Turbomachinery Technology Seminar

Fuel Flexibility in Conventional

and Dry Low Emissions
Industrial Gas Turbines
 Contents
Page

INTRODUCTION...............................................................................................................145-1

GAS TURBINE PACKAGING REQUIREMENTS .............................................................145-1

COMBUSTION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS ....................................................................145-1

COMBUSTION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION ........................................................................145-2

CLASSIFYING GAS FUELS .............................................................................................145-2

GASEOUS FUELS ............................................................................................................145-4

LIQUID FUELS..................................................................................................................145-7

CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION OPERATION ON NGL AND LPG FUELS..................145-9

CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS ...................................145-14

USING HYDROGEN RICH FUELS IN CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION SYSTEMS...145-15

LIFE AND MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................145-16

CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION EXHAUST EMISSIONS ...........................................145-17

SOLONOX COMBUSTION SYSTEM FUEL CAPABLITY AND DEVELOPMENT .........145-18

SUMMARY ......................................................................................................................145-27

REFERENCES................................................................................................................145-27

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Specifications subject to change without notice. Printed in U.S.A.
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TTS145/0306
 Fuel Flexibility in Conventional and
Dry Low Emissions Industrial Gas
Turbines
L.H. Cowell
TMP SoLoNOx NPI Leader

K.H. Maden
Chief Combustion Engineer

C.S. Wen
Principal Combustion Engineer

INTRODUCTION emissions, reliability, availability and

maintainability. Lifecycle cost is defined here as the
The industrial gas turbines developed by Solar
total cost of ownership and operation over the life
were originally designed for operation using
of the gas turbine. The cost of the fuel is normally a
standard pipeline-quality natural gas, light distillate
significant portion of the lifecycle cost. When
oil, or both. Over the years, they have been
considering the use of an alternative fuel, a gas
successfully adapted, through modifications to the
turbine originally designed for standard fuels such
combustion and control systems, for operation on
as natural gas and No. 2 diesel fuel may require
many additional gaseous and liquid fuels covering
modification to satisfy all the buying criteria. To
a wide range of physical and chemical properties.
control the initial and development cost of the
These fuels include low heating value gases, high
turbine for such fuels, it is necessary that
heating value gases, high-hydrogen content gases,
modifications to the combustion system, if required,
natural gas, natural gas liquids (NGL), liquid
be minimized and the development process carried
petroleum gas (LPG), naphtha, Jet A, kerosene,
out in a cost effective manner. Additionally, in
and diesel. Advances in alternative fuel capability
meeting the above gas turbine requirements, the
have been driven by the desire of customers to
impact of using alternative fuels on the package
operate the turbomachinery on the most
control system, as well as on turbine durability,
economical fuel available.
safety, and cost must be considered.
This paper describes all the various alternate
gaseous and liquid fuels that are handled by
Solar’s current conventional and dry low emission
COMBUSTION SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
(SoLoNOxTM) combustion systems. These fuels are The main function of a combustion system in a gas
defined, classified and the fuel characteristics that turbine is to convert the fuel’s chemical energy into
affect turbine operation, combustion process, the thermal energy of the combustion system.
combustion system, and fuel control system are While doing this, it must meet several other
discussed. operational requirements:

GAS TURBINE PACKAGING Complete Fuel Combustion

REQUIREMENTS High combustion system efficiency at all load
Customer buying criteria for gas turbines focus on conditions is required for fuel economy, low
lifecycle cost, initial cost, thermal efficiency, emissions, and high thermal efficiency.

145-1
Fuel Range
Customers desire to use a wide-range of fuels with
a minimum number of unique combustion system
parts. Each new combustion system configuration
needs to be designed to use the maximum range of
fuels from low heating value fuels such as landfill
gases to high heating value fuels such as
associated gases from oil and gas recovery and to
liquid fuels such as naphthas, kerosenes, and
diesels.
Exit Temperature Distribution
Controlled temperature distribution, at the
combustion chamber exit, is required in order to
provide the maximum life for the turbine’s nozzles
and blades.
Combustion System Hardware Durability
Combustor and injector metal temperatures must
be controlled to a level and distribution consistent
with the desired life of the combustion system. In
addition, fuel injector passage wall temperatures
must be low enough to resist fouling from fuel
destabilization and subsequent tar and coke
formation.
Pressure Loss Control
Pressure loss must be minimized because of its
deleterious effect on cycle performance allowing for
the fact that some pressure loss is necessary to
promote the turbulence and fuel/air mixing required
for efficient combustion.
Emissions
Pollutant emissions must be controlled to meet
national, regional and local air regulations.
Pollutants of concern include oxides of nitrogen
(NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt
hydrocarbons (UHC), volatile organic compounds
(VOC), particulate matter (PM), sulfur oxides
(SOx), and visible smoke on liquid fuel.
Combustor Instabilities
Combustor pressure oscillations and combustor
rumble must be controlled to acceptable levels to
ensure long life of SoLoNOx gas turbine
combustion hardware.
Other Requirements
Apart from these requirements, the system
should provide rapid and reliable ignition. The
145-2
combustion system has to be capable of fulfilling
the above requirements in most cases at not only
the design point, but also over a wide range of part-
load conditions. The suitability of the use of non-
standard fuels must be determined with regard to
meeting these requirements.
COMBUSTION SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Solar uses two combustion system technologies in
its gas turbines. The conventional combustion
system uses diffusion flame combustion
characterized by high flame temperatures and
concurrent mixing and burning of the air and fuel
within the combustor volume. Conventional
combustion gas turbines exhibit excellent turn-
down with very broad fuel flexibility. A more
detailed description of Solar’s conventional
combustion systems can be found in Maden, 1998
and Galica, 1995.
The other combustion system is the SoLoNOx
a dry low emissions (DLE) system that uses lean
premixed combustion to operate with low
emissions of NOx and CO. With lean premixed
combustion, the fuel and air are premixed before
reaching the flame front at a reduced fuel-air ratio
and corresponding reduced flame temperature. A
detailed description of the SoLoNOx combustion
system and a comparison with the conventional
fuel systems can be found in Stansel, 2006 and
Cowell, 2002.
The main components of either of Solar’s
combustion systems are the torch ignition system,
a gas only or dual-fuel injection system, and an
annular combustor. In all Solar gas turbines,
ignition within the main combustor is achieved with
a jet of hot gas produced by an auxiliary torch,
which uses turbine air and fuel.
CLASSIFYING GAS FUELS
The amount of energy that will be released during
the combustion process for a specific gaseous fuel
composition is determined by the heating value.
For simple cycle gas turbines, the lower heating
value is generally used since the latent energy of
the steam is not recovered. Gaseous fuels can be
categorized by the lower heating value, but another
parameter is used more commonly in the gas
turbine industry. That parameter is the Wobbe
Index. It accounts for variation in fuel gas density
and heating value. The Wobbe Index is used to
indicate the changes required to the fuel system so
that fuels with different heating values can be
accommodated. This index relates relative heat
input to a combustion system of fixed geometry at
a constant fuel supply pressure and can be
calculated using the following formula:
LHV
Wobbe Index =
S .G.
where:
LHV = Lower heating value of the fuel in MJ/Nm3
or Btu/scf
S.G. = Fuel specific gravity compared to air
If two fuels have the same Wobbe Index,
generally direct substitution is possible and no
change to the fuel system is required. However, the
fuel composition must also be considered and, if
more reactive species such as hydrogen, alkenes
and carbon monoxide are present in significant
quantities, additional changes to the fuel system
may be required. The normal design criterion is
that gases having a Wobbe Index within ±10% can
be substituted without making adjustments to the
fuel control system or injector flow area. If the fuel
injector flow area has to be changed, the gas
Wobbe Index should be inversely proportional to
the effective controlling area of the injector. For
conventional combustion, the flow area of the
injector is controlled through distinct flow orifices
placed in the injector spud. In the case of
SoLoNOx gas turbines, the injector flow area has
to be increased through design of the injector
passage dimensions.
As an example for a conventional combustion
gas turbine, a typical landfill gas Wobbe Index is
one-third the value of standard pipeline quality
natural gas. The controlling orifices on the injectors
must be enlarged to three times their previous
area. This allows the fuel flow rate of the landfill
gas to have an equivalent pressure drop across the
injector at full-load condition. This will provide
stable, high efficiency combustion, with the desired
turbine inlet temperature distribution, for long
combustor and blade life.
As the fuel heating value decreases below
standard levels, the torch igniter and the
combustion system may require standard natural
gas or liquid fuel for startup or shutdown, as well as
possible restrictions on turbine transient load
operation.
Solar classifies gaseous fuels based on
changes required to the injector, fuel or control
systems as specified in Table 1. The table
includes special start-up requirements and
limitations in loading based on the class of gas fuel.
Both SoLoNOx and conventional combustion gas
turbines have been designed to use the Standard
Fuel with Wobbe Index range of 1220 ±10%. This
range would be typical of pipeline quality natural
gas. High heating value fuels are accommodated
with minor changes to the control systems and can
be used in conventional combustion and, to a
lesser degree, in SoLoNOx gas turbines. Very high
heating value fuels are currently restricted to
conventional applications only and require that the
fuel temperature be monitored closely to prevent
two-phase (gas and liquid) flow. For medium
heating value fuels, conventional combustion may
require a change in injector flow area and the
application of SoLoNOx gas turbines is limited.
Low heating value fuels require even more
extensive changes to the injector and fuel system
on conventional and these fuels cannot currently
be used with SoLoNOx gas turbines. The last
category of very low heating values has limited
application for conventional combustion only.

Table 1. Classification of Gaseous Fuels

Fuel Energy Wobbe Index Combustion Start-up/Shut-down Load

Density BTU/scf (MJ/Nm3) System with Standard Fuel Restriction
Very High >1600
Conventional
(NGL & LPG) (>59.6)
1342 – 1600 Conventional
High
(50.0 – 59.6) Limited SoLoNOx
Standard 1098 – 1342 Conventional
(Pipeline) (40.9 – 50.0) SoLoNOx
700 – 1098 Conventional
Medium
(26.1 – 40.9) Limited SoLoNOx
350 – 700
Low Conventional Required Transients
(13.0 – 26.1)
<350 Limited Transients
Very Low Required
(<13.0) Conventional Low Loads

145-3
GASEOUS FUELS
Gas turbine fuels can be divided into four distinct
categories as indicated in Figure 1. These
categories are broadly based on the fuel source. A
description of each of these fuels is included in
Table 2 and they are further plotted as a function of
Wobbe Index in Figure 2.
Fuel Gases in Oil and Gas Extraction
Gas fuels produced from oil and natural gas
reserves include: raw natural gas, associated gas,
pipeline quality natural gas, liquefied natural gas
(LNG), natural gas liquids (NGL) and liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG). Natural gas is extracted
from the ground either with crude oil or from natural
gas reservoirs. It is primarily a mixture of naturally
occurring paraffin hydrocarbons including methane
(CH4), ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8,) butane
(C4H10), pentane (C5H12), hexane (C6H14), and
higher molecular weight compounds. Isomers of
these compounds, such as isobutane (iC4H10) and
isopentane (iC5H12) that have different properties
than their n-counterparts, are also found in natural
gas. Additionally, other gases such as carbon
dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, mercaptans, water
vapor, and nitrogen can be present in trace
quantities.

Gaseous Fuel Sources

Oil and Gas Solid Fuel

Industry Biomass Coal Derived
Gasification
Operations

• Raw Natural Gas • Coke Oven Gas • Landfill Gas • Coal Mine Methane
• Associated Gas • Refinery Gas • Digester Gas • Coal Bed Methane
• Pipeline Gas • Gasified Solids • Coal Gas - AirBlown
• LNG • Coal Gas - Oxy Blown
• Natural Gas Liquids
• Liquefied
Petroleum Gas

Figure 1. Gas Turbine Gaseous Fuel Categories

Conventional SoLoNOx Conventional

Use as Liquid
Associated Gas

Coal and Coke Pipeline and LNG LPG

Oven Gas

Raw Natural Gas Natural Gas Liquids

Landfill and Digester Refinery

Gasified
Biomass
and Waste

0 (MJ/Nm3) 20 40 60 80 100
0 Btu/scf 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
LHV
WOBBE INDEX, WI =
SG

Figure 2. Combustion System Capability for Various Gas Turbine Fuels

4
Table 2. Description of Gaseous Fuels

Wobbe
Source of Fuel Typical Primary Index,
Comments
Gas Constituents BTU/scf
(MJ/Nm3)
Associated Gas 20-100% CH4, C2H6, 900–1600 Gas recovered during crude oil extraction.
C3H8, C4+, CO2 (33.5–59.7) Significant variation in composition by
reservoir.
Raw Natural Gas CH4, C2H6, C3H8, C4+, 500–1350 Natural gas extracted from dry or wet
(Wellhead Gas) CO2 (18.6–50.4) reserves. Dry gas is primarily methane,
ethane and propane. Wet reserves contain
liquid hydrocarbon condensates including
C5+. Significant variation in composition by
reservoir.
Pipeline Quality CH4, C2H6, C3H8, CO2, 1085 – 1296 Natural gas with sufficient energy content,
Natural Gas N2 (40.5 – 48.3) generally above 900 Btu/scf, for transport
through commercial gas pipelines and sale
to end-users.
LNG (Liquefied CH4, C2H6, C3H8, CO2, 1100 – 1340 Natural gas processed to a liquid state.
Natural Gas) N2 (41.0 – 49.9) Produced by refrigerating treated natural
gas to below -259°F and 1 atmosphere.
LNG regasified and incorporated into
pipeline.
NGL (Natural Gas C2H6, C3H8, C4H10, C5+, 1600 – 1930 Hydrocarbons heavier than methane
Liquid) and mixture (59.6 –71.9) recovered from raw natural gas in
processing plants
LPG (Liquified C3H8, C4H10, and 1870 – 2125 Gaseous hydrocarbons generated from the
Petroleum Gas) mixture (69.7 – 79.1) refinery processes, crude oil stabilization
plants.
Refinery Gas 40-60% H2, CH4, C2H6, 1050-1250 Gas produced during crude oil refining.
C3H8, C4H10, C5H12 (39.1 – 46.6)
Landfill 35-55% CH4 CO2, N2 220 - 800 Gas produced when organic material
(8.2 – 29.8) decomposes in a landfill.

Digester 50-67% CH4, CO2, N2 500 - 600 Anaerobic digester farm waste, municipal
(18.6 – 22.3) waster, or from wastewater treatment
plants.
Gasified Biomass 15-45% H2, CH4, CO, 450 - 1100 Gas derived from solid waste including
CO2, N2, H2S (16.8 – 41.0) metropolitan waste, wood, agriculture, food,
tires.
Coal Mine Methane 40-60% CH4, N2, O2, 400 – 625 Methane trapped in coal seams mixed with
CO2 (14.9 – 23.3) air.

Coal Bed Methane 94-98% CH4, CO2 1070 – 1180 High methane concentration gas in coal
(39.9 – 44.0) seams. Sometimes called GOB gas.

Gasified Coal – Air 45-55% N2, CO, H2, 75 – 200 Coal derived gaseous products from air-
Blown CO2, CH4 (2.8 – 7.4) blown coal gasification.

Gasified Coal – Oxy 30-45% H2, CO, CO2, 200 – 570 Coal derived gaseous products from
Blown CH4 (7.4 – 21.2) oxygen-blown coal gasification.

Coke Oven Gas 45-60% H2, CH4, CO, 650 - 850 Gas resulting from coke manufacture in
N2, CO2, O2, C2+ (24.2 – 31.7) steel and iron mills

5
Associated Gas is extracted with crude oil and dew point of this gas compared to natural gas, NGL
found either dissolved in the oil or as a cap gas is usually handled as a liquid fuel for most industrial
above the oil in the reservoir. Historically, gas turbine applications. A determination must be
associated gas has been treated as a by-product of made for each source of NGL based on the fuel
oil extraction and has either been flared or re- analysis as to whether the fuel should be handled
injected to extract more oil. Burning associated in the gaseous or liquid phase.
gas in the gas turbines used to extract the crude oil
Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a sub-
has been recognized in the past two decades as a
classification of NGL referring specifically to
more economical and environmentally sensitive
propane and butane mixtures offered commercially.
approach. The majority of associated gas is
LPG is always transported in liquid form and as
produced offshore, complicating further efforts to
with NGL. LPG is usually handled as a liquid fuel
recover and utilize these gases. The composition
in gas turbine applications.
of associated gas depends on the type of reservoir
from which it originated.
Fuel Gases Produced in Industry
Raw Natural Gas or wellhead gas has a similar
Several industrial and chemical processes
composition compared to associated gas, however,
generate significant quantities of gas by-products
it is extracted from wells without crude oil. The gas
and waste streams with acceptable fuel
reserves are generally classified as either dry or
composition and adequate calorific value for use in
wet. Dry reserves do not contain appreciable
gas turbines without extensive equipment
condensable heavier hydrocarbons (pentane+),
modifications. Primary industries producing such
while wet reserves do. Natural gas containing
fuels include steel mills and chemical and refining
hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is referred to as sour gas.
plants.
Excessive H2S creates extensive corrosion
problems on fuel-wetted parts; thus, stainless steel Refinery Gas is a by-product of gasoline
and/or coatings are often prescribed for equipment production. This gas contains high hydrogen (H2)
handling sour gas. content, along with several other reactive species
including ethylene and propylene, mixed with
Pipeline Quality Natural Gas that is transported
methane, ethane and propane. Refinery gas is
and distributed for industrial and residential use is a
corrosive and hydrogen has a great tendency to
subset of raw natural gas. Pipeline gas has been
leak and is explosive, therefore safety is the main
processed to remove the heavier hydrocarbons
concern. With the proper safety considerations
and adjust the heating value of the fuel within
incorporated into design modifications and minor
prescribed limits. Methane is the lightest
fuel control adjustments, refinery waste gas has
combustible component of natural gas and
been successfully used to fuel industrial gas
generally referred to interchangeably with pipeline-
turbines. Hydrogen has a relatively low molecular
quality gas (>90%) because it is the major
weight and high flame speed compared to natural
constituent. Mercaptans are typically added to
gas.
pipeline gas to give a distinctive odor that facilitates
gas leakage detection. Coke Oven Gas is generated during the
production of coal and petroleum coke for iron and
Liquified Natural Gas (LNG) is pipeline quality
steel production. It contains methane, hydrogen
natural gas extracted remotely, chilled to a liquid (-
and some carbon monoxide and has a lower
260°F), transported via tanker, heated,
heating value than pipeline gas. Coke oven gas
revaporized, processed as required and injected
composition is quite variable and requires
into an existing natural gas transmission and
significant treatment to remove contaminants for
distribution network. LNG has a similar
use in a gas turbine.
composition to pipeline natural gas.
Natural Gas Liquid (NGL) is a general Fuel Gases from Biomass
classification for those paraffin hydrocarbons
heavier than methane, which can be transported Biomass can be converted into potential gas fuels
and distributed in liquid form. At atmospheric for industrial gas turbines through thermal
pressure, NGL is in the gaseous state. As a gas, gasification and anaerobic digestion.
NGL is separated from methane by liquefying it
through the process of pressure, absorption, or a Thermal Gasification is a process of heating
combination of both. Because of the relatively high wood and other biological substances without

6
combustion that produces gases with high carbon
monoxide and hydrogen content.
Anaerobic Digestion gas is the gas recovered
from the decomposition of organic matter by
bacteria in the absence of oxygen. Anaerobic
digestion occurs in:
• Liquid sewage
• Residues from fruit and vegetable canneries
• Animal and crop wastes
• Solid wastes disposed in sanitary landfills
• Marine plants, including macro-algae, water
hyacinth and sea kelp
This process produces gas consisting of methane,
nitrogen, carbon dioxide and air with a low heating
value. Large variations in gas composition are
common from different landfill and digester sites.
Fuel Gases Derived from Coal
Coal-derived gases include coal gas produced
through several different gasification processes
and gases that are collected during coal mining.
Coal Gas produced by gasification contains
hydrogen, methane, and carbon monoxide as their
combustible components, with large proportions of
carbon dioxide and nitrogen as inerts. Depending
on the type of gasification process, air-blown
processes generate an LHV of from 3.0 to 7.9
MJ/Nm3 (75 to 200 Btu/scf), while oxygen-blown
processes yield medium BTU gases with an LHV of
from 7.9 to 21.2 MJ/ Nm3 (200 to 570 Btu/scf).
potential explosion hazards need to be addressed.
The methane content in the gas/air mixture should
always be kept with a sufficient margin above the
upper flammability limit, at the highest anticipated
pressure and temperature.
LIQUID FUELS
In the subsequent section, the characteristics and
considerations of using common liquid fuels in
industrial gas turbines are discussed.
Natural Gas Liquids (NGL)
Natural gas liquids are created during the crude oil
extraction from naturally occurring oil wells, while
associated gaseous hydrocarbons are also
released. These consist of a large percentage of
methane mixed with heavier hydrocarbons such as
ethane, propane, butane, pentane, and hexane. To
avoid two-phase flow in the transportation
pipelines, the heavier hydrocarbons are stripped
from the gaseous hydrocarbon stream, thus
resulting in two streams: one consisting of pipeline
quality natural gas and the other of heavier highly
volatile hydrocarbon liquids. These latter streams,
given in Table 3 (ASTM D2597- 94), consist of
what are called natural gas liquids (NGL) and can
be transported as liquids via pipelines and used as
gas turbine fuel. Specific examples of NGL fuels
with their physical and chemical properties in
relation to gas turbines are included in Table 4.
(Sood, 1997).
Table 3. NGL Fuels

Coal Mine Gas is generally extracted in two forms: Concentration

Components
diluted with air as Coal Mine Methane (CMM) or Range, Mol %
as a high quality natural gas as Coal Bed Methane Nitrogen 0.01-5.0
(CBM). In a gaseous coal seam, methane Carbon Dioxide 0.01-5.0
concentration can be up to 94-98% with 1-5% Methane 0.01-5.0
carbon dioxide. For safety reasons, this gas has to
Ethane 0.01-95.0
be drained from underground coal seams, before
Propane 0.01-100.0
mining, in the form of CBM. To prevent explosions
in coal mines, extensive ventilation is required to Isobutane 0.01-100.0
extract gaseous methane trapped between coal n-Butane and 2,2 Dimethylpropane 0.01-100.0
seams and the surrounding rock. In practice, the Isopentane 0.01-15.0
gas/air mixture from the coal mine is further diluted n-Pentane 0.01-15.0
with air during extraction and the resultant CMM 2,2, Dimethylbutane 0.01-0.5
gas contains 30 to 70% methane by volume. This 3-Methylpentane and Cyclopentane 0.01-15.0
gas/air mixture can be compressed and directly Heptane and Heavler 0.01-5.0
used as a fuel in a gas turbine. Since the methane
fuel and its air oxidant are premixed in the fuel gas,

7
Table 4. Physical and chemical Properties of NGL and LPG Fuels
NGL
NGL LPG
NGL NGL LPG 20% Ethane LPG
50% Ethane 50% Propane
Formula / Composition Ethane 95% Ethane Propane 40% Propane n-Butane
50% 50% n-
C2H6 5% Propane C3H8 40% n- C4H10
Propane Butane
Butane
Molecular Weight 30.07 30.77 37.08 44.10 46.90 51.11 58.12
Hydrogen, % Weight 20.01 19.92 19.15 18.29 18.25 17.82 17.34
Specific Gravity,
Liquid 15.6°C/15.6°C, 60°F/60°F(a) 0.36 0.37 0.45 0.51 0.53 0.55 0.58
Bubble Point, °C (°F)(b),
690 kPa/(100 psia) -44.1/-47.3 -42.6/-44.6 -25.2/-13.3 12.4/54.4 2.7/36.8 31.4/88.5 62.6/144.6
1379 kPa/(200 psia) -21.7/-7.1 -19.9/-3.8 0.9/33.7 39.6/103.3 33.8/92.9 61.8/143.2 93.9/201.1
2068 kPa/(300 psia) -6.5/20.3 -4.4/24.1 19.0/66.2 58.1/136.6 55.5/132.0 82.6/180.8 117.8/244.0
3447 kPa/(500 psia) 5.4/41.7 7.8/46.1 45.7/114.3 83.3/182.0 88.3/190.9 101.5/214.7 146.11/295.0
Dew Point, °C/°F(b),
690 kPa/(100 psia) -44.1/-47.3 -37.0/-34.6 -5.8/21.5 12.4/54.4 36.5/97.7 44.4/112.0 62.6/144.6
1379 kPa/(200 psia) -21.7/-7.1 -15.3/4.5 18.0/64.5 39.6/103.3 63.1/145.6 72.9/163.2 93.9/201.1
2068 kPa/(300 psia) -6.5/20.3 -0.5/31.1 34.0/93.2 58.1/136.6 80.8/177.4 92.0/197.6 117.8/244.0
3447 kPa/(500 psia) 5.4/41.7 8.9/4.9 56.2/133.1 83.3/182.0 104.8/220.6 113.5/236.2 146.1/295.0
Vapor Press., 37.8°C/(100°F), kPa/(psia)(a) – – – 1320.6/191.5 – 807.3/117.1 359.1/52.1
Specific Heat, kcal/kg *°K; (Btu/lbm*°F)(a)
Gas, 15.6°C (60°F); 101.3 kPa/(14.7 psia) 0.973 0.947 0.736 0.620 0.642 0.593 0.573
Liquid, 15.6°C (60°F); 101.3 kPa/(14.7 psia) 0.408 0.406 0.396 0.389 0.395 0.392 0.395
Heating Valve(a)0°C (32°F);
101.3 kPa/(14.7 psia)
MJ/nm3, (Btu/ft3), gas, Net 63.7/1719 65.1/1748 77.5/2079 91.2/2448 96.6/2594 104.9/2814 118.6/3182
Gross 69.7/1870 71.2/1910 84.4/2265 99.1/2659 105.0/2817 113.8/3054 128.5/3448
kcal/kg; (Btu/lb), Liquid Net(a) 11264/20277 11244/20239 11093/19968 10976/19757 10941/19693 10893/19607 10830/19494
Gross 12323/22181 12295/22130 12094/21770 11938/21489 11890/21403 11827/21288 11742/21136
Heat of Vaporization, kcal/kg; (Btu/lb)(a) 117.3/211.1 120.2/216.4 119.4/214.8 101.7/183.0 119.1/214.4 104.9/188.8 92.2/165.9
Flame Temp., °C (°F) (gas fuel)(c) 2188/3970 2188/3971 2192/3978 2195/3983 2196/3985 2197/3987 2199/3990
Surface Tension, dynes/cm(d),
0°C (32°F) 3.3 – – 9.8 – – 14.8
25°C (77°F) 0.3 – – 6.6 – – 11.5
37.8°C (100°F) – – – 5.3 – – 10.3
50°C (122°F) – – – 4.0 – – 9.0
100°C (212°F) – – – – – – 3.5
15°C/(59°F); 3551 kPa/(515 psia) 1.5 1.6 2.6 8.2 4.8 10.1 13.0
Kinematic Viscosity, cSt(d),
50°C (122°F) – – – 0.16 – – 0.22
37.8°C (100°F) – – – 0.18 – – 0.24
25°C (77°F) 0.12 – – 0.19 – – 0.26
-25°C (-14°F) 0.20 – – 0.30 – – 0.41
-30°C (22°F) 0.20 – – 0.32 – – 0.43
15°C (59°F); 3551 kPa (515 psia) 0.13 0.13 0.17 0.22 0.23 0.26 0.30
Mass Transfer Number, B 11.40 10.29 8.63 9.81 7.12 8.04 8.71

(a) Data generated using Natural Gas Producers Suppliers Association Engineering Data Book
(b) Data generated using GPASIM software program
(c) Data generated using NASA's CET93 chemical equilibrium program. Air at 348.8°C (660°F); 1094.8 kPa (158.8 psia); fuel at 15.6°C (60°F)
(d) Data generated using HYSYS software program

8
Liquified Petroleum Gases (LPG)
These products are composed of readily liquefiable
hydrocarbon compounds which are intended for
use as domestic, commercial, industrial, and
turbine fuels and include mixtures of propane and
butane in all proportions. These fuels cover the
range of mixtures shown in Table 5. Of the fuels
shown in Table 5, propane, butane and 50%
propane and butane mixtures are typical examples
of LPG fuels.
Distillate Fuels
Distillate fuels are obtained by crude oil distillation
and include: No. 2 diesel, No. 1 diesel, kerosene,
naphtha, JP-4, gasoline, NGL, and LPG. The
heavier fuels such as No. 2 diesel, No. 1 diesel,
and kerosene are standard fuels for which gas
turbines were originally designed
consequently, gas turbine durability
performance on these fuels has been well
established. The physical and chemical
requirements of all liquid fuels, together with the
consequences of turbine operation if these
requirements are not adhered to, is outlined by
Galica and Maden (1995).
The use of lighter, distillate fuels such as
naphtha, JP-4, gasoline, NGL and LPG requires
modifications to the gas turbine fuel injection
system. Package durability considerations require
the use of a special fuel pump to achieve adequate
design life when low lubricity light distillate fuels are
used.
Naphthas
The term naphtha refers to any refined light oil
product that has properties that lie between those
of gasoline and kerosene. Commercially, naphthas
are often manufactured as a specialty product for
use as solvents in applications such as rubber
cement, seed and perfume extraction, dry cleaning,
paint and varnish thinners, printer’s ink, and leather
degreasing. Table 6 provides properties of two
specific naphthas compared with the properties of
the other distillate fuels.
Biodiesels
Biodiesels are derived from vegetable oils, animal
fats and recycled restaurant grease rather than
petroleum crude. These oils have higher hydrogen
contents, density and flash point than #2 distillate
oil with a 10% lower heating value. They generally
require heating before injection. Biodiesels may be
used alone or blended with petroleum-based diesel
fuels. The U.S. Department of Energy has
recommended the ‘B20’ levels, the optimal blend
level, which consists of 20% biodiesel blended with
80% petroleum diesel.
CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION
OPERATION ON NGL AND LPG FUELS
Because NGL and LPG fuels have high vapor
pressures and are susceptible to phase changes,
the control system and fuel injector is designed with
appropriately sized metering orifices to keep the
fuel in either the liquid or gaseous phase. Two-
phase flows consisting of liquid and vapor will
cause severe fuel maldistribution to the injectors
and lead to unacceptable combustor exit
temperature distribution and control system
and, instability. This is due to the significant difference
in fuel injector size and control system orifices
and
required to satisfactorily meter liquid and gaseous
flows.
The decision to handle the fuel in either the
liquid or gaseous phase for any particular
application must be made up front and the control
system and fuel injector orifices designed
accordingly. The approach for determining the
suitability of these fuels for gas turbines includes
using No. 2 diesel fuel as reference fuel for the
fuels being used in the liquid state and natural gas
as reference fuel for the fuels being used in the
gaseous state. With the gas turbine’s performance
and durability using the reference fuels well
established, the parameters for NGL, LPG, and
naphtha fuels can be determined by comparing
their performance with either No. 2 diesel fuel or
natural gas, using the fuel property data in Tables
4, 6 and 7.
Design Considerations
The fuel parameters to be considered in
determining whether to handle the NGL and LPG
fuels as liquid or gas are described below.
Dew Point. The dew point temperature of fuel is
the temperature above which the fuel is completely
in the gaseous phase and below which some liquid
can exist. The lower the dew point temperature at
the maximum fuel supply pressure, the easier it is
to keep the fuel in the gaseous state. For single-
component fuels, the dew point temperature
corresponds to the boiling point, while in
9
Table 5. LPG Fuels

Commercial
Commercial Commercial (a)
Composition Special-Duty Propane
Propane Butane
PB Mixtures

Vapor pressure at 37.8°C (100°F), max. kPa gauge 1430 485 - 1430
(psig) (208) (70) (b) (208)
Volatile Residue: evaporated temperature, 95%, max. °C -38.3 2.2 2.2 -38.3
(°F) or (-37) (36) (36) (-37)
Butane and heavier, max. volume % 2.5 - - 2.5
Pentane and heavier, max. volume % - 2.0 2.0 -
Propylene content, max. volume % - - - 5.0
Residual Matter:
Residue on evaporation 100 mL, maximum mL 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Oil stain observation(c) pass pass pass pass
Relative Density at 15.6°C/15.6°C, (60°F/60°F) (d) (d) (d) (d)

Corrosion, copper, strip, maximum No. 1 No. 1 No. 1 No. 1

Sulfur, ppmw 185 140 140 123
Hydrogen sulfide pass pass pass pass
Moisture content pass - - pass
(e) (e)
Free water content - none none -
(a) Equivalent to Propane HO-5 of GPA Standard 2140
(b) Permissible vapor pressures of products classified as PB mixtures must not exceed 1430 kPa (208 psig). Additionally,
they must not exceed the following relationship between observed vapor pressure and observed relative density:
Vapor pressure, max. = 1167 to 1880 (density at 15°C) or (relative density 60°F/60°F)
A specific mixture shall be designated by the vapor pressure at 100°F in pounds per square inch gage.
To comply with the designation, the vapor pressure shall be within +0 to -10 psi of the vapor pressure specified.
(c) An acceptable product shall not yield a persistent oil ring when 0.3 ml of solvent residue mixture is added to a filter paper,
in 0.1-mL increments in daylight after 2 minutes as described in ASTM test Method D 2158.
(d) Although not a specific requirement, the relative density must be determined for other purposes and should be reported.
Additionally, the relative density is needed to establish the permissible maximum vapor pressure (see note b, above).
(e) The presence or absence of water shall be determined by visual inspection of the samples on which the relative density
is determined.

Table 6. Fuel Property Type for Gasoline, Naphthas, Kerosene and No. 2 Diesel Fuel

No. 2
Fuel Type Gasoline Naphtha 1 Naphtha 2 Kerosene
Diesel
Distillation, °C 40 149 153 184 183
IBP 65 159 158 198 218
50% 104 177 166 215 262
90% 129 191 180 239 318
FBP 162 210 195 256 343
Specific Gravity 0.70 0.78 0.79 0.82 0.86
Kinematic Viscosity, cSt 38°C 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.5 3.1
Surface Tension, dynes/cm @ 38°C 19.9 23.4 23.7 27.1 28.5
Heating Value, Low Net, kcal/kg 10 123 10 237 10 242 10 274 10 150
Specific Heat, kcal/kgm °K 0.51 0.49 0.49 0.48 0.47
Mass Transfer Number 5.45 4.06 4.16 3.55 3.11

10
Table 7. Fuel Property Data for NGL and LPG Fuels (Gas)
20% Ethane
Natural 95% Ethane 50% Ethane 40% Propane 50% Propane n-Butane
Formula / Composition Ethane C2H6 Propane
Gas(a) 5% Propane 50% Propane 40% n-Butane 50% n-Butane C4H10
C3H8

Molecular Weight 17.30 30.07 30.77 37.08 44.10 46.90 51.11 58.12
Specific Gravity, Gas, 0.60 1.04 1.06 1.28 1.52 1.62 1.77 2.01
15.6°C (60°F)
Heating Value 101.3 kPa
(14.696 psia), 0°C (32°F)
MJ/Nm3(Btu/ft3) gas
Net(b) 33.91/910 63.74/1710 65.10/1748 77.45/20789 91.16/2447 96.64/2594 104.86/2814 118.53/3182
Gross 37.26/1000 69.69/1870 71.16/1909 84.38/2265 99.08/2659 104.96/2817
Wobble Index, based 1242 1697 1695 1837 1983 2038 2119 2246
on Net @0°C (32°F)
Flame Temperature, 2148 2188 2188 2192 2195 2196 2197 2199
°C (°F) (gas fuel)(c) (3898) (3970) (3970) (3978) (3983) (3985) (3987) (3990)

(a) Air @ 348.8°C (660°F), 991.3 kPa (143.8 psig), fuel @ 15.6°C (60°F)
(b) Nm3 = 0°C (32°F), 101.3 kPa (14.7 psia)
(c) Natural Gas = 90% CH4, 5% C2H6, 5% N2

multi-component fuels it corresponds to final boiling
point, the temperature at which the final boiling
occurs and the last of the liquid disappears.
Bubble Point Temperature. For multi-component
liquid fuels, the bubble point temperature of liquid
fuel at a given pressure is the lowest temperature
at which the first sign of the vapor phase appears.
For single-component fuels, the dew point and
bubble point temperatures are equal and
correspond to the boiling point. Generally, the
bubble point temperature of the fuel at the
operating air pressure of the combustor over the
full range of turbine operation, should not be below
0°C (32°F) to avoid fuel injector icing. This can
result in severe damage to the turbine either by ice
ingestion or by poor temperature distribution due to
the altered aerodynamics within the combustor.
Bubble Point Pressure. The bubble point
pressure of a multi-component liquid fuel at the
highest anticipated fuel supply temperature is an
important fuel parameter and is the maximum
pressure at which the first sign of vapor phase
appears in the mixture. The lower the bubble point
pressure, the easier it is to keep the fuel in the
liquid state.
Critical Temperature and Pressure. If the fuel
temperature is above the critical temperature, the
fuel cannot be liquefied by the application of
pressure alone and must be handled as gas or the
fuel must be refrigerated to reduce its temperature.
The corresponding pressure limit is called the
critical pressure. This fuel must not be refrigerated
below 0°C (32°F) if ice formation on the fuel
injector components is to be avoided.
Fuel Supply Temperature. As the fuel supply
temperature at the skid inlet increases, the required
pressure to keep the fuel in a liquid state also
increases. At some temperatures, this pressure
may be higher than the safe operational limits of
the fuel injector and control system components. If
it is above the critical temperature, the fuel cannot
be handled as liquid unless fuel refrigeration is
used.
Fuel Supply Pressure. Fuel supply pressure is
defined as the highest pressure at the inlet to the
gas turbine skid. This pressure must be maintained
through regulation within limits that can be tolerated
safely by the control system and fuel injectors.
Higher pressure-ratio gas turbines require a higher
fuel supply pressure for fuel injection into the gas
turbine combustion chamber. This requires a
higher fuel temperature to keep the fuel in the
gaseous state, which limits the use of heavier
NGLs in the gas phase because of the fuel system
maximum temperature limit. In case of liquid
NGL/LPG fuel handling, the higher fuel pressure
allows lighter NGL/LPG fuels to be handled as
liquid because of the maximum temperature of the
fuel control system.

11
Fuels for Start-up and Part-Load Operation. If
fuel is being handled as a liquid, the problems of
flash vaporization are most likely to occur at part-
load conditions. The availability of alternative liquid
fuels for start-up and part-load operation avoids this
problem and allows certain lighter, more volatile
fuels to be handled as liquids, thus avoiding the
need for gasification by a fuel vaporizer.
Criteria for Handling NGL and LPG Fuels in the
Gaseous State. In order to handle NGL and LPG
fuels in the gaseous phase, the fuel temperature
must always be at least 28°C (50°F) over the fuel
dew point at the required fuel supply pressure. The
fuel can be heated above the dew point using an
indirect heat exchanger, provided the gas turbine
package fuel system temperature limit of 94°C
(200°F) is not exceeded. In addition, if heat loss
through the control and fuel injection system
components is expected to be excessive due to
exposure to a lower ambient temperature
environment, the fuel lines and manifolds and the
fuel injectors must be heat traced to keep the fuel
in the gaseous state and prevent liquid dropout as
a result of fuel condensation. The fuel control and
injection system components are sized to meter the
gaseous flow volumetrically. If fuel condensation in
the control system or fuel injector metering orifices
were to occur and result in liquid drop-out,
significant over-fueling of the gas turbine could
occur. This manifests itself as very hot, fuel-rich hot
streaks within the combustor liner. These hot
streaks threaten the integrity of the combustor
metal walls, as well as the nozzle guide vanes
(NGVs) and turbine hot section. Hence, fuel
handling in the gaseous state requires the fuel be
kepi in a gaseous state under all gas turbine
operation conditions. These criteria generally limit
gaseous fuel applications to the lower pressure
ratio TaurusTM 60, Saturn®, and Centaur® gas
turbines.
Handling NGL and LPG Fuels as Liquid. All NGL
and LPG fuels can be liquefied by the application of
pressure provided they are below the critical
Table 8. Bubble Point Pressure with 15ºC (59ºF) Fuel Supply Temperature
Ethane 95% Ethane
Formula / Composition
C2H5 5% Propane
Bubble Point Pressure, kPa 3416.5 3231.8
(psia) (495.5) (458.7)
temperature. Assuming the fuel supply temperature
is 15°C (59°F), the bubble point pressure
corresponding to this temperature for specific NGL
and LPG fuel is shown in Table 8. It can be seen
that the bubble point pressure is well below the
standard control system’s allowable pressure limit,
which is 6894 kPa (1000 psig). Therefore, all NGL
and LPG fuels can be handled as liquid fuel at the
design point based on the control system’s
allowable pressure limit.
Although the above criterion allows the fuel to
be handled as a liquid at the design point, turbine
operation at part-load must be considered when
the pressure at the metering orifices of the fuel
injectors is relatively low due to reduced fuel flow
and the reduced combustor pressure into which the
fuel must be injected. If the fuel injector metering
orifice pressure falls below bubble point, two-phase
flow will begin and turbine fuel supply will be
severely restricted. The metering orifices are sized
for liquid fuel, which has a much higher density
than vapor. Furthermore, fuel vaporization within
the fuel injectors could occur. If this happens, the
fuel injectors will carry two-phase flow and the
temperature inside could fall to the fuel bubble
point corresponding to the combustor pressure.
Further if this temperature is below 0°C (32°F), the
fuel injector surfaces could start accumulating ice
which may break loose periodically and cause
mechanical damage to the turbine. If accumulated
in significant quantities, ice could upset the
combustion process aerodynamics, causing hot
spots in the combustor exit stream. The availability
of alternative low vapor pressure fuels, such as No.
2 diesel, at the lower part-load conditions can
significantly increase the acceptability of handling
certain fuels as liquids.
Packaging Considerations. Modification of the
gas turbine package is necessary for use of NGL
and LPG fuels handled as liquid and naphtha fuels
to meet control system requirements, durability,
safety issues, and cost.
20% Ethane
50% Ethane Propane 50% Propane n-Butane
40% Propane
50% Propane C3H8 50% n-Butane C4H10
40% n-Butane
1899.8 740.3 923.0 445.5 176.9
(275.5) (107.4) (133.9) (64.6) (25.7)
12
Control System Requirements. A standard BYPASSING PCD
MAIN FUEL
LIQUID FUEL
liquid fuel system for conventional combustion TURBINE OR CONTROL
SOLENOID
SHUTOFF VALVE
AC MOTOR
industrial gas turbines is illustrated in Figure 3. It DRIVEN S
typically accepts liquid fuels ranging between FUEL PUMP
TO
kerosene and diesel fuel (Jet A, JP-5, kerosene, INJECTORS

No. 1 diesel, Grade 1 and 2 fuel oils, and No. 2

diesel fuel). In this system, a gear pump is used PURGE
S FUEL
and the fuel flow is controlled through a bypass SOLENOID
FUEL
system. An alternative liquid fuel system for FILTER
SHUTOFF
VALVE
industrial gas turbines using high vapor pressure
FROM
and low viscosity fuels, such as NGL and LPG, FUEL
SIGNAL FROM
E/H
gasoline, and naphthas, is illustrated in Figure 4. BOOST FUEL MICROPROCESSOR
SYSTEM ACTUATOR CONTROL SYSTEM
This system is typically used in pipeline
applications where a high pressure fuel supply is
available. A throttle valve rather than a bypass Figure 3. Typical Standard Liquid Fuel Control System
valve is used to control the fuel flow pressure and
maintain a higher pressure drop system. In this TO FUEL INJECTORS
system, the fuel orifices are located adjacent to the
fuel injectors as shown in Figure 5, so that high FUEL FROM
vapor pressure fuels can be kept at high pressure FUEL CONTROL
SYSTEM
until the point of actual fuel injection, thus avoiding FLOW
two-phase flow in any part of the fuel injection MATCHED
system. ORIFICE

Safety Issues. Because naphthas, NGL and LPG

liquids have lower flash points, it is necessary to TO FUEL INJECTORS
provide positive air pressure ventilation to ensure
the safe operation of the gas turbine in case of
minor leaks. Flame detectors have to be located at FUEL INJECTOR
lower levels to detect the leaks if and when they Figure 4. Naphtha or High Pressure Liquid Fuel
occur. Local codes must be met for disposition of Distribution System
the liquid purged during turbine shutdown or the
fuel from the combustor housing drain in case of
failure to light during startup.

THROTTLING PCD MAIN FUEL

LIQUID FUEL SOLENOID TO FUEL INJECTORS
CONTROL SHUTOFF FUEL
VALVE FROM FLOW
FUEL MATCHED
S ORIFICE
CONTROL
SYSTEM

PRESSURIZING
VALVE

TO FUEL INJECTORS FUEL INJECTOR

E/H SIGNAL FROM

FUEL MICROPROCESSOR
FUEL
ACTUATOR CONTROL SYSTEM
INLET

Figure 5. Typical Liquid Fuel Control System

13
CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION FUEL
CONTROL SYSTEMS
Careful analysis of the operational requirements
and possible process plant start-up, load transients,
and system upset conditions are critical in selecting
the appropriate fuel control system. The system
must include all components necessary to properly
schedule the fuel during start and operation from
idle or no load up to full load.
A typical fuel gas control system for industrial
gas turbines is illustrated in Figure 6. The fuel gas
supply pressure to the turbine skid must meet the
specification that is based on standard natural gas
fuel. The fuel systems are designed to handle
variations in gas Wobbe Index of at least 10%.
Standard fuel gas systems can handle gas with
lower heating values down to about 26.1 MJ/Nm3
(700 Btu/scf) through minor modifications to fuel
injector orifices and control system components.
Alternate fuel gas systems use multiple fuel control
components, manifolds (or single large manifold),
and fuel injectors in parallel to further extend the
handling of fuel heating value change to 11.8 MJ/
Nm3 (300 Btu/scf).
In order to provide greater flexibility for
alternative gaseous fuels, a dual fuel system is
recommended. A standard dual fuel system
consists of a standard gas fuel and liquid fuel
system and requires the use of dual fuel injectors.
Startup and shutdown with a standard backup fuel
of consistent heat content, such as natural gas or
distillate liquid fuel, is more reliable and has the
added advantage of separating the gas turbine
startup operation from the plant’s fuel generating
operation. Although it is desirable to have natural
CONTROL CONTROL
SIGNAL SIGNAL
S S
PILOT
REGULATOR VENT VENT
PC
GAS FUEL
SUPPLY
PRIMARY SECONDARY
INLET SHUTOFF SHUTOFF
STRAINER VALVE VALVE
Figure 6. Typical Fuel Gas Control System
gas or distillate liquid fuel for startup, it is not
always required. In fact, for landfill gas applications,
the gas turbine typically starts and operates on the
landfill gas.
If an alternative gaseous fuel is used for gas
turbine startup, the extent of modification to fuel
handling, control and injection components to
provide a dual gas fuel system is a function of the
difference in Wobbe Indices between the two
gases.
A dual gas fuel system involving large
variations in heating value, such as 19.7 MJ/ Nm3
(500 Btu/scf), medium Btu gas and a 35.4 MJ/ Nm3
(900 Btu/scf) high Btu gas, requires two different
gas manifolds and sets of metering orifices. These
are needed to maintain gas injector pressure drop
necessary for fuel distribution during start-up and
stable operation under load.
This type of system incorporates fuel selector,
standard shut-off, and throttle valves in conjunction
with a fuel transfer valve and a second gas
manifold (Figure 7). Development and successful
operation of wide Btu-range gaseous fuel systems
are reported by Sood (1992).
Larger differences in a Wobbe Index, such as
using low Btu gas as main fuel and natural gas for
gas turbine start, require two parallel, but
completely isolated, gas fuel systems and fuel
injectors with separate gas ports (Figure 8). A
substantial gas volume is required to operate the
turbine on low Btu gas. The system’s fuel handling
and control valves are usually placed off the gas
turbine skid due to their larger size and the
likelihood of having to handle high temperature,
water-saturated fuel gas.
CONTROL SIGNAL
T5, N GP, N PT
PCD
SERVO
PY HYDRAULIC
SUPPLY
SERVO GAS
PY
SUPPLY
FUEL INJECTOR
PRESSURE THROTTLE
REGULATOR VALVE
CONTROL
SIGNAL
S
GAS TORCH GAS TORCH
SOLENOID IGNITOR
14

FUEL GAS
SELECTOR
VALVE
SHUTOFF
CONTROL
PRIMARY VALVES
GAS MBG
START-UP
GAS HBG
DUAL GAS
FUEL
FUEL INJECTOR
FUEL
FUEL GAS TRANSFER
MANIFOLDS VALVES
Figure 7. Dual Gas Fuel System
Gas Fuel Suitability and Quality. In order to
evaluate the suitability of a gas fuel for turbine
operation, a complete fuel analysis is required.
Each fuel component, including trace elements,
should be identified. From the composition and
concentration levels, it is then possible to assess
the fuel gas thermodynamic, physical, and
chemical characteristics and its effects on the
aerothermal chemistry of the gas turbine energy
conversion process. Turbine life and maintenance
requirements may be affected by the presence of
certain contaminants. Safe handling and reliable
operations may also depend on the actual fuel
characteristics.
The fuel gas quality must be in compliance with
Solar’s specification ES 9-98 (Solar, 2006) which
excludes using heavy liquids and solid particulate
laden gases. Liquid fractions need to be removed
by liquid separators and the fuel-gas temperature
held at least 28°C (50°F) above the fuel dew point
temperature throughout the fuel handling, control
and injection system to ensure reliable, stable
operation.
USING HYDROGEN RICH FUELS IN
CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION
SYSTEMS
Usually found as a crude oil refining by-product,
gaseous fuels rich in hydrogen can be used in
current conventional combustion systems with
minor modifications and proper care in fuel
handling. Hydrogen rich fuels have considerably
higher reaction rates than natural gas, which
results in a shorter reaction zone, a higher energy
release rate per unit volume, and an increased
energy release near the fuel injector. Hydrogen
15
DUAL GAS
INJECTOR
HBG
START-UP
GAS
SHUTOFF &
CONTROL VALVES
FUEL GAS
MANIFOLDS
LBG
PRIMARY
GAS
SHUTOFF &
CONTROL VALVES
Figure 8. Separate Gas Fuel Systems and Injectors
has a wider flammability limits (4 to 75% by
volume) allowing it to burn at a relatively stable
range with low blow-out limits. The stoichiometric
adiabatic reaction temperature is higher than that
obtained with natural gas. This can result in higher
thermal radiation and convective heat input rates to
the combustor walls in the primary zone. Thus, the
combustor wall temperatures must be verified to
allow these fuels to be used in gas turbines.
The lower volumetric heating value of these
fuels is approximately one-half to one-third the
heating value of the natural gas fuels. In order to
supply the required energy input to the gas turbine,
a large volume of these fuels, approximately 2 to 3
times the volume of natural gas fuel, must be
injected into the combustor primary zone. The
injection of such a large fuel volume into the
combustor can cause a change in combustor fluid
mechanics. Along with the high reaction rates
obtained, this change can radically affect the
combustor’s aerothermal performance. Such
effects must be determined before these fuels can
be used in a particular gas turbine.
Figure 9 shows combustion system
performance for a Centaur 40 gas turbine with a
simulated fuel obtained by blending natural gas
and hydrogen. The relatively small change in the
combustor exit temperature profile, obtained with
simulated refinery gas, shows fuel acceptability for
the combustion system. Due to the high reaction
temperatures attained with hydrogen rich gases,
the combustor wall temperatures were moderately
higher than those obtained with natural gas fuel,
but lower than those obtained with No. 2 diesel fuel
for which the combustor was designed.
 100
80
ANNULUS HEIGHT (%)
Mixture of 50% Natural Gas +
50% Hydrogen by Volume
LHV - 24 MJ/Nm3 (609 Btu/scf)
60
Natural Gas
40 LHV - 37.1 MJ/Nm3 (944 Btu/scf)
20
0 and the fuel gas temperature held at least 28°C
0.88 0.92 0.96 1.00
T/T-AVG. R/R
Figure 9. Radial Temperature Profiles
Hydrogen Safety Precautions. Hydrogen is the
lightest known gas, having a molecular weight of
2.016 as compared to 28.96 for air and 16.04 for
methane. Because of its low molecular weight,
hydrogen diffuses rapidly in air and passes through
gasket materials, such as rubber and elastomer,
that are generally impervious to methane fuel.
Metal components, flanges and seals can also
become porous to hydrogen gas. It is a highly
flammable gas and burns in air with a pale blue,
almost non-luminous flame. At atmospheric
pressure, the ignition temperature of a hydrogen/air
mixture has been reported by U.S. Bureau of Mines
to be 500°C (932°F) as compared to 537°C (999°F)
for methane/air mixtures (Zabetakis, 1964). At
atmospheric pressure, its flammable range (4 to
74% by volume) is much wider than that for
methane (5 to 15%). Hydrogen has a negative
Joule-Thomson coefficient, which causes it to rise
in temperature when expanded from high pressure.
Due to these properties, it requires special
considerations designed for safe operation and
application to all turbines (Table 9).
Sequencing. The general approach to fuel system
sequencing is to purge air cavities before admitting
hydrogen and, likewise, to purge hydrogen before
admitting air. Fuel delivery piping is purged by
injecting nitrogen just downstream of the primary
fuel shutoff valve and sampling the resultant flow at
the fuel manifold with a sampling valve and line to
package vent. After a minimum time expires, the
purge and sample valves can be shut off if the
hydrogen detector indicates a non-flammable
mixture. The development of high hydrogen
content fuels was initiated in the 1980s with the
introduction of two Centaur 50 generator sets used
for cogeneration, with water injection to reduce
NOx emissions. The hydrogen content was initially
40% and eventually increased to 100% with
excellent performance characteristics. Three
Centaur 40 generator sets were also configured at
a separate site for 40% hydrogen at this same time
and have all been running successfully.
LIFE AND MAINTENANCE
When burning gaseous fuels, compliance with the
fuel specification generally excludes using heavy
liquids and solid particulate-laden gases. Liquid
fractions need to be removed by liquid separators
1.04 1.08
(50°F) above any liquid dew-point temperature
throughout the fuel handling, control and injection
system to ensure reliable, stable operation. Liquid
condensate usually forms liquid slugs in the fuel
manifold and in the lower half of the fuel injector,
which can cause large excursions in firing
temperature, turbine inlet temperature distortions,
hot streaks and combustion of entrained liquid
droplets downstream of the combustor. These
factors can reduce hot gas path component life.
Particulate mass loadings should be kept
below 30 ppmw for a standard gaseous fuel. For
LHV gases, this particulate loading is proportionally
reduced by multiplying the LHV quotient by the
actual fuel gas weight 50 MJ/kg (Btu/Ib) divided by
21,500.
Contaminants can come from fuel, injected water
or steam, and evaporative cooler water carryover.
The sum from all streams represents the
concentration total of a given contaminant as if that
contaminant were present in the fuel alone. The
limits set forth in Solar’s specification ES 9-98 are
total fuel equivalents in a fuel having an LHV of
42.8 MJ/kg (18,380 Btu/Ib).
Sodium and potassium salts must be at very
low levels in both the fuel gas and turbine inlet air.
In the presence of water, they can cause metal
corrosion within the fuel system; however, the main
concern is hot corrosion of the gas turbine hot gas
path parts. To cause hot corrosion, sulfur must also
be present, since it is the alkali metal surfaces
formed during the combustion process, which
result in corrosion. Natural gas is normally free of
alkali metals. Coal gas derivatives can contain
potassium and sodium in varying amounts
depending upon their actual source. All fuel gases
could have alkali metal carryover unless proper fuel
cleanup is provided. The sodium and potassium
concentration levels allowable in gaseous fuels are
the same as for liquid fuel (1 ppmw) based on the
same level of trace metal concentrations in the
combustion exhaust gas.
16
Table 9. General Guidelines for Safe Operation Using Hydrogen-Rich Fuels

H2 Content Operation and Controls Packaging

1) H2 < 4.0% No modifications No modifications

2) 4.0% ≤ H2 < 9.0% Start-up and acceleration on standard fuel per ES Minor changes to fuel injectors and manifold depending
9-98 (gaseous fuel is preferred) on fuel gas composition.
Stainless steel (316L) fuel system components

3) H2 > 9.0% Leak checking of system with helium in the factory
Leak checking of system with helium before initial
operation in the field and after any system
disassembly
Purge with nitrogen
Start-up and acceleration on standard fuel per ES-
9-98 (gaseous fuel is preferred) and switch to H2
fuel at a load of 250 kW (335 hp) for Saturn® 20,
100 kW (1341) hp for Centaur 40, Centaur 50, and
Taurus 60 gas turbines, and 4000 kW (5364 hp) for
Mars 90 and Mars 100 gas turbines
Transfer back to standard fuel before shutdown
Controlled purge of the fuel system with inert gas
immediately before or during shutdown if the
standard fuel is distillate (liquid) or during
emergency shutdown while running H2 rich fuel
Decrease T5 topping temperature to maintain
engine durability
Shutdown unit on ventilation failure
With waste heat recovery devices, transfer to
hydrogen fuel only on bypass
Operating procedure (checklist)
All hydrogen-wetted components to receive 100% X-ray
inspection for porosity of castings and integrity of welds
All hardware assemblies to be leak-tested prior to
assembly in package
Minimize buna-N rubber seals in fuel system
Add nitrogen purge system
Install hydrogen detectors and flame detectors
Increase package enclosure ventilation to dilute any
increased leakage from system joints due to hydrogen
Compliance to electrical safety code NEC or CENELEC
All arching and high temperature devices to be enclosed
in Group B boxes – use brushless motors or remote
mound
Design waste heat recovery with pressure relief
protection
Review effects of lower flammability margin with waste
heat recovery systems
Add flame-out detection kit to protect waste heat
recovery system

Landfill and digester gases are often CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION

contaminated with siloxanes. Silicon compounds in
the form of siloxanes are widely used in personal
care products. As they ultimately are disposed of
in landfills and wastewaters, they become part of
the gas fuel extracted from these sources. The
presence of siloxanes in the fuel can significantly
degrade turbine performance and life by forming
“glass-like” silicon deposits on the turbine hot
section components. Siloxane adsorption systems
are required to properly treat landfill and digester
gases for gas turbine use.
In gas turbine exhaust heat recovery
applications, the potential problems of acid
corrosion, while burning high sulfur content fuel,
must be addressed. Sulfur has to be removed from
the gaseous fuel if the acid dew-point temperature
exceeds the exhaust gas temperature.
For a more complete description of fuel
requirements and recommending handling
practices reference ES9-98 and PIL 162
(Etheridge, 2005)
EXHAUST EMISSIONS
The thermal NOx rate formation through fixation of
atmospheric molecular nitrogen depends strongly
upon the peak flame temperature and residence
time in the combustor’s primary zone. It is,
therefore, not surprising to measure high NOx
emissions when burning fuels such as CO and H2,
that have a high stoichiometric flame temperature
(Tf). High NOx emissions in the exhaust may
require water injection into the conventional
combustor for NOx control. Thermal NOx
emissions from burning various gaseous fuels
(Figure 10) compared to burning methane (CH4)
have been estimated using the NOx correlations
developed by Hung, 1977. Both hydrogen and CO
exhibit a high flame temperature that gives rise to
high thermal NOx formation. Hydrogen produces
about twice as much NOx as methane. Therefore,
it cannot be assumed that medium Btu gas will
automatically have low NOx emission levels.

17
 Digester
Landfill
Natural Gas (Raw)
Natural Gas (Pipeline)
LNG
Associated Gas
Refinery Gas
Biomass and Waste Gasification
Coal and Coke Oven Gas
0.0
Figure 10. Relative Thermal NOx Emissions of Various Gaseous Fuels
Emissions levels of CO and unburned
hydrocarbons (UHC) are more difficult to correlate
with fuel characteristics, but can be estimated for a
combustion system for which experimental data are
available on high Btu fuel, with and without water
injection. The natural trend of CO and UHC to
increase as flame temperature decreases can be
overcome, if required, by careful redesign of the
combustor’s primary zone and the fuel injection
system. If the reaction temperature drops
significantly below 1316°C (2400°F) at any
operating condition, substantial amounts of
unreacted CO can be expected (Sood and
Shekleton, 1980).
Fuel gases sometimes contain significant
amounts of emission-yielding compounds (amino
and cyano based) and sulfur-bearing compounds
(hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide), which
substantially raise NOx emissions and SO2 / SO3
emissions, respectively. Fuel gases may need to
be cleaned, as in water scrubbing, to remove
excessive amounts of emission-yielding
compounds before they can be burned in the gas
turbine so that emissions regulations can be met.
Petroleum liquid fuel typically contains nitrogen
compounds, known as fuel-bound nitrogen, which
will react with oxygen to form nitric oxide in time
periods which are comparable with the combustion
reactions (Hung, 1976 and Glassman, 1987). The
fuel-bound nitrogen content in a given petroleum
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
NOX / NOX FROM METHANE
liquid depends upon the nitrogen content in the
source crude oil and refining process.
The fuel-bound nitrogen content in light distillates is
typically less than 100 ppm by weight and has
negligible effect on NOx emissions. However,
distillate oil containing as much as 0.365% nitrogen
by weight is possible (Ward et al, 1953). The net
conversion of fuel-bound nitrogen to NOx varies
from 20 to 100%, depending upon the nitrogen
content, combustor design, and turbine operating
conditions. At the design point of a typical industrial
gas turbine, the net conversion of fuel-bound
nitrogen is about 50%. This is assumed in
estimating NOx emissions from burning high fuel-
bound nitrogen fuels. Natural gas liquids and
alcohols, unless contaminated, typically contain
negligible amounts of fuelbound nitrogen. The
relative NOx emissions burning various sources of
liquid fuel are shown in Figure 11.
SOLONOX COMBUSTION SYSTEM FUEL
CAPABLITY AND DEVELOPMENT
SoLoNOx has been designed to operate on
“pipeline quality” natural gas, diesel and kerosene.
Development activities are in progress to expand
the range of gaseous fuels that can be used in the
SoLoNOx gas turbines. In addition, in the longer
term it is envisioned that fuel flexibility will be
expanded on liquid fuels as well.
18
 Crude Oils

Distallates

Ethanol

Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)

Methanol

Natural Gas Liquids (NGL)

Residual Oils

0 1 2 3 4 5
NOX/ NOX FROM METHANE

Figure 11. Relative Thermal NOx Emissions of Various Liquid Fuels

FUEL
Premixing. The first difference between the
Main
conventional and SoLoNOx combustion systems is
Pilot Turbine
2900°F Inlet
that the fuel and air are “premixed” in the SoLoNOx
Temp injector prior to reaching the flame front. Premixing
60%
Pre-Mixing prevents local “hot-spots” from developing that can
AIRFLOW 40% be local sources of significant NOx formation. In
the conventional combustion system the fuel and
air mix and burn simultaneously. Premixing
AIRFLOW 70% introduces several design challenges. First,
20% combustor pressure oscillations can occur. A
10% stable combustor pressure oscillation occurs when
the heat release from the flame couples with the
Turbine
4100°F Inlet combustors characteristic acoustic pressure wave
Temp that regulates the admission of air and fuel. If the
FUEL amplitude of a combustor pressure oscillation is
Secondary high enough and sustained long enough, high cycle
Dilution
Ports Ports fatigue of combustion hardware will result.
Secondly, the flammable mixture within the injector
Figure 12. Comparison of SoLoNOx (Upper) and premixing section must not ignite until it reaches
Conventional Combustion (Lower) Systems
the flame front within the combustor volume. If the
air-fuel mixture does ignite in the injector premixer,
SoLoNOx Compared to Conventional then durability and emissions performance are
Combustion sacrificed.
The SoLoNOx combustion system is designed to Lean Combustion. The other difference between
operate with significantly lower emissions of NOx the two combustion systems is that the SoLoNOx
and CO over the low emissions operating range. In system is designed to operate at a “leaner” (i.e.
order to operate with a lower emissions signature, lower) fuel to air ratio. This results in a reduced
the SoLoNOx combustion system design has two flame temperature, which directly suppresses the
significant differences in comparison with the NOx formation rate. The flame temperature is
conventional combustion system as is described reduced by designing the injector and combustor
below (Figure 12). A more detailed explanation liner air flow split to increase the amount of air
can be found in Stansel, 2006 or Cowell, 2002. introduced into combustor primary zone. The
challenges of lean combustion operation include

19
providing adequate turn-down, avoiding combustor
rumble, and maintaining low CO and UHC
emissions. Engine turn-down on SoLoNOx gas
turbines is maintained by controlling the air flow
through the combustor as a function of load. On
compressor set and mechanical drive applications
(two shaft engines) this is completed by bleeding
air through a valve into the exhaust. On generator
set applications (single shaft engines), this is
achieved by regulating the inlet guide vanes on the
gas turbine compressor. Combustor rumble is
controlled by preventing local “cold spots” in the
combustor where flame-out can occur. Setting the
bleed valve, guide vane and pilot controls correctly
is critical to prevent combustor rumble. Combustor
rumble can also occur when the fuel distribution
deteriorates due to fuel quality issues. Finally, CO
and UHC emissions are controlled by providing
adequate residence time for complete combustion
and by minimizing liner wall quenching effects.
Adequate residence time is provided by designing
the combustor liner with a larger volume in
comparison to the conventional combustor.
SoLoNOx Fuel Flexibility
Currently SoLoNOx gas turbines can use a range
of gaseous fuels as defined in Figure 2 (Page 4) by
the green shaded column. As highlighted
previously, conventional combustion gas turbines
can accommodate gaseous fuels with Wobbe
Index fuels from as low 300 BTU/scf to NGL with a
Wobbe Index of over 2000 and heavier gases can
be handled in the liquid phase. SoLoNOx gas
turbines have been used with gaseous fuels with
Wobbe Index of 950 to 1400 BTU/scf. This range
has been increasing as the development is being
completed. This range of fuels is used without any
changes to the combustion, controls or fuel
systems. In addition, the emission warranty is
typically near or only slightly higher than with
pipeline quality natural gas.
Wobbe Index is not the only fuel parameter
that is used in evaluation of a fuel’s suitability for
SoLoNOx applications. Reactive fuel species such
as hydrogen, carbon monoxide and alkenes must
be quantified and their effect on the physical and
chemical characteristics of the combustion process
must be assessed. Typically, in SoLoNOx
applications the sum of these constituents must be
monitored closely when they exceed 4% and
generally are limited to no more than 10% at this
time. In addition, the requirements and
considerations discussed in the previous sections
apply equally to SoLoNOx gas turbines using “non-
20
standard” fuels as they do to for conventional
combustion gas turbines. For example, any fuel
delivered to a SoLoNOx engine must be at a
temperature above the dewpoint by a minimum of
50°F (28°C) at the skid edge to prevent
condensation of liquid hydrocarbons and two-
phase flow in the package fuel system. Likewise,
as SoLoNOx fuel flexibility is increased, certain
fuels will require that a standard fuel be used for
start-up to ensure reliability and prevent durability
issues.
As mentioned, the gaseous fuels composition
can influence some fundamental combustion
parameters that must be assessed to ensure
reliable operation and durability. The most critical
and unique parameters for the lean-premixed
SoLoNOx combustion system are combustion
stability, autoignition delay time, flame speed, and
adiabatic flame temperature.
Combustion Stability is the ability of the
combustion system to operate without either
combustor pressure oscillations or combustor
rumble. Combustor pressure oscillations occur
when the heat release from the flame couple with a
characteristic acoustic pressure wave in the
combustor. Combustor rumble occurs when the
combustor or some portion of the combustion
volume is operating near the flame extinction point.
In either case, if an instability reaches a critical
pressure amplitude, damage to the combustor liner
or attachments to the turbine section will occur.
Unfortunately, little is known about the properties of
fuel composition that influence these combustion
instabilities. Therefore, engine qualification is
ultimately required to verify that different fuel
compositions do not significantly change the
combustion stability characteristics. A more
detailed explanation of these phenomena can be
found in Greenwood, 2001 or Janus, 1997.
Autoignition Delay Time (AIT) is the time that an
air and fuel mixture at a given initial pressure and
temperature will require to self ignite. In the premix
section of the SoLoNOx fuel injector, it is critical
that ignition and stable combustion not occur
because the injector integrity would quickly be
compromised from the elevated temperatures.
Note that for autoignition to occur in the continuous
flow found in the premixer, the AIT must be shorter
than the residence time of the fuel air mixture as it
flows from the fuel injection point to the flame front
in the combustor volume. With pipeline quality gas,
the AIT in SoLoNOx fuel injectors is typically less
than one tenth of the available bulk stream
residence time. While the bulk stream residence
time may be much shorter than the AIT, it is really
the residence time in the longest fluid streamline
that is at greatest risk of autoigniting. For example,
a recirculating eddy from a flow separation along
the premixer wall would have a significantly longer
residence time then the bulk stream. This can
make quantifying the longest streamline difficult, so
that, maintaining a large ratio of bulk stream
residence time to AIT is necessary to minimize risk.
Figure 13 is a plot showing the relation between
autoignition delay time and fuel type. Gaseous
fuels with large concentrations of methane
generally have longer AIT, while those with more
reactive species such as hydrogen, alkenes,
carbon monoxide, and heavier alkanes can have
significantly lower delay times.
Flame Speed is the speed that a flame will
propagate through an air fuel mixture at a given
temperature and pressure. The flame speed must
be significantly less than the mixture velocity in
order to prevent the flame from pulling into the
injector premixer. Again, this is generally
considered by quantifying the bulk stream velocity
in the premixer, but any streamline of lower velocity
is at risk of providing a conduit for the flame to pull
back. Generally, in a well-designed injector
premixer, the part of the flow field that is at greatest
risk is along the walls in the boundary layer. When
a flame propagates upstream in the boundary layer
it is often called “flashback”. While it is essential
that the flame speed be less than the mixture
velocity, it is equally important that the flame speed
not be too low either. If the flame speed is too low,
the flame will not stabilize at the right location in the
combustor primary zone and the flame will blow
out. The relation of flame speed with fuel type is
shown in Figure 14. With pipeline quality natural
gas, the laminar flame speed is approximately 125
cm/sec compared to a bulk stream velocity of 50
m/s. As is evident in the figure, more reactive fuels
such as those with significant hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, alkenes and heavier alkanes are at
greater risk of flame propagation into the injector
premixer, while those fuels with large
concentrations of diluents, primary CO2, are at risk
of flame-out.
Expanding SoLoNOx Fuel Flexibility
The gaseous fuel flexibility of SoLoNOx gas
turbines is currently being expanded. In Figure 15
SoLoNOx fuel capability as a function of Wobbe
Index is indicated with blue shading, with the
21
targeted range of expansion indicated by the green
shading. The initial focus is to expand the fuel
range to allow SoLoNOx applications with the
full range of associated gases from oil and gas
production. These gas fuels typically contain
higher concentrations of ethane, propane, and
butane than pipeline quality natural gas fuel.
However, as indicated, some associated gases
from oil fields in the western Pacific, include
significant quantities of CO2 and have a Wobbe
Index below current SoLoNOx capability. Work is
in progress to expand SoLoNOx fuel flexibility
toward the higher Wobbe Index fuels initially.
Subsequently, development will proceed to lower
Wobbe Index fuels allowing use of the lower
Wobbe associated gases and other low BTU fuels
such as landfill and digester gases.
Development Tools. In order to expand gaseous
fuel flexibility with SoLoNOx gas turbines, new
experimental and analytic tools are being installed
and developed. A fuel blending system, as shown
in Figure 16, has recently been installed to allow rig
and engine testing at the factory with up to three
blended fuel streams (e.g., city natural gas,
propane, and butane for higher BTU fuels and
natural gas can be used today and CO2 for lower
BTU fuels is being installed). The system consists
of large storage tanks for two hydrocarbon fuels
(e.g. propane and butane), and one tank for a
diluent, such as CO2, is being added. These fuels
are heated and mixed in appropriate proportions to
simulate associated or landfill gases. The mixture
proportions are checked with an on-line gas
Figure 13. Autoignition Delay Time for Gaseous Fuel
Types at Gas Turbine Conditions
 Associated Gas
LPG

Pipeline and LNG

Coal and Coke

Raw Natural Gas Oven Gas

Refinery
Landfill and Digester Biomass
and Waste
Gasification

0 50 100 150 200 250

Increasing Risk FLAME SPEED, cm/sec Increasing Risk
of Flame-Out of Flashback
SoLoNOx and SoLoNOx
Conventional

Figure 14. Fuel Type Effects on Flame Speed

Associated Gas

Coal and Coke LPG

Oven Gas Pipeline and LNG

Raw Natural Gas Natural Gas Liquids

Landfill and Digester Refinery

Gasified
Biomass
and Waste

0 (MJ/Nm3) 20 40 60 80 100
0 Btu/scf 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
LHV
WOBBE INDEX, WI =
SG

Figure 15. SoLoNOx Fuel Capability: Current (Blue) and Targeted (Green)

22
chromatograph. The simulated gas mixture is
piped to rig or engine test cells through a heat
traced line. For engine tests, a surge tank is
installed as well as a flare system, to accommodate
large engine load transients, start-up, or
emergency shut-down events during testing, to
safely handle and eliminate these fuel mixtures.
One of the primary objectives of the
experimental work is to calibrate the analytical fuel
models, that are used to assess applicability of a
customer’s “real-world” fuel stream, on gas turbine
performance and emissions. These fuel streams
may include up to 20 gas species, which could
never be evaluated experimentally. The
computation model used to determine the fuel
combustion properties is the Sandia CHEMKIN
program, in conjunction with NASA’s CEA
(Chemical Equilibrium Application) codes. The
detailed reaction mechanisms used include over
850 reversible reactions and 130 species up to
C14, to cover a wide range of different fuel
compositions. The computations use a hybrid
time-integration/Newton-iteration technique to solve
Figure 16. Gaseous Fuel Blending Facility Configured for Associated Gas Engine Testing
23
the nonlinear ordinary differential equations that
describe the temperature and reaction species in
mass and volume fractions. The flame properties
(e.g. flame speed) are resolved as eigenvalues of
the problem. The codes permit analysis of the
complete flame structure on the temperature and
species concentration profiles as well as on the
mass burning rates and heat release rates.
In addition to the flame characteristic analysis
for the various fuel compositions, detailed flow
modeling and reaction chemistry is applied to
predict emissions and used as a design tool. A
chemical reactor network (CRN) has been used to
enhance emissions prediction. The formulation of
the CRN, with its discretely simplified flow zones, is
based on the flow mapping with the use of CFD
(Computational Fluid Dynamics). CFD provides
detailed flow and temperature information for the
injector outlet and combustor used in the CRN
analysis. A diagram of CRN consisting of perfect
stirred reactors (PSR) and plug flow reactor (PFR)
is shown in Figure 17.
 PSR
PFR Dilution Effusion
Dome Outer
Outer-Post Air Air
Cooling Air Flame
Flame
Zone

PSR PFR
Premixer PFR Post Flame
Air Flame and
Near Post- Inner Zone in the
Flame Post- Effusion
Flame Cooled Part
MIX PSRs of Combustor
Premixer Flame Zone

Premixer PSR
Fuel Fast
Recirculation
Zone
PSRs Pilot

Pilot Air
PFR
Pilot Fuel Slow Recirculation Zone

Figure 17. Chemical Reactor Network Model of a Lean Premixed Combustion System

Table 10. Fuel Blends Being Used in Engine Testing

Pipeline Associated Associated Associated Associated
Fuel Composition (%)
Natural Gas Gas 1 Gas 2 Gas 3 Gas 4
CH4 96.1842 71.5175 64.5472 47.3212 72.1382
C2H6 1.5187 1.0219 0.9389 0.8589 1.139
C3H8 0.2755 23.8522 21.6295 32.842 5.2066
i-C4 0.0488 1.0887 4.6368 7.1453 0.0366
n-C4 0.0521 1.1712 6.9502 10.7769 0.0391
i-C5 0.0167 0.025 0.1049 0.1545 0.0125
n-C5 0.0133 0.0099 0.0218 0.0266 0.01
n-C6 0.0238 0.014 0.0118 0.008 0.0179
CO2 1.2931 0.9649 0.8573 0.6068 20.9698
N2 0.5739 0.3347 0.315 0.2599 0.4304

Total 100 100 100 100 100

Wobbe Index 1194.2 1411.1 1495.3 1634.5 884.2

(+18.2%) (+25.2) (+36.9%) (-26.0%)
Methane (%) 96.1 71.5 64.5 47.3 72.1
C4+ + H2 + C2H4 + C3H6 (%) 0.15 2.31 11.7 18.1 0.12
Spec. Gravity 0.5814 0.8344 0.9486 1.1472 0.8161
Dew Point (F) -60.8 65.1 105.6 137.7 -10.4
Flame Temp (F) 4168 4230 4246 4269 4072
134.9 139.6 144 110.3
Flame Speed (cm/sec) 120.7
(+11.8%) (+15.7%) (+19.3%) (-8.6%)
Autoignition Delay Time (msec) 148.5 99.4 63 57.9 139.3

24
Associated Gas Qualification. Modeling and
testing with simulated associated gases is currently
in progress with some encouraging results. Table
10 compares five fuel blends that have been
formulated to assess what impact using associated
gases will have on SoLoNOx gas turbine operation
and emissions performance. These fuels have
been analyzed to quantify the effect each fuel
blend has on the key combustion characteristics:
flame speed, autoignition delay time and adiabatic
flame temperature. The fuel blends range from a
baseline fuel of San Diego pipeline natural gas to a
blend with a Wobbe Index of 1600 Btu/scf. In
addition, a lower Wobbe Index fuel blend has also
been analyzed. These fuels are representative of
the typical range of associated gases found in oil
production.
Engine testing has been completed with pipeline
natural gas and Associated Gases 1 to 3 on Taurus
60, Taurus 70 and Mars® gas turbines with
SoLoNOx combustion systems. The engines are
built with the most current SoLoNOx combustion
system designs including ABC combustor liners
and cast swirler injectors as described in Stansel,
2006. All four fuels were used to run the engine
without change to any of the combustion hardware
between tests. All three engines operated with
stable combustion on the three fuels. The
emission results are summarized in Figure 18,
which is a plot of NOx emissions for the four fuel
types. As expected, a slight increase in NOx is
seen as the fuel flame temperature increases. All
three engine models were operated with injectors
instrumented with thermocouples to detect gas
temperatures within the injector premix duct.
These thermocouples were monitored closely to
verify that no combustion occurred within the
injector. The data summarized in Figure 18
indicates that the Taurus 60 and Taurus 70
turbines operated acceptably with all three test
fuels, while the Mars turbine could only operated
acceptably with Gases 1 and 2. Additional testing
with the Mars injector using Gas 3 is planned in the
combustion rig to further analyze and expand
capability to this fuel as well. Based on this test
work, operating SoLoNOx combustion systems in
Taurus 60, Taurus 70, and Mars turbines on higher
Wobbe Index fuels is acceptable, provided the
current production SoLoNOx combustion system is
used. The highest Wobbe Index offered on each
engine model will be evaluated on a case-by-case
basis while the data and experience base is
increased. Gas 4 will be tested when the facility
upgrade to allow blending CO2 is completed.

2.0
Taurus 60
1.9
Taurus 70
1.8
Mars 100
1.7
NOX / NOx on Nat. Gas

1.6

1.5

1.4

1.3

1.2

1.1

1.0

0.9
Nat.Gas (1200) Gas 1 (1400) Gas 2 (1500) Gas 3 (1600)
Fuel Type (Nominal Wobbe Index in Btu/SCF)

Figure 18. Full Load SoLoNOx Engine Testing with Simulated Associated Gases at 2% Pilot

25
Landfill and Digester Gas Qualification.
Progress is also being made to expand SoLoNOx
fuel capability to lower heating value fuels such
as those collected at landfills and at sewage and
waste processing plants through anaerobic
digestion. As previously described, these fuels
are primarily methane-diluted with carbon dioxide.
The ratio of methane to CO2 can vary
substantially between specific landfill and digester
plants. Gases with Wobbe Index variation in the
range of 400 to 1200 have been analyzed for
impact on system flow area requirements and the
other combustion characteristics of flame speed,
autoignition delay time and flame temperature.
Initially, the Mercury 50 turbine is being evaluated
for landfill and digester gas applications. Based
on experience with conventional combustion gas
turbines, as the Wobbe Index decreases, a point
is reached where the system flow area needs to
be increased so that fuel pressure requirements
do not become too great. In particular, the flow
area of the injector, fuel valves and pipe
diameters need to be increased. For the Mercury
50 turbine the maximum fuel pressure target has
been set as depicted in Figure 19. This plot of
injector pressure drop versus Wobbe Index
includes the pressure loss characteristics for both
the production injector and an injector design
modified with a larger flow area. It is clear that
near 600 Wobbe Index the production injector
pressure loss will exceed the targeted maximum.
Therefore, the modified injector and fuel system
will be required for lower Wobbe Index landfill and
digester gas applications. Based on this analysis,
1200
INJECTOR PRESSURE DROP, psid
1000
Production
800
600
Modified
400
200
0
0 200
Figure 19. Injector Configurations Required For Landfill Gas With Acceptable Pressure Drop
as is the case with conventional combustion gas
turbines, only one additional fuel system
configuration will be required in addition to the
current production system to cover the targeted
range of low Wobbe Index landfill and digester
gases. For very low Wobbe Index fuels, a start-
up standard fuel will also be required as is the
case with conventional combustion. Activities in
progress to complete this qualification work
include adding CO2 blending to the fuel facility,
procuring modified injector and fuel system
hardware, rig and engine testing, calibration of
the analytical models, and production release and
design verification.
Future Work. In the longer term, SoLoNOx
combustion will be qualified for broader ranges of
fuels created from biomass and waste
gasification, coal and coke oven gases. These
fuels contain high concentrations of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide. These species are currently
limited in SoLoNOx applications to less than 4 to
10% of the fuel depending on the balance of the
fuel gas composition. For these targeted fuel
sources, hydrogen and carbon monoxide
concentrations can be greater than 50% by
volume and the flame speed can double. These
fuels are going to be a greater technical
challenge to use in the lean premixed combustion
system, and in all likelihood, significant injector
and fuel system changes will be required in
addition to all the unique handling requirements
for conventional combustion systems.
Test Range
Max Allowed
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
WOBBE INDEX (Btu/scf)
26
SUMMARY
Solar has a long history of providing gas turbines
capable of using a very broad range of gaseous
and liquid fuels. With conventional combustion gas
turbine alternative fuel technology has been in
production and demonstrated in numerous field
applications. Generally, high Btu gas requires only
minor hardware adjustments, while medium Btu
gas requires more significant injector and fuel
control systems modifications. Standard gas or
liquid fuel start-up is often required for turbine
operation with lower Btu gases. Fuel handling and
control systems, adequate for safe and reliable
operation, have been developed successfully and
operated in the field. The following summarizes the
status of alternative fuel technology in industrial
gas turbines.
• Various alternate gaseous fuels, including
liquid petroleum gas, high hydrogen content
gases, and medium Btu fuels from landfills
and liquid sewage have been demonstrated
as suitable for conventional combustion gas
turbine operation.
• Methods of predicting the gas composition
impact on gas turbine design and operation
have been developed and used.
• Natural gas liquids or liquid petroleum gas
containing propane or lighter hydrocarbons
have been handled in both gaseous and
liquid form on conventional combustion
engines.
• New applications of current technology are
being actively pursued and the development
of new technology is continuing in response
to customer identification of new, alternative
fuel supplies and compositions.
• SoLoNOx gas turbines are operating on
natural gas, diesel #2, and kerosene. Work
is in progress to expand fuel flexibility to
allow use of associated and raw natural
gases and landfill and digester gases with
Wobbe Index in the range of 400 to 1600
btu/scf.
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