NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOHY SIKKIM

Ravangla Campus
Barfung Block, Ravangla Sub Division, South Sikkim 737139

Subject: Semiconductor Devices (EC13103)

Module 2: PN Junction

 p-n Junction:
• Major steps for the fabrication of p-n junctions:
1. A bare n-Si wafer:

n - Si

2. Oxidized by dry or wet Oxidation:

• A SiO2 layer is formed all over the wafer surface.

• In the fabrication of P-N junction, the SiO2 film is
SiO 2 used to define the junction area.

n - Si • Generally, SiO2 functions as a barrier to diffusion

or implantation.

3. Lithography:
i. Resist layer deposition:

• After formation of SiO2, the wafer is coated with

an ultraviolet (UV) light sensitive material called
resist photoresist by spin coating.
SiO 2
• The wafer is then baked at 80 -100 C to harden
n - Si the resist for improved adhesion.

1
ii. UV light exposed:

hν
• The wafer is exposed using an UV-light
source through a pattern mask.
• The exposed region of the photoresist
undergoes a chemical reaction
depending on type of resist.
resist
• The area exposed to light become
SiO 2
polymerized and difficult to remove in
n - Si an etchant.

iii. Developing:

• The polymerized region remains when the

wafer is placed in developer, where as
resist resist
unexposed region dissolve and washed away.
SiO 2 SiO 2
• The wafer is again baked at 120 - 180 C for
n - Si 20 minutes.

iv. Etching:

• The unprotected SiO2 surface is removed using

etchant buffered hydrofluoric acid (HF).
SiO 2 SiO 2

n - Si

v. Ion implantation or diffusion:

• The acceptor (Al or Ga) is doped by diffusion

or ion implantation for forming p-n junction.
• The SiO2 layer serves as barrier to impurity
SiO 2 SiO 2 diffusion or ion implantation.
p - Si
n - Si
2
 vi. Contact layer deposition (metallization):
• After diffusion or ion-implantation, a
metallization process is used to form Ohmic
contacts and interconnects.
• Metal films can be deposited by physical vapor
SiO 2 Metal SiO 2
deposition or chemical vapor deposition.
p - Si
n - Si

• A similar metallization step is done on the back

contact without using a lithography process.
SiO 2 Metal SiO 2 • A low-temperature (500C) anneal performed to
p - Si
promote low-resistance contact between metal
n - Si
layers and semiconductor.
Metal

 Theory of PN Junction Diode:

P V
N

- - - - - Fr + + + + +
- - - - - +E + + + +
- - - - - + Fr + + + +
Depletion region

Na
Nd

• In a piece of semiconductor materials, if one half is doped by p-type impurity and the
other half is doped with N-type impurity, a PN junction is formed.

• The plane dividing the two halves or zone is called PN junction.

3
• The N-type material has high concentration of free electrons, while P-type material has
high concentration of holes. Therefore, at the junction there is a tendency for the free
electrons to diffuse over to the P-side and holes to the N-side. This process is called
diffusion.
• As the free electrons move across the junction from N-type to P-type, the donor ions
become positively charged, and hence a positive charge is built on N-side of the junction.
• The free electrons that cross the junction uncover the negative acceptor ions by filling the
holes, and hence a net negative charge is established on the P-side of the junction.
• The net negative charge on the P-side prevents the further diffusion of electrons into the
P-side.
• Similarly, the net positive charge on the N-side repels the hole crossing from P-side to N-
side.
• Thus a barrier is set up near the junction which prevents further movement of charge
carriers i.e. electrons and holes.
• As a consequence of the induced electric field across the depletion layer, an electrostatic
potential difference is established between P- and N-regions, which is called ‘potential
barrier’ or ‘junction barrier’, ‘diffusion potential’ or ‘contact potential (V 0)’.
• The magnitude of the contact potential V0 varies with doping levels and temperature.
• The value of V0 is 0.3V for Ge and 0.72V for Si.
• The electrostatic field across the junction caused by the positively charged N-type region
tends to drive the holes away from the junction and negatively charge P-type region tends
to drive the electrons away from the junction.
• The majority holes diffusing out of the P-region leave behind negatively charged acceptor
atoms bound to the lattice, thus exposing negative space charge in a previously neutral
region.
• Similarly, electrons diffusing from the N-region expose positively ionised donor atoms,
and a doubled space charge layer builds up at the junction (Fig a and c).

4
 Exposed ionised 
Exposed ionised • It is noticed that space-charge
acceptors E
 donors layers are of opposite sign to
    the majority carriers diffusing
    into them, which tends to
(a ) P N
    reduce diffusion rate.
• Thus the double space of the
24 Holes layer causes an electric field
10
to be set up across the
20
(b ) 10 junction directed from N- to
10
16 P-regions, which is in such a
Electrons
direction to inhibit diffusion
of majority electrons and
Space charge Charge
region density (  ) holes (Fig a and d).
Space-charge
Density ()

• The shape of the charge

 x1
density ‘’ depends upon how
(c ) x x2
 x the diode is doped.
• Thus, the junction region is
depleted of mobile charge
Field (E)
Electric

carriers, and hence called

(d ) depletion region (layer) or
x
space charge region, or
transition region.
Voltage(V)

x1
V2 • The thickness of the depletion
x2
(e ) V0 region is of the order of 0.5
x
V1 m.
x0

• There are no mobile carriers in this very narrow depletion layer, and hence no current
flows across the junction and the system is in equilibrium.
• To the left of this depletion layer, the carrier concentration is p = NA and to its right it is n
= ND.

 Calculation of Depletion width:

• Let us consider an alloy junction in which there is an abrupt change from acceptor ions
on P-side to donor ions on N-side.
• Thus, an electric field is established which in turn causes a difference in potential energy
qV0 between two parts of the specimen.
• The potential build up across is junction is represented in Fig (e), in which P-side of the
junction is at lower potential than the N-side.

5
• Assume that the concentration of electrons and holes in the depletion region is negligible
and that all of the donors and acceptors are ionised.
• The region of space charge may be described as:
  qN A ,0  x  X 1
  qN D , X2  x  0 …………(1)
 0 , elsewhere
Where,   space charge density
• The axes have been chosen in such a way that V1 and X1 have negative values.
• The potential variation in the space charge region can be calculated by using poission’s
equation and given by:
  x, y , z  ………….(2)
 V 
2

 0 r
Where,  r  Relative permittivity
• The relevant equation for the required one-dimensional problem is:

V  x, y, z 
2

 ……………(3)
x
2
 0 r

For P-side of the junction:

Equation (2) becomes:

V
2
qN A ………….(4)

x
2
 0 r
  V  qN A
  
x  x   0 r
 V  qN A
   x
 x   0 r

Integrating both sides:

 V  qN A
  x      x 0 r

V qN A
  xC …………..(5)
x  0 r

6
  qN A 
 V   x  C x
  0 r 
Integrating both sides:

 qN A 
 V     
0 r
x  C x

2
qN A x
V   Cx  D ………….(6)
 0 r 2

Where, C, D  Constant of Integration

From Figure (e), V = 0 at X = 0:

D0 ………….(7) (From Figure e)

Again potential is constant at x = X1:

dV
 0 ……………..(8)
dx

Using equation (7) in (5):

qN A
0 X1  C
 0 r
qN A …………..(9)
C  X1
 0 r

Using equation (7) and (9) in (5):

2
qN A x qN A
V  X1  x …………..(10)
 0 r 2  0 r

Since V = V1 at x = X1:
2
qN A X 1 qN A 2
V1   X1
 0 r 2  0 r
2
qN A X 1
 V1   …………..(11)
 0 r 2

7
 For N-side of the junction:

2
qN D X 2 ……………(12)
V2 
 0 r 2

Total built in potential or contact potential is:

 qN X 2   qN A X 1 2 
V0  V2  V1   D 2    
  0 r 2    0 r 2 

 V0  V2  V1 
q
2 0  r
N D X 2  N A X1
2 2
 …………..(13)

• For neutral specimen:

Positive charge on N-side = Negative charge on P-side

N A X1  N D X 2 ………….(14)

ND …………(15)
 X1   X2
NA

Using equation (15) in (13):

q  ND
2
2
V0   N X
2
 N X 
2 0  r  
D 2 A 2 2
NA 

qN D  ND  2
 V0  1  X 2
2 0 r  N A 
2 0  rV0
 X2 
2

 N 
qN D 1  D 
 NA 
1/ 2
 
 
2 0  rV0
 X2   
  N  …………(16)
 qN D 1  D  
  NA  

8
 Similarly:
1/ 2
 
 
2 0  rV0
X 1    ……………(17)
  N 
 qN A 1  A  
  ND  

Depletion width (W):

W  X 2  X1

 W  X 2  X1   X 2  X 1  2 X 2 X 1
2 2 2 2

1/ 2 1/ 2
       
       
2 0  rV0    2 0  rV0   2  2 0  rV0  2 0  rV0
  
  N    N    N    N 
 qN D 1  D    qN A 1  A    qN D 1  D    qN A 1  A  
  NA     ND     NA     ND  
1/ 2
   
   
2 0  rV0  1 1   2  2 0  rV0  1 1 
  
q   N   N  q   ND   N A 
 N D 1  D  N A 1  A    N D 1   N A 1  
  NA   N D     N A   N D  
    
1/ 2

    
2 0 rV0  1 1   2 1 1  
    
q   ND   NA    ND   NA  
 N 1   N A 1    N D 1   N A 1  
 D  N A   N D     N A   N D   
   
    
1/ 2

    
2 0  rV0  1 1   2 1 1  
    
  N N   ND  N A  
q  N  N A  N D  N  N D  N A    N D  A D
 N A  
 D  N A  A
 N D     N A   N D   
   
  
  1/ 2 
2  V 
 0 r 0 
1

1   2 1  
  
 N A  N D   
 
 N  N  N D  N  N  N A  
2
q
D   A  
 A  NA 
D
 N D   
 

9
 2 0 rV0 
 1  N A N D  2 

W     
2
    
q   N A  N D   N D N A  N A  N D 


2 0 rV0 
 1  N A 2  N D 2  2 

     
q   
  N A  N D  
 N A N D

 
 N A  N D 



2 0 rV0  N A2  N D 2  
  
1    
N  N D   N A N D
2  

 A
q  

2  V 
  N A 2  N D 2  2N A N D  
 0 r 0 
1   
     
q 
 N A N D  N AND  

2  V 
  N A  N D 2  
 0 r 0 
1   

q 
 
  N A  N D   N A N D  


2 0 rV0  N A  ND 
  
q  N AND 
1/ 2
 2  V  NA  ND 
W   0 r 0   ……………(18)
 q  NAND 

 The depletion width is proportional to (V0)1/2.

 Energy Band Structure of PN Junction:

E cp
1
2 Eg
E cp Ecn
EF Ei
1 E1 Ecn
EF Eg EF
Ei Ei 2
1
Eg
E0 E2 2
E vp
EF Ei
Evn P - type
E vp E0 1
Eg
2
P - type N - type Evn
N - type

• When the P-type and N-type materials are in physical contact at the junction on an atomic
scale, the Fermi level EF should be constant throughout the specimen at equilibrium.

10
• Prior to equilibrium, the Fermi energy of N-type is higher than that of P-type.
The electrons on N-side of the junction have average energy higher than those of P-side.
• Since, the distribution of electrons and holes in allowed energy states is dependent on the
position of Fermi level, the electrons from N-type moves to P-type and holes from P-type
moves to N-type.
• Hence, the energy band diagrams of these two regions undergoes relative shift to equalise
Fermi level.
• However, such a shift does not disturb the relative position of conduction band, valence
band and Fermi level in any region.

In the figures:
E cp , E vp : Conduction band edge and Valence band edge of P-type

E cn , E vn : Conduction band edge and Valence band edge of N-type

Ei , E F : Intrinsic and extrinsic Fermi level positions

• The Fermi level EF is closer to the conduction band Ecn in N-type material, while it is
closer to the valence band edge Evp in P-type materials.

At equilibrium:
E1, E 2 : The shifts of Fermi level in P and N-type materials from intrinsic condition.
• The total shift in the energy level E0 is given by:
E0  E1  E 2  E cp  E cn  E vp  E vn …………..(19)

• The energy E0 is the potential energy of electrons at the PN junction, and is equal to qV 0,
where V0 is barrier potential.
• From figure:

E g  E1  E1  E g  E F  E vp 
1 1
E F  E vp  …………….(20)
2 2

E g  E cn  E F 
1 1 …………….(21)
and E cn  E F  E g  E2  E2 
2 2

11
 Combining equation (20) and (21):

E g  E F  E vp   E g  E cn  E F 
1 1
E1  E 2 
2 2
 E0  E g  E F  Evp   E cn  E F  ………….(22)

We know that:
 Eg / kT ………….(23)
ni  N C NV e
2

N C NV Eg N N 
e    ln  C 2 V 
Eg / kT
2
kT 
ni  ni 
N N  …………..(24)
 E g  kT ln  C 2 V 

 ni 
Also, we know that:

N 
Ecn  E F  kT ln  C 
 ND  …………(25) (N-type)

N 
and, E F  Evp  kT ln  V  …………..(26) (P-type)
 NA 

Where, N D  Donor concentration in N-region

N A  Acceptor concentration in P-region

Substituting equation (24), (25), and (26) in (22):

N N  N  N 
E 0  kT ln  C 2 V   kT ln  C
 N   kT ln  V 
 ni   D   NA 
 N N  N   N 
 kT ln  C 2 V   ln  C
 N   ln  V 
  ni   D   N A 
 N N N N 
 kT ln  C 2 V  D  A 
  ni N C N V 

12
 N N 
 E 0  kT ln  D 2 A  …………..(27)
 ni 

Barrier potential:

kT  N D N A 
V0  ln …………..(28)
q  ni 2 

Ex 1: Calculate the built in potential of a silicon pn junction at 300K with doping concentration
NA = 11018 cm-3 and ND = 11015cm-3. Assume that ni = 1.51010 cm-3.
3
Answer: Given; Instrinsic concentration: ni  1.5  10 cm
10

3
N D  110 cm
15
Donor concentration:

3
N A  110 cm
18
Acceptor concentration:

Built in potential Barrier:

KT  N A N D   15 
  0.0259 ln 1  10  1  10 
18
V0  ln
q  ni 2 
  1.5  1010 2
 
 10 33

 0.0259 ln  20 
 2.25  10 


 0.0259 ln 4.4 10
12

 0.754eV

13
 Forward Bias Condition:
P-N Junction is said to be forward bias when positive terminal of the battery is connected to P-
region and negative terminal is connected to N-region.

P V N
Ih Ie

- - - - - + + + + +
-- -- - - - +E + + + +
- - - - - + + + + +
Depletion region

E
• The applied potential with external battery acts in opposition to the internal potential
barriers and disturb the equilibrium.
• As soon as equilibrium is disturbed by the application of an external voltage, the Fermi
level is no longer continuous across the junction.
• Under the forward bias condition, the applied potential repels the holes in P-region so
that the holes moves towards the junction and the applied negative potential repels the
electrons in the N-type region and the electrons moves towards the junction.
• Eventually, when the applied potential is more than the internal barrier potential the
depletion region and internal potential barrier disappear.

 V-I Characteristics under FB:

I F mA  For VF < V0:

• The forward current IF is almost zero (region
Ge OA).
Si
• The potential barrier prevents the holes from
B P-region and electrons from N-region to
flow across the depletion region in the
opposite direction, which results IF = 0.

VF V
A
0
0.3V 0.7V

14
For VF > V0:
• The potential barrier at the junction completely disappears.
• The holes cross the junction from P- to N-side and the electrons cross the junction in
opposite direction.
• A relatively large current flows in the external circuit.
• The positive voltage required the overcome the potential barrier and the current through
the junction starts to increase rapidly is called ‘cut in’ or ‘threshold voltage’ (VT).
• The threshold voltage is 0.3V for Ge and 0.7V for Si.

E cp E cp
E0 E0  eVF
Ei
Ecn Ei Ecn
EF EF EF EF
E vp E vp Ei
P - type Ei P - type

Evn Evn
N - type N - type
Unbiased PN - junction Foward bias PN - junction

 Reverse Bias Condition:

P-N Junction is said to be reverse bias when negative terminal of the battery is connected to P-
region and positive terminal is connected to N-region.

P V N
Ih Ie

- - - - - + + + + +
- - - - - +E + + + +
- - - - - + + + + +
Depletion region

15
• The majority carrier holes of the P-side move towards the negative terminal of the battery
and the majority carrier electrons of the N-side are attracted towards the positive terminal
of the battery.
• The width of depletion region which is depleted of mobile charge carriers increases.
• The electric field is produced by applied reverse voltage in the same direction as the
electric field of the potential barrier.
• The resultant potential barrier is increased, which prevents the flow of majority carriers
in both directions.
• The depletion width ‘W’ is proportional to (V0)1/2 under reverse bias. Therefore,
theoretically no current should flow in the external circuit.

I F mA 
• But in practice, a very small current of the
order of a few microamperes flows under
reverse bias.
VR V  VF V • Electrons forming covalent bonds of the
0 semiconductor atoms in the P- and N-type
Break regions may absorb sufficient energy from
down heat or light to cause breaking of some
voltage covalent bonds.
I R A

• Hence the electron-hole pairs are continually generated in both regions.

• Under the reverse bias condition, the thermally generated holes in the P-region are
attracted towards the negative terminal of the battery and the electrons in the N-regions
are attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery.
• Consequently, the minority carriers, electrons in the P-region and holes in the N-region,
wander over to the junction and flow towards their majority carrier side giving rise to a
small reverse current.
• The small reverse current is known as ‘reverse saturation current (I0)’.
• The magnitude of reverse saturation current mainly depends upon junction temperature
because the major source of minority carriers is thermally broken covalent bonds.
• For large reverse bias, the free electrons from N-side moving towards the positive
terminal of the battery acquire sufficient energy to move with high velocity to dislodge
the valence electrons from semiconductor atoms in the crystal.
• This newly liberated electron acquires sufficient energy to dislodge other parent electron.

16
 • Thus a number of free electron are formed which is commonly called as an avalanche of
free electrons.
• This leads to breakdown of the junction causing very large reverse current.
• The reverse voltage at which the junction breakdown occurs is known as, breakdown
voltage (VBD)’.

E cp E cp
E0 E0  eVR
Ei Ei
Ecn
EF EF EF Ecn
E vp E vp EF
P - type Ei P - type
Ei
Evn
N - type Evn
N - type
Unbiased PN - junction
Reverse bias PN - junction

 Theory of PN Diode Current:

I 
V

p n

• When a forward bias is applied to a diode, holes are injected into n-side and electrons are
injected into p-side.
• Under low injection condition the minority currents are almost entirely due to diffusion,
so that minority drift currents can be neglected.
• Due to the injection of holes from P-side into N-side, the concentration of holes in N-side
is increased from its thermal equilibrium value, and decreases exponentially with
distance.

17
 In the figures:
Hole N - type Area, A
Material pno : The equilibrium hole concentration in the
N-region.
Pn 0 : The injected hole concentration at the


  
           
                 junction of N-region.

0 x p n 0  : Concentration of holes at the junction of

Concentrat ion, p n
N-region after injection.

injected, excess carier • The variation of injected holes

Pn 0 concentration with distance is given by:
p n 0
Pn x   p n  p n 0  Pn 0 e
 x / Lp
pno ……(29)
0 x Where, L p  Diffusion length of hole in
the N-type materials
Junction

 p n x   p n 0  Pn 0e
 x / Lp
………….(30)

Injected hole concentration at x = 0:

Pn 0  pn 0  pn0 ……………(31)

• The diffusion current in the N-side:

I pn ( x)   AeD p
dpn ( x)
  AeD p
d p n 0  Pn (0)e   x / Lp

dx dx

 1   x / Lp
  AeD p Pn (0)  e
 L 
 p 

AeD p Pn (0)  x / Lp
 I pn ( x)  e ……………….(32)
Lp

18
 Law of injection:
Let p p , p n : The hole concentration at the edges of the space charge in the P- and N-

sides.

VB  V0  V : The effective barrier potential across the depletion layer.

• A forward bias voltage V lowers the barrier voltage and allows more carriers to cross the
junction.

• From Boltzmann’s relationship, the hole concentration at the edge of space charge of P-
region is given by:
p p  pn e
VB / VT
……………(33)

Where, VT  Volt equivalent of temperature

Under open circuit condition: V 0
 p p  p p 0 , p n  p n 0 , and VB  V0

V0 / VT
Thus, p po  p no e ………….(34)

Under forward bias condition: V  V

 VB  V0  V

The hole concentration throughout the P-region is constant and equal to equilibrium value.
i.e. p p  p p0 …………..(35)

The hole concentration at x = 0 of N-side: p n  p n 0

Moreover, the hole concentration varies exponentially with distance into N-region.

p po  p n 0 e  p n 0e
V0 V / VT
VB / VT
Thus,

 p po  p n 0e
V0 / VT V / VT
e …………..(37)

19
 Comparing equation (34) and (37),

pno  pn 0e
V / VT

 pn 0  pno e
V / VT
…………..(38) (Law of injection)

• Using equation (38) in (31):

Pn 0  p n 0 e
V / VT
 pn0

 Pn 0  p n 0 e  V / VT

 1 ………….(39)

• Using equation (39) in (32):

I pn ( x) 
AeD p p n 0
Lp
e
 x / Lp
e V / VT

 1 …………..(40)

Now, the hole current crossing the junction into the N-side with x = 0 is:

I pn (0) 
AeD p p n 0
Lp
e V / VT
1  ……………..(41)

The electron current crossing the junction into the P-side with x=0 is:

I np (0) 
AeDn n p 0
Ln
e V / VT
1  ……………(42)

Forward current: I  I pn (0)  I np (0)


AeD p p n 0
Lp
e V / VT
1   AeDn n p 0
Ln
e V / VT

1


 AeD p p n 0 AeDn n p 0  V / VT
 L

L
e

1  
 p n 
V /V
 I  I0 e T 1  ……………….(43)

 AeD p p n 0 AeDn n p 0 
Where, I0      Reverse saturation current.
 L L 
 p n 
……………(44)

20
 Current
Total diode current, I

I pn 0  • The hole and electron diffusion

current components vs distance in a
I pn 0   I np 0  I pn x , hole
p-n junction diode is plotted. The P-
diffusion current
side is much heavily doped than N-
I np x , electron side.
diffusion current I np 0 
x0 Distance

Reverse saturation current:

2 2
ni ni
We know, pn  and np 
ND NA

E g 0 / kT E g 0 / kT 3 Vg 0 / kT
ni  N C N V e  AT e  AT e
2 3
Where,

Where, V g 0  Voltage numerically equal to the forbidden gap energy E g0 in eV.

Equation (44) becomes:

 AeD p AeDn  2
I0    ni……………(45)
L N L N 
 p D n A 

For a germanium diode, the diffusion constant Dp and Dn varies inversely to temperature.

Thus, I 0  K1T e
2 Vg 0 / VT ……………(46)

For a Silicon diode, I0 is proportional to ni instead of ni2. Thus,

3 / 2 Vg 0 / 2VT ……………(47)
I 0  K 2T e

21
 Majority carrier current component:
• Since the total current (I) is constant and the minority carrier (I pn) varies with x, the
majority carrier current (Inn) can be written as:
I nn  x   I  I pn  x ……………(48)

• The variation of majority carrier current component I nn with distance x is plotted.

Current
 Transition region
 0.5 m  Total current, I

I pp, hole current I nn,electron

current
I pn , hole diffusion
current

I np x , electron
diffusion current
p - region n - region Distance

 Current Voltage Characteristics:

• Total current flowing through the junction with applied voltage V across the p-n junction
is given by:

  V  
I  I 0 exp    1……………(49)

  VT  

Where, I 0  Reverse saturation current

  Dimensionless number (Ge=1, Si=2)
kT T
VT    Voltage Equivalent temperature.
e 11600
e  Electronic charge

k B  Boltzmann constant
T  Absolute temperature

22
• Equation (49) can be re-written as:

  eV  
I  I 0 exp    1…………….(50)

  k B T  

At room Temperature:
kT T
VT    26mV
e 11600

  39V  ……………(51)

Thus, I  I 0 exp    1
    

• For V is positive (forward bias) and sufficiently high :

V 
exp    1
 VT 

Thus, V ………….(52)
I  I 0 exp  
 VT 

 Current increases exponentially with V

• When diode is reverse bias with V few times greater than /39:

 V 
exp     1
 VT 

Thus, I  I 0

The reverse current is independent of applied bias and equals to reverse saturation current.

23
 • The current-voltage characteristics or volt-ampere characteristics of p-n junction diode is
shown in figure below with Ge diode is shown as reference.

I mA I , mA
6
5
4
3
2
I0 1

VR 0 V 0.2
I0
0.1 0.5 0.1 0.2 V ,V
1.0
I , A
VZ
(Ge Diode)
• For V < V, the current is very small.
For V  V, the current increases very sharply.
• The voltage V is known as the break-point, offset, threshold, or cutin voltage of the
diode.
• V = 0.2 V for Ge diode, V = 0.6 V for Si diode
• The forward current is in the range of milliampere while the reverse current is in the
range of microampere.
• At reverse bias voltage Vz, the diode characteristics exhibit an abrupt and marked
departure from equation (1).
• At this critical voltage, a large reverse current flows and the diode is said to be in the
‘breakdown region’.

 Diode Resistance:
Static Resistance:
• The ratio between the voltage V across the junction and the current I flowing through the
junction is called the static or dc resistance (rdc)of the diode.
V
rdc  ……………(54)
I
• As Ohm’s law is not valid for the p-n junction, rdc is not a constant but varies
significantly with the applied voltage.

24
 Dynamic Resistance:

• The reciprocal of the slope of the volt ampere characteristics of the p-n junction diode is
called the ‘dynamic ’ or ‘ac resistance’ (rac) of the diode.
dV
rac  ……….…..(55)
dI   V  
 I  I 0 exp   1 
VT ……………..(56)   VT  
 rac   dI 1  V  
I  I0   I0 exp   
 dV VT  VT  
• For forward bias I >> I0. Thus,  dI 1   V  
V     0
I exp  
 V  0  I  I 0

rac  T ………….(57)  dV VT   T 
I  
 dI  1  I exp  V   1  I 
 The dynamic resistance is inversely  dV VT  0   VT   0 
    
proportional to current.  dI  I  I 0 
 dV VT 

Ex 2: The reverse saturation current at 300 K of a p-n junction Ge diode is 5 A. Find the
voltage to be applied across the junction to obtain a forward current of 50 mA.
Answer: Given; Reverse saturation current: I 0  5A

For p-n junction Ge diode:   1

Forward current: I  50mA
The current I for applied voltage V:

  eV   3
I  I 0 exp    1  exp  eV   I  1  50  10  1  10 4
  k B T  
 k T  I 6
 B  0 5  10
eV
  ln 10
4

k B T
k BT
 V  ln 4 
e
23
1.38  10  300
 2.303  4  19
1.6  10
 0.238V

25
Ex 3: Calculate the ratio of the current for a forward bias of 0.06V to the current for the same
value of reverse bias applied to a Ge p-n junction diode at 27C.
Answer: Given; Forward bias voltage: V  0.06V
Reverse bias voltage: V  0.06V

For p-n junction Ge diode:   1

At 27C=300 K: VT  26mV

The current I for applied voltage V:

  eV  …………..(i)
I  I 0 exp    1
   k B T  
For forward bias voltage V=0.06V:

  e  0.06  ………….(ii)

I 1  I 0 exp    1
  k BT  
For reverse bias voltage V=-0.06V:

   e  0.06  
I 2  I 0 exp    1 ………….(iii)
  k B T  

Ratio of forward to reverse current:

  0.06e  
I 0 exp    1
I1   k B T   ……………(iv)

I2    0.06e  
I 0 exp    1
  B k T  
19
0.06e 0.06  1.6  10
Now,   2.319
1.38  10 273  27 
 23
kT

Hence,
I1 e
2.319

  2.319
1

e
2.319
1  e
2.319
1

e
2.319
e  1
2.319
 e
2.319
 10.16
1
2.319
1 e
2.319
I2 e 1 1
 1
e
2.319 2.319
e e

26
Ex 4: The current flowing through a p-n junction Si diode is 60 mA for forward bias of 0.9V at
300 K. Determine the static and dynamic resistance of the diode.
Answer: Given; Current through Si diode: I  60mA
Forward bias voltage: V  0.9V and At 300 K= VT  26mV

For p-n junction Si diode:   2

V 0.9
The static resistance is: rdc   3  15
I 60  10
VT 2  26  10 V
3
The dynamic resistance is: rac   3
 0.87
I 60  10 A

 Space Charge Capacitance:

Vd
 
• Under reverse bias condition, the majority
p n carrier moves away from the junction,
thereby uncovering more immobile charges.
Charge density, 
ND • Hence the thickness of the space charge layer
 Wp x at the junction increases with reverse voltage.
0 Wn
• The increase in uncovered charge with
N A  N D
applied voltage may be considered as
 NA capacitive effect.
Field Intensity,  • The parallel layers of oppositely charged
W immobile ions on the two sides of the
- Wp 0 Wn x junction form the capacitance CT, which is
expressed as:
Wp  Wn  W

dQ ………….(58)
Potential, V CT 
dV
Vi
Where, dV  Change in voltage

0 x dQ  Increase of charge

 dQ  CT dV ………..(59)

27
• The change in voltage dV in a time dt will result a current I given by:

dQ dV …………..(60)
I  CT
dt dt

• The quantity CT is called the ‘transition, space-charge, barrier or depletion region’

capacitance.
• Now consider a PN diode which is asymmetrically doped at the junction.
• Since the net charge is zero, we can write:

qN AW p  qN DWn ………….(61)

Where, N A  Acceptor concentration

ND  Donor concentration

Wp  Space charge width on P-side

Wn  Space charge width on N-side

q Charge

• If NA >> ND, then Wp << Wn:

Wp + Wn  Wn = W, the width of depletion region.

• The relationship between the potential and charge density is given by:
 qN D
2
d V …………..(62) (Poisson’s equation)

dx  2

d  dV   qN D
  
dx  dx  
 dV   qN D
 d  dx
 dx  

Integrating both side:

 dV   qN D dV  qN D
 d  dx     dx 
dx


xC …………(63)
 qN D …………(64)
 dV  xdx  Cdx

Integrating both sides:
 qN D
 dV    xdx  C  dx
28
  qN D x
2

V   Cx  D …………….(65)
2

• Since the electric field starts on positive donor ion and ends on the negative acceptor
ions, there is no flux right to the boundary x = Wn.

 Electric field is zero at x = Wn  W.

dV
Thus,  0
dx
 qN D
 W C  0

qN DW ………….(67)
C 

Using Equation (67) in (65):

 qN D x
2
qN DW
V  xD ……………(68)
2 

• Since there is small potential drop across Wp, we may choose V = 0 at x = 0.

Thus, from equation (68): D  0 …………(69)

Using Equation (69) in (68):

 qN D x
2
qN DW
V  x ……………(70)
2 

• At x = Wn  W, V = VB. Thus, from equation (70) the built in potential VB is:

 qN DW
2 2
qN DW
VB  
2 
2
qN DW
 VB  …………….(71)
2

29
• Here VB = V0 - V, where V is a negative number for applied reverse bias and V 0 is the
contact potential.
 The width of depletion layer increases with applied reverse voltage.

VB  W
2
i.e.
 W VB …………..(72)

• If A is the area of junction, the charge in the distance W is:

Q  qN DWA ………….(73)

 Transition capacitance:
dQ dW …………..(74)
CT   qN D A
dV dVB

• Differentiating equation (71) with respect to V:

qN D dW
1 2W
2 dV

dW 
  …………..(75)
dV qN DW

• Using equation (75) in (74):

dQ 
CT   qN D A
dV qN DW

A …………(76)
 CT 
W

30
 Space Charge Width:

• If we consider the potential ob both region:

2
qN DWn
For N-region: V Bn  ………….(77)
2
2
qN AW p
For P-region: VBp  …………..(78)
2
2
qN A N D
 VBp  
2
Wn
2 NA
2

2 2
qN D Wn
 VBp  …………….(79)
2N A

Total potential difference:

2 2 2
qN DWn qN D Wn
VB  VBn  VBp  
2 2N A

qWn
2
 ND 
 VB   N A  N D 
2  NA 
1/ 2
 2VB  NA  1  ……………(80)
 Wn     
 q  ND  N A  N D 

1/ 2
 2VB  ND  1  ………………(81)
Similarly, Wp     
 q  NA  N A  N D 

Space charge width: W  Wn  W p

1/ 2 1/ 2
 2VB  NA  1   2VB  ND  1 
W         
 q  ND  N A  N D   q  NA  N A  N D 
1/ 2
 2VB  1   N A1 / 2 N D 1 / 2 
W      1/ 2  
N 1/ 2 
 q  N A  N D   D N A 

31
 1/ 2
 2VB  1   NA  ND 
W      1/ 2 1/ 2 
 N 
 q  A
N N D   A ND 
1/ 2
 2VB  NA  ND 
W     ……………(82)
 q  NAND 
 2 V0  V   N A  N D
1/ 2

W     …………..(83)
 q  NAND 

For Forward Bias (+V):

Effective barrier potential: VB  V0  V

 2 V0  V   N A  N D
1/ 2

Depletion width: W     …………(84)
 q  NAND 

Width of depletion region decrease and C T increase.

For Reverse Bias (-V):

Effective barrier potential: VB  V0  V

 2 V0  V   N A  N D
1/ 2

Depletion width: W     ……………(85)
 q  NAND 

 Width of depletion region increase and CT decrease.

Ex 5: Calculate the width of space charge region in a silicon pn junction when a reverse bias
voltage is applied. The doping concentrations of Na and Nd are 1016 cm-3 and 1015 cm-3
respectively. Assume that ni = 1.51010 cm-3 and VR = 5V.
3
Answer: Given; Instrinsic concentration: ni  1.5  10 cm
10

3
N D  110 cm
15
Donor concentration:
3
N A  110 cm
16
Acceptor concentration:

32
Built in potential Barrier:
KT  N A N D  1  1016  1  1015 
V0    0.0259 ln  
 
ln
q  ni 2   10 2

  1.5  10
 10 31 
 0.0259 ln  20 
 2.25  10 


 0.0259 ln 4.4 10
10

 0.635eV

Space charge width:

1/ 2
 2  V  NA  ND 
W  0 r 0  
 q  N AND 
1/ 2
 2  11.  0.635  1016  1015 
  

19  16

15 
 1 .6 10  10 10 
1/ 2
 2  11.  0.635 1.5 
 19
 16 
 1.6  10 10 
4
 0.951  10 cm

 0.951m

33
 Charge Control Description:
Forward bias junction:

Concentrat ion
• In forward bias, the potential barrier at the
junction is lowered and the holes from p-side p n 0 
enter the n-side and the electrons from n-side
enter the p-side. p - type n - type

• The excess hole density in n-side and the electron

pn
density in p-side falls off exponential with n p 0  pn '
distance and is shown in the figure.
np
• The electron and hole concentration are equal to np '
their equilibrium value at far from the distance. p no
n po
• For simplicity, it is assumed that p-side of the x0 x
diode is heavily doped in comparison to n-side so
that the current I carried across the junction is Foward bias junction
entirely by holes moving from p to n-side.
• Thus the excess minority charge Q exist on N-side is given by:


 e  x / Lp 
Q   Aq p 0e
 x / Lp
dx  Aqp 0  
0   1 / L p  0

 Q  AqL p p 0  ……………(86)

Where, A  Cross-sectional Area of the junction

• From equation (32) the hole current at x=0 is given by:

AeD p Pn (0)
I ……………(86)
Lp

Using equation (86) in (87):

QD p Q
I I …………..(88)
Lp
2

2
Lp
Where,    Mean life time of hole
Dp
 The diode current is proportional to the stored charge Q of excess minority carriers.

34
 • Equation (87) is called the charge control description of a diode.
• The charge control characterization of a diode describes the devices in terms of current
and the stored charge Q, where as the equivalent circuit characterization uses the current I
and junction voltage V.

Concentrat ion
Reverse bias junction:

n - type
• When an external voltage reverse biases the p - type
junction, the steady state density of minority
carrier is shown in the figure.
• As the minority carriers approaches the junction
p no
they are rapidly swept across and the density of n po
minority carriers diminishes to zero. pn
x0
np x
Reverse bias junction

 Diffusion Capacitance (CD):

The capacitance that exists in a forward biased junction is called a ‘diffusion capacitance or
storage capacitance (CD)’.
• The diffusion capacitance can also be defined as the rate of change of injected charge
carrier with applied voltage.

dQ …………..(89)
CD 
dV

Where, dQ  Change in the number of minority carriers stored outside the depletion region.

dV  Change in voltage across the diode.

Calculation of CD:
The excess minority charge Q existing on the N side is given by:

 AeP 0e  x / L p 
 

Q   AePn 0e   0  L p AePn 0
 x / Lp
dx   n

0   1/ Lp  0

 dQ  L p AePn 0 ……………(90)

35
Differentiating equation (90) wrt V:

dQ dP 0
CD   L p Ae n ……………(91)
dV dV

We know the diffusion hole current in the N-side is:

AeD p Pn (0)  x / Lp
I pn ( x)  e ………………(92)
Lp
AeD p Pn (0)
At x = 0: I pn (0) 
Lp

L p I pn (0) ……………(93)
 Pn (0) 
AeD p

Differentiating equation (87) wrt V:

dPn (0) L p dI
 …………….(94)
dV AeD p dV

Using equation (88) in (85):

dQ L p dI
CD   L p Ae 
dV AeD p dV
2
L p dI
 CD  ……………..(95)
D p dV
dI
Or, CD  g …………(96) Where, g   Diode conductance
dV
  Mean life time of holes in the N-region
From diode current equation:
I ……………(97)
g
VT

I
Therefore, CD  ……………(98)
VT

36
 • The diffusion capacitance is proportional to the diode forward current (i.e. it increases
exponentially with forward bias voltage).
• The effect of CD is negligible for a reverse bias PN junction.

 Effect of Temperature:
• The rise in temperature increases the generation of electron-hole pairs and increases their
conductivity.
 The current through the PN junction increases with temperature as given by diode
current equation:

  V  
I  I 0 exp    1 ……………(99)
  VT  

The ampere-voltage relationship contains the temperature implicitly in the two symbols
VT and I0.
• The reverse saturation current I0 increases approximately 7 percent/C for both Ge and Si.
Since 1.07 10  2
The reverse saturation current approximately doubles for every 10C rise in temperature.
• If the temperature is increased at fixed voltage, the current ‘I’ increases.
• To bring the current ‘I’ back to the original value, the voltage has to be reduced.
• For maintaining the current ‘I’ to a constant value, the change in voltage for unit change
of temperature for germanium or silicon is:
dV  ……………..(100)
 2.5mV / C
dT
• The barrier voltage is temperature dependent and it decreases by 2 mV/C for both
germanium and silicon.
• The temperature dependent of saturation current can be expressed in mathematical form
as:
T2 T1  / 10
I 02  I 01  2 …………….(101)

Where, I 01  Saturation current at temperature (T 1)

I 02  Saturation current at temperature (T 2)

37
 • The effect of increased temperature on the current-voltage characteristics of PN junction
diode is shown in the Figure.

I F mA
 
75 C 25 C

VR Volts 0 VF Volts

I R A

Ex 6: A silicon diode has a saturation current of 7.5 A at room temperature 300 K. Calculate
the saturation current at 400K.
Answer: Given; Saturation current: I 01  7.5A  7.5  10 6 A

Temperature: T1  300K  27 C

Temperature: T2  400K  127 C

T2 T1  / 10 6 127 27  / 10

Saturation current at 400K: I 02  I 01 2  7.5  10 2
6 100 / 10
 7.5  10 2
6 10
 7.5  10 2
 7.6mA

38
 Junction Diode Switching Times:
• When a diode is driven from the reversed condition to the forward state or in opposite
direction, the diode response reaches a steady state after an interval of time called
recovery time.
• The forward recovery time (t fr) is the time difference between the 10 percent point of the
diode voltage and the time when this voltage reaches and remains within 10 percent of its
final value.
• Fortunately, the forward recovery time possess no serious problem. Therefore, the reverse
recovery time (t rr), has to be considered in practical application.

 v 

 • When the PN junction diode is forward biased,

A K  the minority electron concentration in the P-
D
V1 R L V0
region is approximately linear.
i
• If the junction is suddenly reverse biased at t 1,
 
then because of this stored electronic charge the
vi reverse current (IR) is initially of same
vF
magnitude as the forward current (IF).
0 t • The diode will continue to conduct until the
injected or excess minority carrier density (p-p0)
 vR t1 t2 or (n-n0) has dropped to zero.
p n  p no
at junction • As the stored electrons are removed into the N-
0 t region and contact, the available charges quickly
drops to an equilibrium level and a steady state
vF
IF  current eventually flows corresponding to the
RL
0 reverse the bias voltage (Fig c). Thus,
t
v
 IR   R
RL
For time up to t1:
0 Minority Transient t Applied voltage: Vi  VF
carrier interval, t 1

 vR
Foward Strrage  The current flow through diode:
Bias reverse t3
recovery t ime, t rr
VF
I
RL
 R Lis very large 
At time t = t1:
Applied voltage: Vi  VR
VR
 The current flow through diode: I   I R
RL

And I = -IR until the time t = t2.

39
At time t = t2:
When the excess minority carriers have reached the equilibrium state, the diode current starts to
decrease.
• During the time interval from t 1 to t2, the injected minority carriers have remained stored
and hence this time interval is called the ‘storage time (ts)’.
• After the instant t = t2, the diode gradually recovers and ultimately reaches the steady
state.
• The time interval between t 2 and the instant t3 when the diode has recovered normally, is
called the ‘transition time (t r)’.
• The recovery time is said to have completed (i) when the minority carriers which are at
some distance from the junction have diffused to the junction and crossed it, and (ii)
when the junction transition capacitance across the reversed-bias junction has charged
through RL to the voltage –VR.
• The ‘reverse recovery time (t rr)’ of a diode is the interval from the current reversal at t=t 1
until the diode has recovered to a specified extent in terms of the diode current.

i.e. t rr  t s  t t …………..(102)

• The switching time obviously limits the maximum operating frequency of the device.
• If the time period of the input signal is such that T = 2trr , then the diode conducts as
much in reverse as in the forward direction.
• In order to minimize the effect of reverse current, the time period of the operating
frequency should be minimum of approximately 10 times t rr.
• The trr can be reduced by shortening the length of the P-region.
• The stored charge and hence the switching time can also be reduced by introduction of
gold impurities into the junction diode by diffusion.
• The gold dopant increases the recombination rate and removes the stored minority
carriers.

40
 Breakdown in PN Junction Diode:

I F mA

Foward
Characteri stics

V BD, A V BD, Z
VR VF
Avalanche
0
breakdown
Zener
breakdown

Reverse I R A
Characteri stics

• The current-voltage characteristics of a PN junction diode is shown, including breakdown

region.
• The diode equation predicts, a small constant current I 0 (i.e. saturation current) flows due
to minority carrier under reverse bias.

• However, the prediction is not entirely true in practical diode, and there is a gradual
increase of reverse current with increasing bias due to the ohmic leakage currents around
the surface of the junction.

• When the reverse bias voltage approaches a particular value called breakdown voltage,
there is a sudden increase of reverse current due to breakdown of the junction.

• The sharp increase in current under breakdown condition is due to two mechanisms.
i. Avalanche breakdown

ii. Zener breakdown

41
i. Avalanche breakdown:

P Depletion Region
N
- - - + + + +
-
- - + + + + +
- - -
- + +
- - - + +

Avalanche of
Incident Minority charge carriers
carriers

- E +
• As the applied reverse bias increases, the field across the junction increases
correspondingly.

• Thermally generated carriers while travelling the junction acquire a large amount of
kinetic energy from the field and collide with immobile ions to produce new carriers by
removing valence electrons from their bonds and create new electron-hole pairs.

• The new carriers again acquire sufficient energy from the field and collide with other
immobile ions thereby generating further electron-hole pairs.

• This process is cumulative in nature and results in generation of avalanche of charge

carriers within a short time.
• This mechanism of carrier generation is known as ‘Avalanche multiplication’, and results
in flow of large amount of current at the same value of reverse bias. The Avalanche
breakdown phenomenon is dominated in normal diode.

• The multiplication effect of free carriers may be represented by the equation:

1
M n
………….(103)
 V 
1   
 VBD 
where, M Carrier multiplication factor, which is the ratio of the total number of
electrons leaving the depletion region to the number entering the region.

V  Applied reverse voltage

VBD  Reverse breakdown voltage

42
 n  Empirical constant, which depends on the lattice material and carrier type.
n  4 (for n-Si) and n  2 (for p-Si).

• As V  VBD, the value of multiplication will become infinite and there is a rapid increase
in carrier density and hence increase in current.
• True avalanche diode action exhibits a positive temperature coefficient, i.e. breakdown
voltage increase with increasing temperature.

ii. Zener breakdown

P Depletion Region N
- - - - + + + + +
-
- - + + + + +
- - -
+ +
- - - - + +

- E +
• With heavily doped P and N regions, direct rupture of covalent bonds takes place because
of the strong electric fields at the junction of PN diode.
• The new electron hole pairs so created increase the reverse current in a reverse bias PN
diode.

• The increase in current takes place at a constant value of reverse bias typically below 6V
for heavily doped diode.

• As a result of heavy doping of P and N regions, the depletion region width becomes very
small.
• For an applied voltage of 6V or less, the field across the depletion region becomes very
high, of the order of 107 V/m, making condition suitable for Zener breakdown.
• For lightly doped diodes, Zener breakdown voltages becomes high, and breakdown is
then predominately by Avalanche multiplication.

43
 • Zener breakdown phenomenon is dominated in Zener diode.
• True Zener diode action displays a negative temperature coefficient, i.e. breakdown
voltage decrease with increasing temperature.

 PN Diode Applications:
• An ideal PN junction is a two terminal polarity sensitive device that has zero resistance
(diode conducts) when it is forward biased and infinite resistance (diode does not
conduct) when reverse biased. Due to this diode finds applications in:
1. Rectifiers in d. c. power supplies
2. Switching in digital logic circuits used in computer
3. Clamping network used as d.c. restorer in TV receivers and voltage multipliers.
4. Clipping circuits used as wave shaping circuits used in computers, radars, radio and
TV receivers
5. Demodulation (detector) circuit

• The same PN junction with different doping concentration finds special applications as
follows:
1. Detectors (APD, PIN photo diode) in optical communication circuit
2. Zener diode as voltage regulators
3. Varactor diodes in tuning sections of radio and TV receivers.
4. Light emitting diodes in digital displays
5. Laser diode in optical communication
6. Tunnel diode as a relaxation oscillator at microwave frequency

44
 Metal-Semiconductor Junction:
A metal-semiconductor junction consists of a metal in contact with a piece of semiconductor.
Metal Ohmic contact

Anode Cathode
N - type
Semiconduc tor

• Depending upon the doping concentration, materials and characteristics of the interface,
the metal-semiconductor junctions classified into two types:
1. Schottky contact
2. Ohmic contact
Energy-Band Diagram:

Evaccum Metal Semiconduc tor Evaccum Metal Semiconduc tor

q q
q M EC q M EC
EF
Ei Ei
E FM E FM
EF
EV EV

Evaccum Metal Semiconduc tor Evaccum Metal Semiconduc tor

q q
q M EC q M EC
EF
q BN
Ei Ei
E FM E FM
q BP EF
EV EV

45
Metal/n-semiconductor Metal/p-semiconductor
 M : Work function of metal  M : Work function of metal
 : Electron affinity of the semiconductor  : Electron affinity of the semiconductor
 BN : Barrier height for n-semiconductor.  BP : Barrier height for p-semiconductor.
i.e. Potential difference between the i.e. Potential difference between the
Fermi level of metal and band edge Fermi level of metal and band edge
where majority carrier exist (CB). where majority carrier exist (VB).
Thus,  BN   M   ………..(104) Eg
Thus,  BP      M ………..(105)
q
Where, E g  Bandgap

• A barrier is formed if the Fermi level of the metal is somewhere between the valence
band and the conduction band edges of semiconductor.
• Let us define the built in potential I (i.e. the difference between the Fermi level of the
metal and the Fermi level of the semiconductor.

EC  E F E F  EV
Thus,  IN   BN  ……..(106) Thus,  IP   BP  ……..(107)
q q
For n-type Semiconductor: For p-type Semiconductor:
NC NV
EC  E F  kT ln ……….(108) E F  EV  kT ln …………..(109)
ND NA
Using equ (108) in (106): Using equ (109) in (107):
kT N C kT NV
 IN   BN  ln ………….(110)  IP   BP  ln ………….(111)
q ND q NA

46
At Thermal Equilibrium:

E
• When metal and semiconductor
are brought in contact, electrons
starts to flow from the
q B q i semiconductor to the metal.
EC • As a result a depletion region of
E FM   EF width xd with uncompensated
 donors (positive charge) is

 Ei formed.

• Electrons continue to flow into the
EV metal until the Fermi levels of
metal and semiconductors align
xd with each other.

Metal Semiconduc tor

Elements Work function

 M(V)
Aluminum, Al 4.28
• In metal the electron current forms a negative Silver, Ag 4.26
surface charge layer. Gold, Au 5.1
Chromium, Cr 4.5
• These results in an electric field and the band
Nickel, Ni 5.15
edge are lowered in semiconductor.
Platinum, Pt 5.65
• The work function (M) of metal and electron Titanium, Ti 4.33
affinity () of semiconductors are listed in table. Tungsten, W 4.55
Semiconductor Electron Affinity,
 (V)
Silicon, Si 4.01
Germanium, Ge 4.13
Gallium Arsenide, GaAs 4.07

Ex 7: A metal-semiconductor junction is made of silver and silicon with N D = 41017 cm-3.

Calculate the barrier height and built-in potential. (M = 4.26 V, and  = 4.01V).
Answer: Given; Work function of Silver:  M  4.26V
Electron affinity of Si:   4.01V
3
Donor concentration: N D  4 10 cm
17

47
Barrier height of n-type Si:
 BN   M    4.26  4.01  0.25V
Built-in potential:
23
1.38  10  300 2.8  10
19
kT N C
 IN   BN  ln  0.25  19
ln  0.25  0.026  4.24
1.6  10 4  10
17
q ND

 0.14V

 Forward and reverse bias:

• When an external bias is applied, the metal to semiconductor barrier remains unchanged,
where as the semiconductor to metal barrier is either decreased (forward bias) or
increased (reverse bias).

Forward Bias:
E

q i  Va 
Metal Ohmic contact q B
EC
EF
qVa
Anode Cathode
N - type
Ei
Semiconduc tor

EV

Metal Semiconduc tor

• When the metal is connected to a positive bias with respect to semiconductor, the Fermi
energy level of metal is lowered from equilibrium level.
• The depletion region is narrowed, and the potential barrier in the semiconductor is
reduced.
• The number of electrons that diffuse from semiconductor to metal is more than the
number of electron that drift from metal to semiconductor.
• Thus, there will be a positive current flow through the device.

48
Reverse Bias:
E

q B
Metal Ohmic contact
q i  Va 

Anode Cathode qVa

N - type EC
Semiconduc tor
EF

Ei

EV

Metal Semiconduc tor

• If the metal is connected to the negative bias with respect to the semiconductor, the metal
is charged even more negatively than without any bias.
• The Fermi energy level of the metal is raised.
• The electrons in semiconductor are repelled even more.
• The depletion region becomes wider and the potential barrier on semiconductor side is
increased further.
• However, the barrier on the metal side remains unchanged and limits the flow of
electrons.
• A small current flow as a result of few electrons in the metal acquiring thermal energy to
overcome the barrier.

49
 Schottky Diode:
A Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction having current-voltage characteristics
similar to a pn junction diode.
Construction and working:
• The Schottky diode is formed when a metal such as
A B Aluminum is brought in contact with a moderately
Al doped N-type semiconductor (such as n-Si).
SiO 2 • The contact potential at a metal semiconductor
junction produces a potential barrier called
 Schottky barrier.
n
• The forward current is dominated by the flow of
n - Si electrons from semiconductor to metal, and the
reverse current is mainly due to the flow of
electrons from metal to semiconductor.

• As there is very little minority carrier injected from semiconductor into metal, the
Schottky diodes are also said to be majority carrier devices.
• Since the electrons are majority carriers on both side of the junction, the Schottky diode
is a unipolar device.
• Moreover, the delay due to electron hole recombination is absent and hence the minority
carrier storage does not take place.
• Since the contact area between the metal and semiconductor is large, the forward
resistance is low and so is noise.

V-I characteristics:

I • The current in a PN junction diode is controlled

by diffusion of minority carriers where as the
Schottky PN current in the Schottky diode results from the
barrier flow of majority carriers over the potential
junction
barrier at the metal semiconductor junction.
diode diode
• The reverse saturation current for a Schottky
diode is larger than the PN junction diode.
• The Schottky diode has a smaller turn on voltage
and shorter switching time than PN junction
diode.
0 V SB  V PN  V
50
Applications:
• The reduced storage time of Schottky diodes has advantage for fast switching (~1 nm).
• The low noise figure of Schottky diode finds application in sensitive communication
resisters like radars.
• Most Schottky diodes find applications in clipping and clamping circuits and in computer
grating.
• It can be also used for rectification of signals of frequencies even exceeding 300 MHz.

 Ohmic Contact:
A metal-semiconductor junction in which the voltage drop across the junction is very small and
the current conducted equally in both directions is called Ohmic contact.
• A metal semiconductor junction can act as either a rectifying junction or an Ohmic
contact depending on Fermi levels of the metal and the semiconductor used.
 A proper choice of metal and semiconductor can offer a low resistance Ohmic contact.
• A more practical method of providing contacts in semiconductor device is to create a
junction that consists of a thin barrier. Such contacts are referred as tunnel contacts.

Construction and working:

• A metal-semiconductor junction can be Ohmic if the Schottky barrier height (B) is zero
or negative.
• That means, the metal work function (M) is either close to or smaller than the electron
affinity () for N-type semiconductor.
Or, the metal work function (M) is either close to or greater than the sum of electron
affinity () and bandgap energy of P-type semiconductor.

For N-type: For P-type:

Eg
M   ………..(112) M    …………(115)
q

Where, E g  Bandgap

51
 E
Metal Semiconduc tor q M   
Evaccum
EC
E FM
+- EF
q   M  +-
q M q +-
q BN
EV
E FM
EC
EF
Ei xd
EV Metal Semiconduc tor

• When M is less than the electron affinity () of the N-type semiconductor, the electrons
flow from metal to the semiconductor and formed a positive space charge layer.
• The resultant electric field sets up an electric
potential and the energy bands of the semiconductor I
bend downward.
• There is no barrier for the flow of electrons in both
directions.
• Thus, the current is directly proportional to the
potential across the junction and is symmetric about 0 V
the origin.
• Applications: The Ohmic contact is used to connect
one semiconductor devices to another on an IC or to
connect IC to its external terminals.

52
Tunnel contacts:

A B
Al
SiO 2 EC
EF

n 
N region
n - Si
EV

• The tunnel contacts have a positive barrier at the

junction and a heavy doping in the
semiconductor, which creates a very thin barrier distance
separating the metal from the semiconductor

through which the carriers can easily tunnel. Metal N N - Semiconduc tor

53