lobe

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