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A Neotectonic based geomorphic analysis using remote sensing data to

delineate potential areas of hydrocarbon exploration: Cachar area, Assam

Article  in  Journal of the Geological Society of India · July 2016

DOI: 10.1007/s12594-016-0461-2

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A Neotectonic based Geomorphic Analysis using
Remote Sensing data to delineate potential areas
of hydrocarbon exploration: Cachar area,
Assam
Subhobroto Mazumder*1, Kalyan Adhikari2, Durga Shanker Mitra3, Samiran Mahapatra4,
Krishan Kumar Singh Pangtey1

1. Remote Sensing & Geomatics, KDM Institute of Petroleum Exploration, ONGC, Dehradun-248195,
India
2. Department of Geology and Environmental Studies, National Institute of Technology, Durgapur-
713209, India
3. Forward Base, A & AA Basin, ONGC, Nazira, India
4. Department of Geology, Hoogly Mohsin College, Chinsurah-712101, India

*Corresponding Author
Email:subhom007@gmail.com, Remote Sensing & Geomatics, KDM Institute of Petroleum
Exploration, ONGC, Dehradun-248195, India

Abstract: The Assam Arakan Fold Thrust belt is constituted of severely deformed heavily

folded units of Tertiary sediments bounded by eastward dipping thrust slices with a convexity

towards west. In the Tripura-Cachar region, this folded belt is characterized by occurrence

of wide synclines as opposed to narrow anticlines that hosts a number of hydrocarbon

producing fields. In the Cachar area of Assam, most of these producing fields occur in the

culminations of anticlinal structures. Other wells drilled in analogous structural settings are

found to be dry. In this paper a neotectonic based geomorphic analysis is carried out to

delineate a fault network and geomorphic highs in Cachar area as expressions of subsurface

structures which had subsequently been validated by available geophysical data. Of these

geomorphic highs, those nested in the synclinal areas are believed to be representations of

subtle subsurface structural highs. Synclinal structures associated with NNE-SSW faults

might be considered interesting for hydrocarbon exploration and are subsequently categorized

following their degree of confidence for exploration of hydrocarbon occurrences.

Additionally, a genetic model of the structures in the region is also proposed.

Keywords: Neotectonism, Geomorphic analysis, Hydrocarbon exploration, Cachar

Introduction
The Tripura – Cachar Basin forms the northern part of the Assam Arakan Fold Belt that
has been tectonically generated from simultaneous subduction of the Indian Plate underneath
Eurasian and the Tibetan Plates. This basin is composed of a heavily deformed accretionary
prism of Tertiary sediments characterized by a series of eastward dipping thrust slices. All
these slices are found to be intensely folded along a north-south axis displaying a convexity
towards west (Kunte, 1989) (Fig 1a). One of the distinctive features of the fold belt in this
region is the occurrence of wide synclines as opposed to narrow anticlinal units.

In the Cachar area of Assam, occupying the northern part of the fold belt, gas and oil
fields are restricted to only a few areas of Banaskandi, Bhubandar, Badarpur-Hilara,
Adamtila and Patharia, most of which are located in the culminations of anticlinal structures
(Fig 2a). Other wells drilled on analogous structural setting and comparable sedimentary
succession are found to turn up dry (Fig 2b). In addition, logistic constraints, unfavourable
subsurface conditions l i k e very steep dips and abnormally high formation pressures,
structural complexities and a paucity of proper seismic data led to a very limited exploratory
success in these areas. In this paper, an alternative approach analysis using morphotectonic
data sets had been tried instead of conventional geophysical subsurface studies. This attempt
is an effort to circumvent the analytical problems posed by lack of proper seismic data in the
area. Also, this study aims to delineate newer structures for hydrocarbon exploration other
than the already established ones and additionally it tries to propose an alternative model of
their structural origin.

Geological Setting of Cachar Area

The northern margin of the Assam Arakan fold belt is marked by the extension of the
east-west trending Dauki Fault which is assumed to be a thrust with right lateral displacement
(Angelier and Baruah, 2009). Eastwards the Naga-Haflong-Disang Thrust separates the
Cachar fold belt from the Schuppen belt of the Assam Shelf and subsequently intersects with
Dauki Fault. The eastern boundary of Cachar area is bounded by the N-S Kaladan Thrust that
delimits it from the structurally more complex Indo-Burma Range (Fig.1b). Also a prominent
NE-SW trending structural lineament namely the Haili-Hakalula Lineament delimits the fold
belt towards the northwest (Fig. 1b). Kunte (1989) considers it to be a major wrench fault
parallel to the direction of drift of Indian Plate where the block to the west appears to have
moved north past the Tripura-Cachar block. Northeast ward this lineament joins with the
Dauki Fault whereas southeast ward it passes over the Barisal-Chandpur Subsurface Gravity
High, which is considered to be the manifestation of the continent–ocean crust boundary
(Alam et al, 2003).

Tectonic History and Neotectonics

Indian plate rifted from Australia and Antarctica in Early Cretaceous and initially
moved northward. However, the development of a SE-NW trending continuous zone of
subduction along the southern margin of Asian and Tibetan plates and at an unknown
alignment on the southwest side of Burma slowed down of the motion of the Indian Plate
(Alam et al, 2003). This led to a counter clockwise rotation of Indian plate initiating its NNE
movement and an oblique subduction. This NNE movement of Indian plate further caused the
Indo-Burma-Andaman Block (IBA Block) to rotate clockwise (Acharya, 1998) from its initial
E-W orientation. This also led to a hard Continent-Continent Collision of India with Asian
Plate in the north along with continued subduction of oceanic crust below the Burmese Plate
in the east resulting in the development and growth of an accretionary wedge that began to
emerge as a proto Indo-Burma Range. During Early Miocene (22 Ma) continued subduction
led to closure of the ocean basin resulting in a Remnant Ocean Basin (Alam et al, 2003).

Further continued subduction caused tectonic down-warping of the basin and

development of an outer deformation front called the Chittagong Tripura Fold Belt (CTFB)
involving the Neogene succession in a thin skin tectonism (Alam et al, 2003). During Late
Miocene, the opening up of the Andaman Sea to the south resulted in the development of a
major right lateral transform system causing a change in tectonics from subduction to strike
slip convergence (Curray, 2005). This opening and widening of Andaman Sea led to the
formation of a tectonic entity called Burma platelet (Steckler et al., 2008; Khan and
Chakroborty, 2005). This Burma Platelet occurs as a long thin sliver of crust bounded by the
Sagaing Fault in the east and probably Kaladan Fault in the west. This plate is considered to
advance over the Indian Plate sliding sideways along its bounding faults. Due to this shift of
tectonism, the dominant E-W directed compressional forces resulting in folding and east
dipping thrusts of CTFB are also associated with NE-SW trending strike slip deformation
resulting in a block couple rotation. During Late Miocene-Early Pliocene, Dauki Fault
became active as a probable result of collision of Indian plate with Eurasian Plate. The
activity of the Dauki Fault as a south bounding thrust fault caused an N-S compression over
the area and eventually led to the upturning of Cachar sediments (Shandilya, 2010).
 Based on tectonic history of the Cachar basin, the entire region suffers from the
interplay of three principal tectonic forces. Seismotectonic seismic studies by different
authors (Angelier and Baruah, 2009; Islam et al, 2011; Kundu and Gahalaut, 2013) indicate
these forces are active even at present making the region neotectonically active (Fig 2a).
These forces are:

1. E-W directed compression resulting from collision and subduction between the Indian
and the Burma Plate that initiated westward verging thrusts and N-S trending folds.
2. A NE-SW trending dextral strike slip motion associated with the opening up of the
Andaman Sea causing the block couple rotation or a shear related strike slip rotation
of the folded belt.
3. An episode of N-S compression resulting from the Mio-Pliocene activity of the E-W
trending Dauki Fault. The effect of this N-S compression is supposed to be much
more in the Cachar area than in the Tripura part of the folded belt.

At present the Indian plate is moving at a speed of 46.7 mm/year towards N51°E with
respect to the Eurasian plate (Islam et al., 2011) and this movement is considered the driving
force of present day crustal deformation and neotectonic deformations in the area. The NE
ward movement of the Indian plate is also associated with present day rotation of the Sunda/
Burmese plate in the N10° direction at 35mm/year (Angelier and Baruah, 2009; Kundu and
Gahalaut, 2013). All of these plate movements lead to a convergence between the India,
Sunda and Eurasian plates and a consequential accumulation of stress. This convergence and
its resultant stress is accommodated by present day slip or movement along the major tectonic
features of the Indian plate as well as its associated sympathetic faults and thus making them
neotectonically active. Of this tectonic elements, Dauki fault alone suffers a major part of this
neotectonic stress resulting in accommodation of 25% of the regional surface displacement
rate of the study area making it a major neotectonically active element in the basin (Islam et
al., 2011).

Morphotectonic Analysis
Deep seated structures that formed under the influence of an earlier regime of tectonics
might be reactivated under present day tectonic stresses. This type of deformations are
considered as neotectonic deformations. The amount of displacement associated with these
neotectonically reactivated structures is very low and beyond conventional seismic
identification, but the vertical component of the deformation causes a marked change in the
overlying geomorphic elements of the area. Of these elements alluvial rivers are very
sensitive to tectonic changes resulting in fluctuations in stream gradients leading to changes
in channel pattern or shifting in its course. These variations are recorded as drainage
anomalies and are basically parts of it where the drainage is structurally controlled rather than
slope controlled. Though these regions occur as localized pockets within the regional
drainage network, a study of these anomalies especially in case of lower order drainages
provide an idea about the different sub surface structural elements that had suffered
reactivation. These drainage anomalies are mostly conspicuous in areas of low relief and may
occur as features like drainage offset, compressed meanders, rectangular drainages,
rectilinear drainages, sinuosity variations, radial drainages, curved or peripheral drainages
and many more (Fig 3 a to d), all of which can be analyzed and translated into probable
structures like faults and structural highs based on the principles discussed in detail in
Mazumder et al. (2009; 2012).

Morphotectonics of Cachar area

Topographically, the Cachar region is characterized by a central E-W trending
transverse low that defines the course of the Barak River in the valley. This river forms the
trunk river or the highest order drainage of the overall network the drainage (Fig 4a)
evidently controlled by the regional structure of the area. In the north bank of the Barak River
the major rivers flow along the synclinal axes towards the Barak River while the lower order
rivers form a dendritic drainage network on the pediment of the North Cachar Hills. In the
south bank, the drainage is oriented along the N-S trending parallel synclinal axes. These
major rivers along with other lower order drainages define a trellis pattern of drainage
controlled by the alternating ridges and valleys that are the manifestations of alternating
synclines and anticlines in the area. Within this regional drainage, localized drainage
anomalies (Fig. 4b) had been identified based on the principles discussed above. Based on
these parameters micro- faults or micro- linears had been delineated to explain these
anomalies. Also the Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of the area are processed to demarcate
lines of abrupt slope breaks which also might imply existence of subsurface faults. These
small sized faults are treated as building blocks for regional faults and joined as per their
trend and continuity to define probable regional fault network (Fig 4c). Evidences of such
faulting are validated by field checks where neotectonic evidences like development of
unpaired terraces, cliffs developed within the alluvium (Fig 4d).
 In a similar premise as discussed above, geomorphic highs are demarcated based on
indications of radial and peripheral drainage patterns that are considered to be surface
manifestations of subsurface structural highs in the synclinal valleys (Fig. 5a). These
geomorphic highs had been checked for associations with pondings and rectangular drainages
implying the fractured/ jointed hinge of a subsurface high formed by buckling (Fig 5a and d),
(Trenchard, 2007). Tonal anomalies with enclaves of a lighter or brighter tone in a darker
tone suggest a lower moisture content of the area on a thinned soil cover that may be due to a
high, formed underneath (Fig 5c). Similarly areas of drainage density low in the more or less
flat synclinal parts again may indicate a subtle high avoided by drainages (Fig 5b)
(Mazumder et al, 2009). Associations with all these would attribute a greater probability or
greater confidence to these geomorphic highs to represent subsurface structural highs (Fig
6a).

Based on these morphotectonic observations and interpretations in the Cachar basin, a

number of structural elements are delineated as manifestations of subsurface faults and
structural highs in the area. For a further validation, these morphotectonic elements are
correlated with subsurface data like earthquake epicentres, deep well data as well as
interpreted seismic data (Figs 6b and c) wherever available to indicate that these elements are
not limited up to the surface but are penetrative down to a deeper level.

Discussion
Tectonic Trend Analysis
Trend analysis based on the morphotectonic interpretation of faults in the area shows a
dominant NNE-SSW component, implying the NNE-SSW faults are the principle structure
bounding faults and the most reactivated structures (Fig 7). Of the subordinate trends, the
NE-SW trend is probably the result of the dextral strike slip along the Haili-Hakalula
Lineament (marked 2 in Fig 2). The other E-W trends are possibly the products of N-S
compression due to Dauki Fault (marked 3 in Fig 2). Both these later trends are cross faults
that cut across the longitudinal structure building faults.

Tectonic Genesis
Based on the trend analysis highlighting the three apparent trends, a hypothesis for three
phase generation of the structures in the Cachar area might be presumed:
1. Initially a westerly directed compressive stress (D1) resulting from the collision of Indian
and Burmese plate might result in an N-S trending westward verging thrusts (F1) and
narrow series of parallel anticlines (A1) and synclines that are limited by the western front
marked by Chittagong Coastal Fault (CCF) or the frontal thrust of the CTFB (Fig 8a).

2. Subsequent to the opening of Andaman Sea (D2), a dextral strike slip component was
added to the tectonic regime resulting in formation of NE-SW and NW-SE dextral cross
faults (F2). This strike slip component associated with these NE-SW and NW-SE faults
might have caused some amount of offset and clockwise rotation of the already developed
N-S longitudinal structures (F1 and A1) changing their orientation to a NNE-SSW trend
(Fig 8b)

3. In the final phase, the activity of the Dauki Fault (D3) and the uplift of the Shillong Massif
caused an N-S compression of the Cachar area. This resulted in the development of the E-
W trending reverse faults (F3) and folds (A3). Due to this compression the earlier
developed parallel NNE-SSW anticlines (A1) occurring at a high angle to D3 direction
was forced to bend and diverge outward forming broad synclinal valleys. In some
instances, the N-S compressions might be high enough to cause the development of E-W
oriented secondary synclinal structural highs nested within the broad and diverging
synclinal valleys (Fig 8c). The N-S F3 cross faults being younger to the earlier phases of
NE-SSW F1 and NE-SW F2 trends might also have caused some vertical separation along
them.

These synclinal structures that had been postulated to be generated in the above section are
probably the ones that had been manifested in the surface as geomorphic highs in the valleys.
In areas where the structural highs formed by N-S compression coincided with the already
developed NNE-SSW trending antiforms, areas of antiformal culminations might have been
formed similar to the already explored structures of Adamtila, Patharia and Badarpur (Fig
9a). Many instances of such buried synclinal structures manifested as geomorphic highs and
nested within bent anticlinal ridges are found to occur in the Cachar area suggesting that the
above premise might be a probable mechanism of formation of the synclinal structures (Fig
9b).
Implication in Hydrocarbon Exploration
In the Cachar region, the direction of Maximum Horizontal Stress (σHMax) is found to
be broadly oriented in an N-S to NNE-SSW orientation (Fig 10a) (Islam et al, 2011). As per
Zhang et al. (2011), in any basin, faults or fractures parallel to the direction of maximum
principal stress or lying at a low angle to it are the preferential directions of hydrocarbon
migration. Hence in the Cachar area, the NNE-SSW faults, which are the most reactivated
structures, might act as a conduit for vertical migration as evident from the multiple
hydrocarbon seepages along them (Fig 10b).

Also, in the Cachar area, the hydrocarbon migration from the source to the traps is
considered vertically up dip along faults within a short distance of the order of 5 km
occurring in Recent stage (Chakravorty et al, 2011). The Nilambazar, Katakhal, Labak and
Silchar Synclines are the main source areas in this basin (Chakravorty et al, 2011). ).
Geomorphic highs of a higher confidence representing secondary structural highs (A3) in the
synclinal areas are formed in the last phase of structure generation (D3). These structural
highs or closures (A3) might act as probable enclaves of hydrocarbon accumulation if they
are associated with the NNE-SSW faults (F1). The E-W (F3) and NE-SW (F2) faults cutting
across them and at high angles to σHMax direction might act as sealing faults and
compartmentalize these structures preventing further migration. As such, the areas marked as
geomorphic highs could be considered interesting targets for hydrocarbon exploration.

Conclusions
In the above study of the neotectonic based geomorphic analysis, a fault network as
well a number of probable structural highs had been interpreted in the Cachar part of the
Assam-Arakan fold belt. A three phase tectonic evolution of these structural highs had also
been premised based on the morphotectonic interpretations. Of these morphotectonic
elements detected, NNE-SSW faults are found to be the most reactivated and also parallel to
the regional tectonic stress direction, thus implying them to act as conduits of short distance
vertical migration. Geomorphic highs in the synclinal areas representing subtle subsurface
structural highs and associated with these NNE-SSW oriented faults might be areas of
hydrocarbon prospectivity. The N-S and NE-SW cross faults act as sealing faults preventing
further migration.
 a

Fig 1a: A DEM based tectonic layout of the Tripura-Cachar belt along with (1b) the different tectonic elements
surrounding the Cahar area
 b

Fig 2: a) Tectonic stresses acting upon the Cachar at present causing neotectonic deformation of the sediments- 1)
westward compression 2) dextral strike slip and 3) a southward compression. The hydrocarbon producing fields are
marked in green. Also geological map of the Cachar area depicting the formations exposed (arranged in youngling
order from Oligocene upwards in legend) overlain on the hillshade of the area b) (b) Generalized stratigraphy of the
sediments of Cachar area (after www. infraline.com)

b
a

Peripheral/ Curved Drainage: Channel appears Rectangular Drainage: Channels join each other at high
to circumvent an area, probable structural high angles, suggests underlying intersecting fault, joint sets

c d

Compressed Meanders: Distorted meander sets, Drainage Offset: Channel takes abrupt bend
probable fault or uplifted high against slope. Fault strikes across drainage
Fig 3 (a. b . c and d). A few drainage anomalies and probably structures that might cause them. Such anomalies
occur in a much localized scale in a regional drainage pattern but reflects probable underlying structures.
 b

Fig 4: a Regional drainage of the Cachar area, showing centrally located E-W oriented transverse low drained by
the Barak River depicted by LANDSAT 432 FCC image draped on the DEM where arrows indicate flow
direction. b, Microlinears delineated from anomalous drainage in a manifested in drainage features like sinuosity
variations, rectangular drainages, drainage offsets and compressed meanders c) Microfaults joined as per their
trend and continuity to define regional fault network d) field evidences of neotectonism to validate the
interpretations

a
b

d
c

Fig5: a) Rectangular drainages associated with a geomorphic high delineated from semi peripheral and radial drainages
suggesting an underlying structural high.(b) Drainage density lows in Cachar basin indicted in lighter shades associated with
interpreted geomorphic highs indicative of a subtle high induced by an structural high (c) Tonal anomalies deduced from a
LANDSAT ETM+ composite image formed from bands 4,3 and 2 with isolated lighter tones indicative of a terrain overlying a
structural high (d) Pondings in blue associated with geomorphic hiighs implying underlying structural highs.
 a b

Fig 6 a) Map depicting geomorphic highs in the synclinal areas as well as interpreted faults. Highs showing a greater
confidence of representing subsurface structural highs are marked in red b) Structural correlation of adjacent wells
occurring on either side of interpreted faults showing a vertical separation validating the subsurface continuity of these
faults. C) Faults and structural highs interpreted in the seismic section correlated with surface morphotectonic data
suggesting its downward continuity into deeper surfaces.

Fig 7. Trend analysis of the morphotectonically interpreted faults in the area with 1,2 and 3 standing for the respective
stresses acting upon the area as depicted in figure 2. The NNE –SSW trend appears to be the dominant trend with the
NE-SW and E-W trend occurring as subordinate trends
 a

Fig 8a. Initial compressive stress directed towards west resulting in westward verging thrusts (F1) and evenly spaced
parallel anticlines and synclines with N-S axial planes (A1)

Fig 8b. Right lateral slip acting on N-S oriented folded terrain resulting in NE-SW and antithetic NW-SE strike slip
faults (F2) and rotation of N-S oriented fold axes to NNE-SSW(A1)

Fig 8c. NNE-SSW rotated folds subjected to N-S compression causing the development of the E-W trending reverse
faults (F3) and fold (A3). Earlier developed parallel anticlines are forced to bend and diverge outward forming broad
synclinal highs to accommodate these secondary structural highs. In case of anticlines, these form a culmination
 b

Fig 9a. Instances of such synclinal highs (a) and antiformal culminations (b) in Cachar basin that might be formed in
the proposed mechanism as discussed above

Fig 10a. : (a) Orientation of Maximum Horizontal Stress (σHMax) in the Cachar area (after Islam et al, 2011) (b) Hydrocarbon
seepages marked in green dots oriented along NNE-SSW faults suggesting vertical re-migration along them (after Shandilya,
2010). (c) Synclinal highs along Nilambazar, Katakhal, Labak and Silchar Synclines (marked in blue lines) associated with
NNE-SSW faults which might act as areas of hydrocarbon accumulation with the E-W and NE-SW faults acting as seals thus
rendering them as probable areas of exploratory interest
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