Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology

ISSN: 0264-6838 (Print) 1469-672X (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/cjri20

Application of resilience theories in the transition

to parenthood: a scoping review

Cecily Young, Rachel Roberts & Lynn Ward

To cite this article: Cecily Young, Rachel Roberts & Lynn Ward (2019) Application of resilience
theories in the transition to parenthood: a scoping review, Journal of Reproductive and Infant
Psychology, 37:2, 139-160, DOI: 10.1080/02646838.2018.1540860

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2018.1540860

Published online: 06 Dec 2018.

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JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY
2019, VOL. 37, NO. 2, 139–160
https://doi.org/10.1080/02646838.2018.1540860

Application of resilience theories in the transition to

parenthood: a scoping review
Cecily Young, Rachel Roberts and Lynn Ward
School of Psychology, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Objective: Investigate the use of resilience theories in the transi- Received 27 May 2016
tion to parenthood literature. Accepted 4 July 2018
Background: The transition to parenthood is a key developmental KEYWORDS
experience for many adults. Resilience is a unifying theoretical Resilience; adjustment;
concept which incorporates many of the skills and resources linked coping; parent; social
with the transition to parenthood, but the uptake of resilience support; theory; scoping
theory in this literature is unknown. review
Methods: We used a scoping review to examine the use of resilience
theory in published transition to parenthood research. This included
a systematic search of the literature, descriptive analysis of theories
and methods used and an assessment of theoretical integration.
Results: We identified 17 studies which met inclusion criteria.
Explicit use of theory occurred in six studies and quality of theore-
tical integration was high for all of these. Resilience was seen as a
desirable concept for mapping complex data, taking a holistic
approach to psychological health and acknowledging environmen-
tal and systemic influences. We also identified 29 resilience support-
ing factors including positive self-concept, optimism, social support,
family relationships, community services and social connectedness.
Conclusion: Resilience is a useful concept for synthesising infor-
mation about the transition to parenthood.

The transition to parenthood, defined here as beginning at conception and continuing

until the infant is one year of age, is a period of acute change in the lifespan of most
adults (McKellar, Pincombe, & Henderson, 2009; Nelson, Kushlev, & Lyubomirsky, 2014). It
is a process of adaptation which unfolds as the parents traverse a steep learning curve of
demands and build new skills, resources, relationships, and behaviours to meet these
(Deave, Johnson, & Ingram, 2008; Rowe, Holton, & Fisher, 2013). New parents experience
many changes including alterations to neurobiology, physical health, self-concept, per-
ceived efficacy, emotional health, relationships and social networks (Antonucci & Mikus,
1988; Osofsky & Culp, 1989; Wisner, Chambers, & Sit, 2006). Parental psychological health
and co-parent relationships can be fragile during this time (Glade, Bean, & Vira, 2006;
Pilkington, Milne, Cairns, Lewis, & Whelan, 2015). New parents often report varying
degrees of exhaustion, depression, anxiety, marital conflict, emotional lability, social
isolation and feelings of guilt (Parfitt & Ayers, 2014; Vismara et al., 2016). A proportion
of new parents will develop diagnosable postnatal depression or anxiety and, where

CONTACT Cecily Young Cecily.Young@adelaide.edu.au

© 2018 Society for Reproductive and Infant Psychology
140 C. YOUNG ET AL.

childbirth has been traumatic, there is also a risk of post-traumatic stress disorder
(Czarnocka & Slade, 2000; Matthey, Barnett, Ungerer, & Waters, 2000). Parents’ experi-
ences during the transition to parenthood impact on individual well-being, spousal
relationship, and the capacity to support their child during those crucial early years of
development (Antonucci & Mikus, 1988; Cowan & Cowan, 1988; Guedeney & Tereno,
2010). Unsurprisingly, facilitating a positive transition to parenthood has been a long-
standing topic of interest for researchers.
The transition to parenthood literature draws on research from a number of different
disciplines including nursing, social work, psychology and sociology. A number of meta-
analyses and literature reviews (e.g. Nelson et al., 2014; Nystrom & Ohrling, 2004;
Pinquart & Teubert, 2010) show that the transition is a complex interplay of stressors
and resources (both pre-existing and new) occurring across the personal, relational and
contextual domains. These include: personal resources such as self-efficacy (Hudson,
Elek, & Fleck, 2001), hope and optimism (Baldwin, Kennedy, & Armata, 2008; Robakis
et al., 2015), cognitive flexibility (Skowron, Fingerhut, & Hess, 2014) and realistic expec-
tations about the experience of parenting (Coo, Milgrom, Kuppens, & Trinder, 2015);
relational resources such as a supportive partner relationship (Cowan & Cowan, 1988;
Redshaw & Martin, 2014), access to social support (Ettrich & Ettrich, 1995; Razurel &
Kaiser, 2015) and social connectivity (Bennett et al., 2016); and contextual factors such as
childbirth experiences (Dorsch & Rohde, 2013; Michels, Kruske, & Thompson, 2013), sleep
deprivation (Fisher, 2015), breastfeeding (Gregory, Butz, Ghazarian, Gross, & Johnson,
2015), child temperament (Dave, Nazareth, Sherr, & Senior, 2005; Della Vedova, 2014),
financial strain and access to community services (Barton, 2003; Pistella & Synkewecz,
1999). Of these, social support and a supportive partner relationship have been the most
widely researched (Pinquart & Teubert, 2010; Roy, Schumm, & Britt, 2014). Although
comprehensive, the literature lacks cohesion, is difficult to integrate, and the efficacy
and acceptability of programmes to support parents is variable (Ahlden, Ahlehagen,
Dahlgren & Josefsson, 2012; Eisner, Nagin, Ribeaud, & Malti, 2012; Gilmer et al., 2016). A
unifying theory which can help synthesise different research contributions would
advance knowledge and inform more effective interventions (Davidoff, Dixon-Woods,
Leviton, & Michie, 2015). We decided to explore resilience theory as a possible fit.
Presenting a thorough review of the resilience literature is beyond the scope of this
article, but several excellent conceptual summaries are available (see for example
Fletcher & Sarkar, 2013; Luthar, Cichetti & Becker, 2000; Rutten et al., 2013; Windle,
2011). Although resilience is often a poorly defined concept, most resilience theories
gather around two critical components: (1) the presence of a significant threat or
challenge and (2) positive adaptation despite the stressor. There have been very few
explorations of parental resilience as a unique and individual construct. Instead, it has
generally been subsumed under family resilience and examined in the context of
unusual parenting trajectories such as illness, disability, abuse, domestic violence, pov-
erty, separation and divorce (Bekhet, Johnson & Zauszniewski, 2012; McConnell &
Savage, 2015; Van Schoors, Caes, Verhoftstadt, Goubert & Alderfer, 2015). In particular,
Walsh’s (2003) model of family resilience and the Resilience Model of Family Stress,
Adjustment and Adaptation (known as the double ABCX model) developed by
McCubbin, Cauble, & Patterson (1983) appear frequently in this literature. These models
describe interactions between family stressors (such as change to roles, physical strain,
 JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY 141

uncertainty) and resources (like relationships, coping skills, knowledge) culminating in

an adaptation and (sometimes) post-traumatic growth (e.g. Bekhet, Johnson &
Zauszniewski, 2012; Long & Marsland, 2011; Van Schoors et al., 2015).
More recently, some researchers have explicitly positioned parenthood itself as dis-
ruptive enough to justify the application of resilience theory to the area (Gavidia-Payne,
Denny, Davis, Francis, & Jackson, 2015; Hill, Stafford, Seaman, Ross, & Daniel, 2007). In
particular, Gavidia-Payne et al. defined parental resilience as ‘the capacity of the parents
to deliver competent, quality parenting to children despite adverse circumstances’ (p.
111) and presented a conceptual model composed of five factors: child and family
characteristics, social connectedness, family functioning, parental well-being and paren-
tal self-efficacy. Other investigations of parental resilience, while not informing an
explicit model, have highlighted several factors supportive of parent well-being includ-
ing problem-focused coping strategies (Gardner & Harmon, 2002; Himelein & McElrath,
1996), positive parent–child relationships (Teti & Cole, 2011), active coping (Brodsky &
Vet, 2000), sense of coherence, family adaptability (Margalit & Kleitman, 2006), emotional
regulation and appraisal of stressors (Teti & Cole, 2011). These findings provide a
valuable insight into parental resilience as a whole, but resilience research typically
seeks to identify specific periods of acute developmental change to maximise the efficacy
of intervention (Luthar et al., 2000). In parenting research, the transition to parenthood is
this key developmental period. The main aim of our research was to gather and map
data about the use of resilience theories in transition to parenthood literature.

Methods
In a preliminary search we were unable to identify any reviews or meta-analyses
examining resilience in the transition to parenthood, suggesting that this literature is
new and emergent. As such, a full systematic review is not yet possible and a scoping
review is a more appropriate research design. A scoping review is a systematic approach
used to rapidly map the research in a new or emergent area of the literature. Its main
purpose is to summarise and disseminate research findings, identify research gaps and
make recommendations for future research. Scoping reviews consist of a broad, iterative
search process which is altered and adapted depending on what is found, followed by a
mapping of the available data, and usually a mixture of qualitative and quantitative
analysis. In order to maximise rigour, we integrated the recommendations of several key
articles on the process of scoping (Daudt, van Mossel, & Scott, 2013; Levac, Colquhoun, &
O’Brien, 2010; Pham et al., 2014). We formulated three specific research questions.

(1) Why are researchers interested in resilience?

(2) In what ways has the concept of resilience been used in this literature?
(3) To what extent are researchers using theory to underpin their work?

Step 1: study selection

The team consulted with a research librarian, who suggested that given the exploratory
and theoretical nature of the research question, a broad approach should be applied
142 C. YOUNG ET AL.

when designing the search. Accordingly, we formulated an inclusive research algorithm

which included database-derived synonyms as well as the selected keywords in order to
capture the highest possible proportion of relevant studies. Additional terms were
tested by title search to check whether their inclusion identified any further studies.
MESH terms were applied where relevant with title and abstract searches concurrently
used to ensure new articles which had not yet been indexed were not overlooked. The
key search terms were ‘resilience’, ‘parents’, and ‘perinatal’ (the index term closest to
‘transition to parenthood’). Six electronic databases (CINAHL, Embase, PubMED, Scopus,
PsycINFO and Informit) were searched to enhance the comprehensiveness and scope of
the review. The websites of the Australian Institute of Family Studies, the Australian
Department of Health and Perinatal Anxiety and Depression Australia were also hand-
searched to capture any additional studies (n = 3). We included some grey literature
(specifically conference papers, unpublished theses and government reports), but
excluded magazines, newspapers and commercial websites due to the theoretical nature
of the research questions. The original search was conducted on 3 July 2015, but a
rolling alert was continued across all databases and potentially relevant citations were
updated on a weekly basis until data analysis was completed on 7 March 2016 (n = 35).
A PRISMA flowchart summarising the selection process is shown in Figure 1 (Moher,
Liberati, Tetzlaff, & Altman, 2009).
The initial search strategy yielded a total of 44,222 citations. After removing dupli-
cates, we excluded studies published before 1980 (to select for reasonably contempor-
ary sample), animal studies, studies focusing on resilience in children, physical outcomes
(e.g. examining the effect of maternal psychological symptoms on the birthweight of
babies), unrelated mental health concerns (e.g. postnatal psychosis) and where the
sample was outside the transition period (e.g. looking at parents of toddlers). We
excluded 33,859 studies using these criteria.
At this stage we had retained those studies which examined resilience implicitly (e.g.
by looking at ‘hardiness’, etc.) but in order to further refine the sample of 6535 studies
remaining, now decided to exclude studies which did not explicitly name resilience as a
construct of interest. We also excluded adolescent parents because previous research
shows that adolescents are managing additional developmental changes (e.g. family-of-
origin relationships, physical and cognitive abilities, etc.) and thus we could not assume
that information obtained from adolescent populations would relate to the transition as
a developmental period in adult life (Ketterlinus, Lamb, & Nitz, 1991; Osofsky, Osofsky, &
Diamond, 1988). We then screened the full text of the remaining 60 studies and found a
further 43 which met exclusion criteria on closer examination. Relevance screening was
pretested on 30% of the data set (18 articles) by two independent experts in the field of
perinatal mental health, indicating that the selection process was adequately transpar-
ent and replicable with a high level of inter-rater agreement (95%). Ultimately, 17 studies
were included in the analysis.

Step 2: data mapping

Our analytic method was the scoping review. This included a systematic search of the
literature, descriptive analysis of theories and methods used, and a quality assessment of
theoretical integration. In line with recommended methods (Daudt et al., 2013; Levac
 JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY 143

Figure 1. PRISMA (Moher et al., 2009) flowchart of study selection.

et al., 2010; Pham et al., 2014), a data charting table (a truncated version of which may
be seen in Table 1) was developed to chart the basic information about each study
included in the review. The table was reviewed periodically by the authors and itera-
tively adapted to ensure a comprehensive representation of the data (e.g. columns were
added, deleted, collapsed or altered as the charting went on in an effort to accurately
summarise key features of the data as a whole). The chart included a list of specific
resilience supporting factors mentioned by name in each article. For example, if a study
noted a relationship between ‘social support’ and improved resilience the phrase ‘social
support’ was entered in the data table as a resilience supporting factor. This flexible
movement between data collection and analysis is a feature of scoping because the kind
of data which will be found is not known until the process is already under way.
We used simple descriptive analysis to map the data including frequencies and tables.
In order to map the extent to which researchers integrated theory into their work, we
created an ordinal scale. Six distinct categories were identified with an associated
Table 1. Data collection table (descriptive information).
144

1st author
(year) Location
Type Design Main aims Population Method and analysis Findings related to resilience theory
● De Haan ● Quantitative (1) Develop a method of examining Family Couples w 1st Questionnaire with ● Three types of resilience trajectories: stable,
(2002) ● Descriptive different trajectories of family resi- child N = 46 validated measures growth, and recovery
● USA ● Longitudinal lience within the context of the Growth curve models ● Resilient and non-resilient profiles identified
● Journal ● Prospective transition to parenthood with configural ● Recommend quantitative, longitudinal research
article (2) To test a new approach to resili- frequency analysis strategies, measure pre- and post- stressor
ence measurement; growth curve Logistic regression ● Growth curve models and configural frequency
C. YOUNG ET AL.

models with configural frequency analysis considered useful analytical techniques

analysis for resilience research
● Need for large data sets
● Lennon and ● Quantitative Determine the factors associated with Family Structured interview ● Low family resilience related to low interperso-
Heaman ● Descriptive low family resilience during Pregnant women who with validated nal support, alcohol use during pregnancy, high
(2015) ● Cross-sectional pregnancy among women living in live in the inner city measures perceived stress, low self-esteem, and age less
● Canada ● Retrospective the inner city n = 603 Retrospective analysis than 25 years
● Journal of existing data set ● Income, marital status and education did not
article Logistic regression contribute to the regression model
● Gagnon and ● Grounded theory (1) To identify strategies upon which Individual (mother) Semi-structured ● Resilience promoting factors
Stewart ● Qualitative to build sound policies and pro- Migrant women interview ● internal psychological and coping resources
(2014) ● Descriptive grammes for migrant women who exposed to violence Not explicitly ● external social supports
● Canada ● Crossectional have experienced violence asso- in pregnancy identified. Appears ● systemic factors
● Journal ● Retrospective ciated with pregnancy. n = 10 to be thematic ● Resilience inhibiting factors:
article (2) Identify the factors that maintain analysis ● pretending to be strong
or enhance resilience in interna- ● thinking too much about the children
tional migrant women who have ● ongoing health problems
recently given birth following ● not having time for self
exposure to violence associated ● being in love
with pregnancy ● unhelpful partner
● further violence
● telling the story many times to service agencies
● ongoing negative experiences
● service issues
● friends’ negative perceptions
● parental criticism
● Mautner ● Quantitative To examine differences in resilience in Individual (mother) Questionnaire with ● Higher resilience related to quality of life and
et al. (2013) ● Descriptive terms of post-traumatic stress Women with pre- validated measures depression
● Austria ● Cross-sectional symptoms, depression and health- eclampsia delivering t-test between high ● No significant differences for post-traumatic
● Journal ● Retrospective related quality of life after pre- a child within the and low resilience stress disorder or physical health. Conclude
article eclampsia last 4 years groups that resilience may protect against emotional
N = 77, 67 analysed distress (e.g. depression) after pre-eclampsia
(Continued)
Table 1. (Continued).
1st author
(year) Location
Type Design Main aims Population Method and analysis Findings related to resilience theory
● Kaye et al. ● Qualitative To gain an understanding of how Individual (mother) Structured interview Explored appraisal and accommodation of traumatic
(2014) ● Phenomenological obstetric complications affect the Women admitted to In hospital and obstetric events. Resilience used as a word to
● Uganda ● Descriptive lives and livelihoods of survivors high-dependency 3–6 months after describe moving on from the experience and
● Journal ● Longitudinal unit with obstetric discharge being able to participate in community life
article ● Restrospective near miss Thematic analysis
N = 36
● Verhage ● Quantitative Investigated the linkage between Individual (mother) Experiment; Cry Discussed parental self-efficacy exclusively;
et al. (2015) ● Descriptive parenting self-efficacy and First-time pregnant response task resilience used here to describe high self-efficacy
● Netherlands ● Longitudinal perceived temperament may women Questionnaire with
● Journal ● Prospective depend on the extent to which N = 179 validated measures
article mothers showed resilience in Gathered info pre-
parenting self-efficacy against delivery and at 3
negative feedback in a parenting- and 12 months
related task t-tests
Structured equation
models
● Baraitser ● Qualitative Come to a better understanding of Individual (mother) Observed mothers in ● Mothers are usually seen as the conduits of their
and Noack ● Descriptive resilience as well as a richer Mothers in group the group over a children’s resilience rather than as participants in
(2007) ● Longitudinal appreciation of maternal subjectivity therapy for parenting period of 2 years whom resilience should be explored
● USA ● Observational through an exploration of maternal after childhood Clinical impressions ● Reflective self-function is an important aspect of
● Journal ● Case study resilience maltreatment and reflections by resilience
article the authors ● Should now be looking at ways to help mothers
No formal structure perform this role
identified
● Harville, ● Mixed-methods Examine demographic and hurricane- Individual (mother) Questionnaire with ● Social support, age, race, may influence
Xiong, ● Descriptive elated predictors of resilience and Pregnant and validated measures resilience
Buekens, ● Cross-sectional post-traumatic growth postpartum women and telephone ● White, older women with social support and less
Pridjian, ● Retrospective in Louisiana exposed interview experience of hurricane were more resilient
and Elkind- to Hurricane Katrina Both groups completed against depression
Hirsch measures at one ● White, partnered women with social support and
(2010) point in time approx. less experience of hurricane were more resilient
● USA 6-12 months after against PTSD
● Journal the hurricane ● No differences for age or marital status
JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY

article Chi-square and log- ● Overall > 70% of participants reported some
Poisson analysis post-traumatic growth
● Miranda ● Quantitative Examine the correlations between Individual (mother) Questionnaire with ● Women with more sensitive and responsive
et al. (2012) ● Descriptive depressive disorders and the Lower socioeconomic validated measures mothers were less likely to have postpartum
Cross-sectional different types of maternal bonding women who Logistic regression depression
145

● Brazil ●
● Journal ● Retrospective that women had with their mothers experienced ● Conclude that a positive relationship with own
article during childhood and adolescence premature birth mother may be a resilience factor against post-
n = 52 partum depression
(Continued)
Table 1. (Continued).
1st author
146

(year) Location
Type Design Main aims Population Method and analysis Findings related to resilience theory
● Sexton, ● Quantitative Examine the associations between Individual (mother) Structured interview ● Resilience may moderate the relationship
Hamilton, ● Descriptive resilience, childhood maltreatment English-speaking and questionnaire between childhood maltreatment and post-
McGinnis, ● Cross-sectional severity, mental health symptoms, women 18 years and with validated traumatic stress disorder and depression
Rosenblum, ● Retrospective and positive functioning older with singleton measures ● Resilience may be protective against postpartum
and Muzik births with no Linear regression depression for women who were abused as
(2015) psychiatric diagnosis Multiple moderated children
● USA N = 214 linear regression for Resilience may be affected by parental self-efficacy
C. YOUNG ET AL.

● Journal interaction effects and family functioning.

article
● Hynie et al. ● Theoretical Outline protocol and aims of a future Community Train one Explored resilience as a word to describe finding
(2015) ● Commentary intervention to ‘try to rebuild a representative from ways to rebuild/reconnect as a community after a
● Canada sense of community and a web of each community in traumatic event, promote positive parenting
● Book relationships to provide support to active listening, practices, and protect mothers and children from
chapter all new mothers in rural parenting and basic risk. Explored mothers as gatekeepers of
communities in Rwanda’ (p. 22) mental health community; supporting them should have a
awareness knock-on effect on the wider community
Schachman and ● Quantitative Estimate the prevalence of postpartum Individual (mother) Questionnaire with Resilience may be related to social support,
Lindsey ● Descriptive depressive symptoms in a sample of Military wives who had validated measures community resources, family strain, change, self-
(2013) ● Cross-sectional military wives, and to provide a given birth within Chi-square and t-tests reliance and long-term relationships
USA ● Retrospective comparative descriptive analysis of the preceding
Journal article demographic, risk and protective 3 months
factors
Shaikh (2010) ● Qualitative Explore coping strategies among Individual (mother) Semi-structured Major themes identified included:
Canada ● Descriptive women who had experienced Women formally interview ● meaning-making
Journal article ● Cross-sectional postpartum depression while diagnosed or self- Thematic analysis ● seeking support
● Retrospective residing in underserviced and rural diagnosed with ● nurturing oneself
communities in Northern Ontario, depression within ● advocacy work
Canada one year after the ● connecting with nature
birth of a live infant ● social gender norms and expectations may
n = 12 impact on resilience
● access to social services is also important
Schlager (2013) ● Mixed-methods Explore how an acculturating new Individual (mother) Narrative interview ● Relationship with own mother may impact on
USA ● Narrative research mother’s relationship with her Hispanic first-time One pilot interview to resilience
Thesis ● Descriptive mother and other early caregivers mothers, migrated to test questions and ● Compensatory relationships can be made with
● Cross-sectional affects her adjustment to the USA < 5 years ago, protocol other older role models where mothers are
● Retrospective motherhood role N=9 Thematic analysis unavailable or unable to provide effective
support
● Resilience associated with:
● meaning-making
● able to seek support from valued others
● participation in paid work when this is a key
aspect of identity
(Continued)
Table 1. (Continued).
1st author
(year) Location
Type Design Main aims Population Method and analysis Findings related to resilience theory
Gress-Smith ● Quantitative (1) Investigate resilience profiles in Individual (mother) Structured interview Three separate resilience profiles all showing good
(2014) ● Quasi- low-income Mexican American Pregnant, low-income with validated coping outcomes but through different
USA experimental mothers Mexican American measures trajectories highlighting the need for specific
Thesis ● Longitudinal (2) Propose a model of prenatal resili- women Latent profile analysis mapping
● Prospective ent profiles utilising three separate N = 324 Multiple regression Resilience may be related to:
facets of resilience: social, psycho- Measured depression ● personal mastery
logical, and cultural adherence pre- and postnatally ● coping
to identify people ● paternal support
who remained ● family support
depressed rather ● social support
than becoming so ● acculturation
● familism
● postpartum practices.
Latent profile analysis found to be a useful tool in
mapping complex pathways over time
Sturgis (2014) ● Qualitative Explore how social support functions Individual (mother) Semi-structured Resilience promoting factors:
USA ● Phenomenological as a resilience resource for Self-identified as interview ● social connections
Thesis ● Descriptive mitigating stress during pregnancy experiencing ‘some phenomenological ● social support
● Cross-sectional sort of social support analysis ● exercise
● Retrospective for at least one Identifies a ● spiritual practices
month during the postmodern ● self-care
time of their constructionist ● ego strength
pregnancy’ epistemological ● dispositional optimism
n=8 position Resilience inhibiting factors:
● physical discomfort
● emotional lability
● lack of control
● worry about the baby
● fear of miscarriage/birth defects
● low parenting efficacy
● guilt
Wakeel (2010) ● Quantitative Explore the role of maternal resilience Individual (mother) Questionnaire with Maternal resilience may be enhanced by:
USA in the ecological pathways that lead Los Angeles mothers validated measures
JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY

● Descriptive ● self-esteem
Thesis ● Cross-sectional to racial/ethnic differences in who have borne a Telephone interview if ● master
● Retrospective negative birth outcomes live infant requested by ● partner relational support
< 121 days ago respondent (where ● social network
N = 948 the survey was ● neighbourhood cohesion and trust
147

completed verbally)
148 C. YOUNG ET AL.

numerical score where 1 indicated the strongest strength of theoretical integration

(applied theory specific to resilience) and 6 indicated no identifiable theoretical compo-
nent (see Table 2). Because we were interested in the use of theory rather than the
specific findings themselves, we also created a set of criteria to assess the quality of
theoretical integration. We based our assessment tool on a review of scoping and
systematic reviews considering similar questions of theory application (Alley, Putney,
Rice, & Bengston, 2010; Davis, Campbell, Hildon, Hobbs, & Michie, 2015; Thomas, Menon,
Boruff, Rodriquez & Ahmed, 2014), refining down common points of inquiry among
those authors until we had a parsimonious but comprehensive set of criteria (Table 3).
The assessments were carried out by the lead researcher and checked by the other
contributors. The coding criteria were applied flexibly and with consideration of the
intention of the reference (e.g. there was no expectation that commentary articles
should present hypotheses or discuss a research design, rather there was an expectation
here that a clear theoretical position underpinning commentary should be articulated
and explained). Explicit articulation of the criteria were preferred but implied theory
content (particularly with regard to the research design) was also considered where this
was observable.

Table 2. Categories and criteria for theoretical integration score.

Score Category Criteria N
1 Applied Explicitly stated a theory specifically related to resilience and applied this to 52,8,14,4,15
resilience the formulation of a hypothesis or interpretation of the results
theory
2 Applied general Explicitly drew on a general theoretical model and applied this to the 21,2
theory formulation of a hypothesis or interpretation of results relating to
resilience
3 Informed Used a resilience theory in some way in the study but it was not directly 13
tested in the hypotheses
4 Research Used resilience as a construct but did not embed this within a theoretical 69,5,10,13,11,12
construct context
5 Post hoc Used resilience to explain or interpret study findings but was not part of the 23,7
explanation original design
6 No theoretical None of the above 116
basis
Superscript numbers show which studies allocated to each category.

Table 3. Examination of the quality of theoretical integration across empirical studies within the
review.
Baraitser De Lennon and Shaikh &
and Noack Haan Heaman Kauppi, Sturgis Wakeel
Criteria (2007) (2002) (2015) 2014) (2014) (2010)
Was the theory adequately defined (e.g. Y* Y Y Y Y Y
coherent, organised and comprehensive
presentation of major features)?
Was it used in the formulation of hypotheses? **n/a Y Y Y Y Y
Was it applied to the study design (e.g. informed n/a
the choice of methodology)?
Was it used to interpret results? Y Y Y Y Y Y
Did the authors make a statement about the way Y (in part) Y Y (in part) Y Y Y
their findings contribute to knowledge about
the theory?
*Y = Yes; **n/a = not applicable.
 JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY 149

Qualitative data were examined using thematic analysis as described by Braun and Clarke
(2013). Analysis was applied only to data considered pertinent to the research question, we
did not attempt to exhaustively synthesise each study as a whole. We paid particular
attention to text in which authors discussed why they were using the concept of resilience
in their work. The lead author examined each paper for any text which was related to
resilience (e.g. ‘Might we then say that a mother who is aware of her ambivalence is a
resilient mother, and on what grounds might we make such a claim?’ Baraitser & Noack,
2007, p. 5); this became our data. The analysis was theoretically driven, applied a realist/
essentialist epistemological position (that is, examined motivation, experience, and meaning
within the text) and focused on the semantic level of data. We proceeded through six main
phases of data analysis: familiarisation with the data (reading and re-reading the data),
coding (generating labels for data features deemed related to resilience theory), searching
for themes (linking codes into broader patterns of meaning), reviewing themes (checking
identified themes against the data set for coherence and accuracy), defining themes (apply-
ing a conceptual ‘story’ onto the theme and articulating a name which summarises the data)
and writing up. Discrete themes were considered identifiable when they (i) addressed the
research question, (ii) added new or contrasting information to that already identified and
(iii) did not fit easily as a subtheme beneath an already identified theme. We used strategies
to mitigate the impact of researcher bias in data interpretation including: multiple people
checked data coding (this was carried out by the lead researcher and checked by the other
contributors at fortnightly intervals) and findings were reviewed with peers.

Results
Nature and distribution of the studies
Our truncated data collection table (Table 1) shows a summary of each study in the
review. The sample had a strong North American bias with nine studies (53%) published
in the USA, four (24%) in Canada, and one in Austria, the Netherlands, Uganda and Brazil.
Twelve (71%) had been published within the last five years with the oldest dating back
to 2007. Sixteen studies (94%) were empirical, with nine (53%) quantitative, five (30%)
qualitative and two (12%) mixed-methods designs. Thirteen (76%) employed a cross-
sectional approach, three (18%) a longitudinal design and one (6%) study was a
theoretical overview. Fourteen (82%) studies looked at individuals rather than families
and in all cases these participants were mothers. Two (12%) studies looked at family
groups and one (6%) examined resilience at the community level.

Thematic analysis
To examine the way in which authors spoke about resilience as a concept and, in
particular, why the authors chose to use resilience in their work, we conducted a
thematic analysis. We generated four themes, as follows

Vulnerability in parenthood (n = 16)

While having children is often understood as a ‘normal’ experience in the lifespan, the
majority of studies positioned the transition to parenthood as a time of particular
150 C. YOUNG ET AL.

vulnerability and therefore a fertile ground for a resilient response. Only two studies
overtly used the word ‘crisis’ to describe this change, but the rest discussed specific
components of the transition which researchers named as challenging for new parents
such as loss of identity (n = 12), relationship difficulties (n = 10) and the disconnect
between media representation of parenthood and the reality (n = 3), as well as citing
existing data on the rates of postnatal depression and anxiety as a signal that the
transition to parenthood might be a particular time of need (n = 10). Two studies also
positioned parents as neurologically primed to be more open to utilising resources and
activating coping systems due to the biology of pregnancy and birth.

Holistic approach to psychological health (n = 14)

The majority of papers highlighted the need for measuring both positive and negative
aspects of health, rejecting the idea that mental health research should be concerned
primarily with ill health. Researchers valued that resilience theory facilitates the simulta-
neous discussion of skills and resources that support psychological health as well as
stressors/threats to well-being.

Mapping complex data (n = 16)

Researchers noted that resilience theories allowed for the mapping of many skills and
abilities across a number of different ecological levels. Researchers also made particular
mention of the fact that pathways to resilience will appear quite different from person to
person and that different stressors may precipitate a different resilience response high-
lighting the need for a unifying model which is robust against these variations. These
authors noted difficulties related to capturing resilience as a concept given its hetero-
geneous nature but proposed research designs which can trace patterns in individual
points of data over time (such as configural frequency analysis) as generative to future
research.

Looking beyond the individual for change (n = 5)

Researchers discussed the importance of contextual factors to the process of resilience
including systems issues, economic stress and culture. They discussed the impossibility
of promoting resilience solely through personal resources without taking into considera-
tion the broader factors affecting parents’ choices, behaviour and physiological profiles.
Two studies also discussed the importance of groups and communities positing that
intervention and education must occur at these levels in order to yield benefits.

Theoretical integration
We started by mapping the specific theories authors cited in their work (Table 4). Six
papers (35%) overtly articulated a theory which was directly related to resilience, seven
(41%) used a review of the literature (rather than a theoretical model) and four (24%)
just provided a definition of resilience without including theoretical considerations.
There was no cross-over in theories used.
A number of different measures were used to capture resilience. Table 5 shows that
four studies used measures specifically designed to capture resilience as a global
construct (such as a resilience scale), three others measured individual resources within
 JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY 151

Table 4. Theories used within the reviewed articles (N = 17).

Theory First author* (date) N
Resilience theory 7
Family resilience Hawley (1996)2 1
Double ABCX model McCubbin et al., 1983)8 1
Existential psychology Frankl (1968)14 1
Relational-cultural theory Jordan (2002)14 1
Feminist standpoint theory Hallstein (1999)14 1
Biopsychosocial model of pregnancy anxiety Schetter (2011)15 1
Formulated own theory Wakeel (2010)17 1
Other theory 3
Psychoanalysis + literature review Fonagy (1994)1 1
Social ecological model + literature review Bronfenbrenner (1977)17 1
Literature review (only) Herrman (2011)3 4
Rutter (2012)11
Hernandez (2002)6
Castro (2015)4
Definition (only) Agaibi (2005)9 4
Feder (2009)13
Bonnano (2005)12
Islam (2006)7
None 25,16
*The first author and date of the primary reference cited for the theory, literature review, or definition.
Superscript numbers show which studies endorsed each theory, literature review or definition.

Table 5. Measures used to capture resilience amongst quantitative empirical studies (N = 12).
Measure First author (date)* N
Family Hardiness Index McCubbin et al. (1983)8 1
Resilience Scale (German version) Wagnild (1993)9 1
Resilience Scale Connor (2003)13 1
Family Index of Regenerativity and Adaptation – Military McCubbin (1996)11 1
Individual resources in a model (e.g. social support) n/a4,10,17 3
Inferred from other measures (e.g. distress) n/a2,3,16,5 4
Not stated n/a5 1
*The first author and date of the primary reference cited for the measure.
Superscript numbers show which studies endorsed each measure.

a resilience model (such as social support, personal competence, etc.) and four inferred a
resilient response from scores on one general well-being measure (such as psychological
distress).
We then examined how successfully authors integrated theory into their studies by
mapping them onto a continuum using the criteria outlined in Methods (Table 2). Six
studies (35%) used resilience as a research construct employing some definition of the term
from the literature, but without the application of an explicit theoretical framework. Five
(29%) articulated a clear resilience theory which was applied to research design and one
identified a clear resilience theory but did not directly measure it in their study design. Two
(12%) studies articulated a broader theoretical grounding for their work (psychoanalytic
theory and phenomenological analysis) and two studies used the word resilience to
interpret their findings but did not define or further explore it as a concept. One study
(Verhage, Oosterman, & Schuengel, 2015) did not violate the inclusion or exclusion rules
but, despite using the word ‘resilience’ in title, abstract and throughout the text, did not
measure this construct or provide any theoretical analysis about it. These researchers
examined perceived parenting self-efficacy rather than resilience and used ‘high resilience’
152 C. YOUNG ET AL.

and ‘low resilience’ to describe changes in self-efficacy after a stress task rather than
comment on resilience itself as a separate construct. Such confusions do occur sometimes
with psychological constructs which also have relatable meanings in general language
(such as resilience, well-being, happiness, etc.).
Next we looked at the methodological quality with which theory was used to inform
research designs in the quantitative studies reviewed using the assessment tool
described in Methods (Table 3). As noted previously, the majority of studies reviewed
did not identify a specific theoretical basis to their work; however, the six studies which
did applied theory to their research design and interpretation of findings with a high
level of quality. There was greater strength in the application of resilience theory to the
interpretation of results than to the formulation and design of studies. Some studies (e.g.
Baraitser & Noack, 2007) were less clear than others in making a statement about the
contribution of their work to the overall body of knowledge regarding resilience theory.
Finally, we collated specific resilience supporting factors suggested in each study into a
single list. We refined these down, removing repetition and joining factors which appeared
to refer to the same thing. For example, Mautner et al.’s (2013) ‘personal competence’ and
Gagnon and Stewart’s (2014) ‘mastery’ were considered to reflect the same construct and
were combined into one factor called ‘mastery’. This left us with 29 factors which can be
seen in Table 6.

Discussion
The objective of this scoping review was to map available data about the use of
resilience theories in the transition to parenthood literature. In our thematic analysis,
we generated several themes about why researchers chose to use resilience in their
work. First, they positioned the transition to parenthood as a vulnerable time of
disequilibrium which is in keeping with the broader literature describing new parent-
hood as a developmental step and enough of a challenge to require a resilient response
(Gavidia-Payne et al., 2015; Hill et al., 2007; Teti & Cole, 2011). Capturing information
about several ecological levels (the individual, their family and their social context) was

Table 6. Resilience supporting factors identified within the review mapped by ecological level.
Personal Relational Contextual
Positive self-concept (3,6,8,9,11,14,12,15,17) Social support (3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11,12,13,14,15,17) Community services (3,4,6,11,12,14,15,17)
Optimism (3,5,7,11,12,14,15) Family relationships (2,4,6,10,12,15) Social connectedness (2,3,4,6,7,8,12,14)
Self-efficacy (3,8,9,11,13,16) Access to peer group (1,3, 5,6,11,14) Cultural factors (1,3,4,6,12,14)
Active coping (2,3,4,7,11,15) Partner relationship (4,11,15,17) Financial health (5,8,10,11,12)
Meaning-making (1,2,9,12,14) Social policies (3,4,6,12,14)
Spirituality (3,4,11,14,15,17) Child care (3,14)
Flexibility (2,3,9,11,12) Gender (11)
Secure attachment (4,6,9,10,12) Child temperament (16)
Mastery (3,4,11,13,17) Health (11)
Hopefulness (3,5,7,11)
Emotional expressiveness (1,2,3,4)
Intellectual skills (1,9,6,4)
Ask for help (3,4,9,14)
Acceptance (1,9,14)
Reflective functioning (1,12)
Positive emotion (8,9)
Superscript numbers show which studies endorsed each factor.
 JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY 153

seen as integral to facilitating discussion about the systemic and contextual factors
which influence outcomes for parents. These ideas resonate with both the family
resilience and transition to parenthood literatures (e.g. Roy et al., 2014; Spitzmueller &
Matthews, 2016), especially those taking a critical epistemological approach (Shaikh &
Kauppi, 2014), who highlight the influence of context and place on parental well-being.
Finally, taking an holistic approach to mental health was a common driver for incorpor-
ating concepts of resilience which fits with the arguments presented by Gavidia- Payne
et al. (2015) (and many others) that discussions of parental well-being need to move
beyond the sick/healthy dichotomy towards a more nuanced understanding of parents’
needs (Gilmer et al., 2016; McKellar et al., 2009).
When we looked at the way researchers used theory in their work, we found that
most studies did not articulate a specific theoretical orientation and used narrative
literature review instead. This meant that how resilience is defined varied from study
to study depending on the particular concepts they focused on. Only five studies (De
Haan, Hawley, & Deal, 2002; Lennon & Heaman, 2015; Shaikh, 2010; Sturgis, 2014;
Wakeel, 2010) used a specific theory related to resilience. In addition, although the
application of theory to research design was of high quality, none of the studies used
the same theory or measure of resilience. A consistent theoretical standpoint should
improve the integrity of a literature, translation of research into practice and policy
formation (McCaughey & Bruning, 2010), but this is undermined when there is no
consensus on which theory should be used. Nevertheless, there were some innovative
approaches, including Gress-Smith’s inclusion of biological correlates of resilience which
is quite new in the area of resilience research (Rutten et al., 2013).
Finally, we mapped information about the specific resources which might underpin
resilience in the transition to parenthood. A number of personal factors were identified
including positive self-concept, optimism and self-efficacy. Previous research has found
that the demands of new parenthood are often unfamiliar, causing parents to feel like
‘novices’; positive self-concept and optimism may support an underlying confidence that
the skills will come in time, deflecting self-criticism and panic (Antonucci & Mikus, 1988;
Entsieh & Hallstrom, 2016). Self-efficacy may reflect a sense of agency and capacity to
address problems as they arise, counteracting the helplessness of trying to understand a
newborn and the finality of entering into a caregiver relationship (Brodsky & De Vet, 2000;
Gardner & Harmon, 2002; Himelein & McElrath, 1996). In the relational domain, we high-
lighted the importance of social support, family relationships and access to a peer group.
These factors also dominate the general transition to parenthood literature which reports
that people reach out to their closest relationships for support (Darvill, Skirton, & Farrand,
2010; Deave et al., 2008; Ettrich & Ettrich, 1995). Access to peer groups may be particularly
important for validation and sense of community support (Darvill et al., 2010).
We also identified a number of contextual factors including community services, social
connectedness and cultural factors. These findings are consistent with the greater literature
which indicates that acknowledging context is essential when trying to effectively support
parents in the transition to parenthood (Barton, 2003; Nelson et al., 2014; Pistella &
Synkewecz, 1999). For example, the extent to which an individual is connected to their
local community, the goodness of fit between their cultural background and social context
and the types of supports available to them all shape their ability to mobilise resilience
enhancing resources (Ahlden et al., 2012; Barton, 2003; Entsieh & Hallstrom, 2016). If the
154 C. YOUNG ET AL.

individual is isolated, marginalised or disconnected, their ability to utilise active coping (for
example) is significantly undermined. Unfortunately, qualitative inquiry suggests that these
findings do not always translate into intervention programmes such that parents with less
community connection are not informed about options (Barton, 2003; Bennett et al., 2016;
Pistella & Synkewecz, 1999) or feel unable to acknowledge challenges due to social pres-
sures (Barclay, Everitt, Rogan, Schmeid, & Wylie, 1997; Habib, 2012). In our review, despite
acknowledging the importance of context, the majority of studies also excluded contextual
factors from their research design.

Gaps and implications for future research

The most significant gap in this collection of studies is the absence of investigation into
fathers’ experiences. This is unfortunate given that we know fathers are underrepre-
sented in the perinatal literature in general and that their presence influences the
psychological health of mothers and children (Genesoni & Tallandini, 2009; Panter-
Brick et al., 2014). The importance of the partner relationship during the transition to
parenthood also underlines the need for fathers to be included in any models or
theories used in the area. Future research should address this as a matter of priority.
There were also some methodological gaps, with a predominance of studies inferring
resilience without measuring it directly and employing cross-sectional designs. The use
of non-specific resilience measures has been investigated and found inadequate in
capturing a resilient presentation when compared with specific resilience scales (see
for example Liu, Fairweather-Schmidt, Burns, & Roberts, 2016), suggesting that future
research should avoid the inferential approach. Composite scales (operationalising
resilience as composed of a variety of factors and measuring these) should be of
particular interest (Windle, 2011). Finally, some consensus theory or model of resilience
would improve synthesis across studies and make more meaningful contributions to the
knowledge base.

Limitations
There were some limitations to our study. By adopting an approach focused on theory
we have not presented an investigation of the efficacy of any interventions explored
within the studies themselves and cannot comment on this. Also, non-English language
material was excluded due to limitations on expenses and timeliness of the research.
One of the strengths of the present study was the inclusion of grey literature with
particular reference to unpublished doctoral theses. Due to the breadth and depth of
doctoral research, authors are able to discuss theoretical underpinnings of their work in
greater detail and the theses reviewed here contributed some very valuable information
to the review. It is suggested that future scoping reviews which concern themselves with
questions about theory make efforts to include unpublished theses where possible.

Conclusion
The data obtained by our scoping review indicated that researchers were interested in
resilience theory because it was a holistic approach incorporating positive psychology
 JOURNAL OF REPRODUCTIVE AND INFANT PSYCHOLOGY 155

concepts and multiple ecological levels. We identified several resilience supporting

factors which appeared across a number of studies and should be considered in future
research including positive self-concept, optimism, social support, family relationships,
community services and social connectedness. We highlighted methodological pro-
blems, in particular lack of consistency in theoretical application and integration, and
indicated several gaps to be addressed in future work. We consider that, while resilience
in the transition to parenthood is a new and emerging literature, the application of such
theories can make a valuable contribution to understanding the process of adjustment
to parenthood.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank research librarian Maureen Bell for technical assistance in crafting the search
strategy. We also thank perinatal psychologists Dr Katherine Reynolds, Dr Stephanie Swanson and
Angie Willcox for assisting with relevance screening.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial or
not-for-profit sectors.

ORCID
Rachel Roberts http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9547-9995

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