All living an nonliving things are made up of atoms, the smallest unit of matter

An atom has three parts:

- Electrons (negavite)
- Neutrons ( neutral/no charge)
- Protons (positively charged)

Nucleus- where protons and neutrons are located

Electron Cloud- where electrons move around in the nucleus

Atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons and are electrically balanced

Element- made up of one type of atom and can't be broken down into any other
substanceby ordinary chemical means
For example: If you break down a big block of gold into a smaller block, then into
a ring, then into gold dust, it is still just made of gold atoms.

In a bohr model, only two electrons can be found on the first ring, then 8 on the
next and 8 on the next.
When the rings have their maximum amounts, the atom then is most stable

Valence Electrons- electrons in the outermost shell/ring

Atoms will usually combine in order to become stable in the valence ring

CHNOPS
- Carbon
- Hydrogen
- Oxygen
- Nitrogen
- Phosphourous
- Sulfur

CHNOPS are prevalent in 96% of the human body

Isotopes - atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons in the
nucleus

Neutrons Contribute to weight, but not molecular identity, so different forms of

the same element may have different mass

For example: most times, a Carbon atom contains 6 neutrons, but there are some
Isotopes of Carbon that contain 7 or 8 neutrons

Isotopes are named by the addition of neutrons and protons in the nucleus
For example a regular carbon atom is called Carbon - 12
However an Isotopes with extra neutrons are called Carbon 13 or Carbon 14

A compound is a s
substance made up of the bonded atoms of two or more different elements
For example: Water, salt NaCl, carbon dioxide

A compound properties may be different from the seperate elements properties

covalent bond- When valence electrons are shared between atoms

Molecule- a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds

Polarity- occurs when electrons are not shared equally, but still shared
Ionic bond- results from the losing and gaining of electrons. The result will be
either positive or negative
Ion- a charged atom

An atom that loses one or more electrons becomes a POSITIVELY CHARGED ION because
it has more protons than electrons
In contrast, an atom that gains electrons becomes a NEGATIVELY CHARGED ION because
it has more electrons than protons.

Electronegativity- a measure of how strong a neutron pulls and retains electrons

x<0.4 = Nonpolar Covalent
0.4<x<1.7 = Polar Covalent
1.7<x = Ionic

Covalent - equal sharing

Polar covalent- unequal sharing
Ionic - completely unequal

On the periodic table ones on the left and right sides are usually ionic while in
the middle they are usually covalent or polar covalent

Atomic Number - The number on the periodic table, which shows the number of protins
in the nuckeus of the atom
Atomic mass- The number at the bottom of the element which shows the atomic mass

Polar molecules are attracted to other polar molecules like a magnet

Hydrogen Bonds- bonds between hydrogen and another atom
They are strong however they afe not as strong as covalent bonds

High Specific Heat

- Water absorbs an reatins heat to increase temperature
- Water can absorb large amounts of heat, but takes a long time to cool
- This property of water is important because

Cohesion- attraction of particles with like substances

Adhesion attraction of particles of different substances
Capillary Action- A combination of cohesion and adhesion that cause water to move
up a tube

Hydrophobic - water fearing

- Repels from water and is nonpolar
Hydrophilic- water loving
- Mixes with water and is polar

Mixture- When two substances are combined yogether and reatin their original
properties.
You can still easily seperate the components of a mixture as well

Solution- a mixture in which one or more substances (solutes) are distrubuted

evenly in another substance (solvent)
The solute is the powder and the solute is the liquid

Acid- compounds that form hydrogen ions when dissolved in water

Bases- Compounds that reduce the concentration of hydrogen ions and increase in the
concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution

pH- a measure of how acidic aand basic a solution is which is based on the
concentration of hydrogen ions in solutions. It ranges from 0 to 14 with 7 being
neutral
 -Acidic solutions are found at 7-
-Basic solutions are found at 7+

Stomach acid has about 2.0 acidity and blood is about 7.4
Buffer- substance that reacts to prevent pH changes in a solution

Monomers are subunits in a molecule and link to form a polymer

A polymer is another term for a macromolecules

Polymers:
-Formed by the process of condensation (H2O is released as the molecules bond
together)
-Broken down by the process of hydrolysis (H2O is added to the molecule to
break the bond)

In hydrolosis, water is added to the molecule to break the bond

Importances of molecules being made of sugars:

-Can be broken down to provide a source of useable chemical energy for cells
and are alos a major part of plant structure

Anything that ends in -ose isn a sugar

Monosaccharide: simple sugar
Disaccharides: 2 sugars bonded together
Polysaccharides: multiple sugars bonded together

Nucleotides- Polymers that are made up of monomers

Chemical Reactions: change substances into different substances by breaking and

forming chemical bonds

Reactants- the substances that changed during the chemical reaction

Products- the substances made by a chemical reaction

Bond Energy- the energy that is needed to break bonds between the reactant
compounds

Equilibrium- When the reactant concentration and the product concentration are the
same rate
Activation Energy- The energy needed to be absorbed in order to start

Exothermic- releasing energy

Endothermic- taking in energy

Catalyst- Introduced to kickstart a reaction

-Decreases the activation energy needed to start a chemical reaction and as a
result will increase the rate of the chemical reaction
Substrate- the peice that goes into enzymes
Substrates are like the key and enzymes like the lock