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Module 5
OVERVIEW OF MICRO
MANUFACTURING
Syllabus
5.1 Introduction
5.1 Introduction
The part of the substrate that is not covered by the protective mask is dissolved in the etchants and
removed.
The etching can undercut the part under the protective mask also.
It may also damage the protective mask itself.
Basics
Why Silicon is chosen as an ideal substrate for MEMS?
It is mechanically stable and it can be integrated into electronics substrate
Si is an ideal structural material. It has Young’s modulus as steel, but is light as aluminum.
Materials with high young’s modulus gives linear relationship between applied load and the
induced deformations
It has a melting point at 1400 degree centigrade, hence it is stable.
Its thermal coefficient of expansion is 8 times smaller than steel and 10 times smaller than
aluminum.
It has no mechanical hysteresis and has greater flexibility
Crystal structure of silicon
Silicon has a face centered cubic(FCC) unit cell as in figure
The unit cell has atoms situated in fixed locations defined by lattice(imaginary lines) of dimension
b called lattice constant.
In FCC, atoms are situated at 8 corners of cubic structure and at the center of each of six faces
The 4 additional atoms form a sub cubic cell of the diamond lattice.
A Si unit cell has 18 atoms with 8 atoms at the corners and 6 atoms on the faces and another 4
interior atoms.
5.2.2 Isotropic and Anisotropic Etching
For substrates made of homogeneous and isotropic materials, the chemical etchants will attack the
material uniformly in all directions- called isotropic etching
This is hardly desirable in micro manufacturing due to lack of control of the finished geometry of
the work piece.
Most substrate materials are not isotropic in their crystalline structures.
Ex. Silicon has a diamond cubic crystal structure.
Hence some parts of crystal are stronger and more resistant to etching than others.
Three planes of silicon crystals are of interest in micro machining.
They are (100), (110) and (111) planes as shown
Two most common orientations used in the IC industry are (100) and (111) orientations. And in
micromachining (110) is the favored orientation.
In this orientation, the wafer breaks or cleaves more cleanly.
The (111) plane is the toughest plane to treat, hard to etch and is least used in micro machining.
The plane(111) intersects the plane(100) at an angle of 54.740.
In this case we can expect different etching rates in different orientations.
Disadvantages of anisotropic etching is
o It is slower than isotropic etching
o The etching rate is temperature sensitive
o It usually requires an elevated temperature around 1000c in the process
Alkaline chemicals with pH > 12, are used for anisotropic etching.
Popular anisotropic etchants for silicon include potassium hydroxide (KOH), ethylene—diamine
and pyrocatecol (EDP), tetra-methyl ammonium hydroxide (TMAH), and hydrazine.
Most etchants based on the above chemicals are diluted with water, normally 1:1 by weight
The selectivity ratio of a material is defined as the ratio of the etching rate of silicon to the etching
rate of another material using the same etchant.
For example, silicon dioxide has a selectivity ratio of 103 , meaning this material has an etching
rate that is 103 times slower than the etching rate for silicon.
The higher the selectivity ratio of the material, the better the masking material it is.
The timing of etching and the flow patterns of etchants over the substrate surfaces need to be
carefully controlled in order to avoid serious under-etching and undercutting
Use an SiO2 layer as mask for the silicon substrate in KOH etchants for trenches of modest depth.
It is inexpensive and etching is a slow process, the SiO2 mask itself can be attacked by the etchants
if the system is left in the etchant for a long period of time, as in deep etching
In such cases, silicon nitride should be used as the mask instead
The n-type is phosphorus doped and the p-type is boron doped.
The doped silicon substrate is then mounted on an inert substrate container made of a material such
as sapphire.
The n-type silicon layer is used as one of the electrodes in an electrolyte system with a constant
voltage source.
The unmasked part of the p-type substrate face is in contact with the etchant.
Etching thus takes place as usual until it reaches the interface of the p—n junction
At this point etching stops because of the rate difference in p- and n-doped silicon.
One can effectively control the depth of etching by establishing the p—n silicon boundaries at the
desired locations in a doped silicon substrate
Plasma Etching
Plasma is a neutral ionized gas carrying a large number of free electrons and positively charged ions.
A common source of energy for generating plasma is a radio-frequency (RF) source.
The process involves adding a chemically reactive gas such as CCl2F2 (DichloroDifluoromethane)
to the plasma
It contains ions and has its own carrier gas (inert gas such as argon gas).
In the Figure, the reactive gas produces reactive neutrals when ionized in the plasma.
The reactive neutrals bombard the target on both the sidewalls as well as the normal surface, whereas
the charged ions bombard only the normal surface of the substrate.
Etching of the substrate materials is accomplished by the high-energy ions in the plasma bombarding
the substrate surface
Chemical reactions occur between the reactive neutral ions and the substrate material.
This reaction causes local evaporation, and results in the removal of the substrate material.
The etching front moves more rapidly in the depth direction than in the direction of the sidewalls.
This is due to the larger number of high-energy particles(both the neutral ions and the charged ions)
bombarding the normal surface, while the sidewalls are bombarded by neutral ions only.
Conventional dry etching is a very slow process.
Plasma etching can increase the etching rates
Plasma etching is normally performed in high vacuum.
Like wet etching, dry etching also is limited to producing shallow trenches.
Both wet and dry etching processes are limited to producing MEMS with low aspect 'ratios
The aspect ratio (A/P) of a MEMS component is defined as the ratio of its dimension in the depth to
those in the surface. For dry etching, the A/P is less than 15.
It is highly desirable that the angle θ be kept at a minimum in deep-etched trenches that separate the
plate electrodes.
Obtaining deep trenches with vertical walls have been a major impediment of bulk manufacturing
for a long while.
The bulk manufacturing technique is regarded as suitable only for MEMS with low aspect ratios,
with tapered cavity walls."
Deep reactive ion etching (DRIE) is a process that can overcome this problem.
The DRIE process has extended the use of the bulk manufacturing technique to the production of MEMS
of high aspect ratio with virtually vertical walls., i.e., θ ͌ 0.
The DRIE process differs from dry plasma etching in that it produces thin protective films of a few
micrometers on the sidewalls during the etching processes.
It uses a high-density plasma source.
It allows plasma (ion) etching of the substrate material and the deposition of etching-protective material
on the sidewalls as in Figure 9.7b.
Etching-protective materials (shown in black in the figure) are materials of high selectivity ratio, ex. silicon
dioxide, polymers.
Polymeric materials such as photoresists are produced by polymerization during the plasma etching
process.
Reactant gases could be used in DRIE. Ex. fluoropolymers (nCF2) in the plasma of Argon gas ions.
This reactant can produce a polymer protective layer on the sidewalls while etching takes place.
5.2.6 Comparison of Wet versus Dry Etching
Surface micromachining saves material and also eliminates the need for a die attach.
In Figure a microcantilever beam is produced by the surface micromachining technique.
In step 1 a silicon substrate base has a PSG deposited on its surface.
A mask (mask 1) is made in step 2 to cover the surface of the PSG layer for the subsequent etching.
Another mask (mask 2) is made for the deposition of polysilicon microstructural material in step 4.
The PSG that remains in step 5 is subsequently etched away to produce the desired cantilever beam
as shown in step 6.
The etchant used in the last step for the sacrificial PSG layer is 1:1 HF.
After etching, the structure is rinsed in deionized water thoroughly followed by drying under infrared
lamps.
5.3.3 Mechanical Problems Associated with Surface micromachining
There are three major problems that result from surface micro-machining.
These are (1) adhesion of layers, (2) interfacial stresses, and (3) stiction.
Adhesion of Layers
Whenever two layers of materials, whether similar or dis-similar, are bonded together, a possibility
of delamination exists.
A bilayer structure can delaminate at the interface either by
o peeling of one layer from the other or
o by shear that causes the severing of the interfaces locally along the interface.
o Figure 9.11 illustrates both these failures.
Excessive tensile residual stress in Si02 layer can cause multiple cracks in the layer.
The third type of stress that could be introduced in thin-film structures is the intrinsic stress
This is due to the local change of atomic structure during microfabrication processes.
Excessive doping, for ex. could introduce substantial residual stresses.
Stiction
In surface micromachining, the phenomenon of two separated pieces sticking together is called
stiction.
For ex. difficulty in separating two transparencies after the thin dividing paper is pulled out.
Stiction is the most serious problem to deal with in surface micro-machining.
It occurs when the sacrificial layer is removed from the layers of the material that it once separated.
The thin structure that was once supported by the sacrificial layer may collapse on the other material.
for ex, the production of a thin beam in Figure 9.13
Stiction could happen with the thin polysilicon beam dropping onto the top surface of the silicon substrate
after the removal of the sacrificial PSG layer (Fig. 9.13b).
The two materials would then stick together after the joint.
Considerable mechanical forces are required to separate the two stuck layers again
These excessive forces can break the delicate microstructure.
Stiction is the main cause for the large amount of scraps in surface micromachining.
Stiction occurs due to hydrogen bonding of surfaces during rinsing of the interface after the etching of the
PSG sacrificial layer, or by forces such as the van der Waals forces
Remedial actions are temporary spacers using polysilicon and sacrificial polymer columns that can be
removed by etching with oxygen plasma afterward.
5.4.1 General Description of the LIGA Process
The LIGA process begins with deep x-ray lithography that sets the desired patterns on a thick
film of photoresist.
X-rays are used as the light source in photolithography because of their short wavelength
It provides higher penetration power into the photoresist materials which gives high resolution
in lithography and for a high aspect ratio in the depth.
The short wavelength of x-ray allows a line width of 0.2 µm and an aspect ratio of more than
100:1 to be achieved.
The x-rays used in this process are provided by a synchrotron radiation source
This allows a high throughput because the high flux of collimated rays shortens the exposure time.
Figure 9.15 shows an example of a LIGA process.
The desired product is a micro thin wall metal tube of square cross-section.
First the process of depositing a thick film of photoresist material on the surface of a substrate(fig a)
A photoresist material that is sensitive to x-ray is polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA).
Masks used in the x-ray lithography are transparent to x-rays, so a thin film of gold is applied to the
area that will block x-ray transmission.
The thin mask used for this purpose is silicon nitride.
The deep x-ray lithography will cause the exposed area to be dissolved in the subsequent
development of the resist material(Fig. 9.15b).
The PMMA photoresist after the development will have the outline of the product.
Next is electroplating of the PMMA photoresist with a desired metal, usually nickel, to produce the
tubular product of the required wall thickness (Fig. 9.15c)
The desired tubular product is produced after the removal of the photoresist materials by oxygen
plasma or chemical solvents.
Photoresist Materials
Basic requirements for photoresist materials for the LIGA process include the following: -
It must be sensitive to x-ray radiation.
It must have high resolution as well as high resistance to dry and wet etching.
It must have thermal stability up to 140°C.
The unexposed resist must be absolutely insoluble during development.
It must exhibit very good adhesion to the substrate during electroplating.
PMMA is an optimal choice of photoresist material for the LIGA
But, its low lithographic sensitivity makes the lithographic process extremely slow.
Another shortcoming of PMMA is its vulnerability to crack due to stress.
5.4.3 Electroplating
Electroplating is an important step in the LIGA process.
Electroforming of metal films onto the surface of the cavities in the photoresist after x-ray
lithography has been performed as illustrated in Figure 9.15c.
Nickel is the common metal to be electroplated on the photoresist walls.
Other metals that could be used for electroplating include Cu, Au, NiFe and NiW.
The conductive substrate and the carrying photoresist structure form the cathode in an electroplating
process is illustrated in Figure 9.16.
Electroplating works on the principle that the nickel ions Ni 2+ from the nickel chloride (NiC12)
solution react with the electrons at the cathode to yield nickel as shown in the process below:
Ni 2+ + 2e - Ni
The H2 gas is the product of the H2+ ions produced by the electrolysis of the solution.
This is present on the surface of the cathode and may cause non-uniform Ni plating.
The chemical reaction of H2+ ions to H2 gas at the cathode is presented below:
2H + + 2e - H2
To avoid damage of the plated surfaces by hydrogen bubbles, we need to control the pH of the
solution, the temperature, and the current density in the electrolysis.
Bulk Micromanufacturing
Straightforward, involving well-documented fabrication processes.
Less expensive in the process, but material loss is high.
Suitable for simple geometry, e.g., micropressure sensors dies and some actuating elements.
Limited to low-aspect ratio in geometry; i.e., the surface dimensions are much greater than that
of the depth. This is because the overall height of the microstructure is limited by the thickness of
commercially available silicon wafers.
Surface Micromachining
Requires the building of layers of materials on the substrate.
Complex masking design and productions.
Etching of sacrificial layers is necessary.
The process is tedious and more expensive.
There are serious engineering problems such as interfacial stresses and stiction.
Major advantages: (1) not constrained by the thickness of silicon wafers; (2) wide choices of
thin film materials to be used; (3) suitable for complex geometries such as micro valves and
actuators.