INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCOMPUTER

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROPROCESSOR

AND MICROCOMPUTER

INTRODUCTION:

Since the introduction of the IBM PC, the microprocessor market has matured
significantly. Today, several complete families of 16 and 32 bit microprocessors are
available. They all include support product such as a very large scale integrated (VLSI)
peripheral devices, emulators, and high level software languages. Over the same period
of time, these higher performance microprocessors have become more widely used in
the design of new electronic equipment and computers.
This topic will review of the general architecture of microcomputer system, evolution of
the microprocessors system.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
The objectives of this topic are to:
1. Equip trainees with the basic knowledge of microcomputer system and its
components.
2. Lets trainees knows the evolution of microprocessors system
3. Introduce trainees with the new term of computer system

LEARNING OUTCOMES:
After completed this module trainees should be able to :
1. Understand the basic general architecture of microcomputer system.
2. Differentiate the microprocessor and microcomputer
3. Know the hardware of microcomputer
4. Know the function of the hardware of microcomputer
5. Know the evolution of the intel microprocessor architecture
5. Know the computer terminology

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1.1 GENERAL ARCHITECTURE OF A MICROCOMPUTER

SYSTEM.
1.11 Overview of Microprocessor

Microprocessor is a special device (IC) which able to fetch , decode and execute the
programmed instructions which stored in the memory.

* Fetch – can read in, take out

* Decode – translating, interpreting
* Execute – take an action, run the program

Figure1.11 8088 Intel Microprocessor

Microprocessor consists of three elements , that is ALU , Register Unit and Control Unit.
ALU performs arithmetic operations such as addition and subtraction also logic
operations such as NOT, AND , OR and EX- OR. During the execution of a program ,
data are temporarily stored in any of the many registers that make up this unit.

Control Unit provides the timing and control signals for getting data into and out of the
microprocessor, for performing programmed instructions and for all others operations.
When a microprocessor is connected to a memory device and provided with a
means of transferring data to and from the “ outside world “ , you have a
microcomputer.

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1.12 General Architecture

The hardware of a microcomputer system can be divided into four functional sections:
i. Input unit.
ii. Micro processing unit. (MPU)
iii. Memory unit.
iv. Output unit

Memory unit
Primary storage memory
Secondary
Program Data Storage
storage storage Memory
memory memory

Input MPU Output

unit unit

Figure 1.12 General Architecture of a Microcomputer system.

Input Unit

This unit allows the user to input information or commands to the MPU; for instance, a
programmer could key in the lines of a BASIC program from the keyboard. Many other
input devices are available for the PC; examples include a mouse, for implementing a
more user-friendly input interface, and a joystick, for use when playing video games.

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MPU

The MPU is the part of the microcomputer that executes instructions of the program and
process data. It is responsible for performing all arithmetic operation and making the
logical decisions initiated by the computer’s program. It also controls overall system
operation.

Output Unit

This unit used to give feedback to user and for producing documented results. For
example, key entries from the keyboard are echoed back to the display; that is, by
looking at the screen of the display, the user can confirm that the correct entry was
made. The results produced by the MPU’s processing can be either displayed or printed.

Memory

The memory unit is used to store information, such as number or character data. By
“store” it mean that memory has the ability to hold this information for processing or for
outputting at a later time. Programs that define how the computer is to operate and
process data also reside in memory.

The memory can be categorized in two sections:

i. Primary storage memory

ii. Secondary storage memory

i. Primary Storage Memory

• Smaller in size.
• Used for temporary storage of active information such operating system,
the program that is currently being run and the data that it is processing.
• Implement with ROM and RAM. ROM is a nonvolatile; that is, the
information is not lost if power is turned off. RAM is volatile memory,when
power is turned off,the data will lost.
• This memory storage is subdivided into two section; that is

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(a) Program storage memory

- Store instruction of the operating system and application program.

( b) Data storage memory

-Contains data that are to be processed by the programs as they are

executed.

ii. Secondary storage memory

• Used for long-term storage of information that is not currently being used.
Example; Programs, file of data and files of information.

(a)Floppy disk drive:

 Media can be removed.
 R/W media, file of data can be read in from or written out to the
storage media.
 Could store up to 1.44Mbyte.

(b) Pen drive

 Media can be remove
 R/W media, file of data can be read in or written out to the storage
media.
 Could store up to more than 1Gbyte.

(c) Hard disk drive:

 Media cannot be removed fix and portable
 Larger storage memory.
 R/W media.

(d) CD drive:
 Very large storage capacity, more than
 Normally used for storage of large programs or files of data that are
not to be change.
 Read only storage.

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(e) CD R/W:
 Very large storage capacity
 Used to copy files or data to CD
 R/W media.

Exercise 1.1
1. What are the four building blocks of microcomputer system ?

2. What is the heart of the microcomputer called ?

3. Is the 8088 an 8 bit or 16 bit microprocessor ?

4. What is the primary input unit of PC?. give two examples of i/p unit available for
the PC .

5. What are the primary output devices of the PC ?

6. What do ROM and RAM stand for ?

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1.2 EVOLUTION OF THE INTEL MICROPROCESSOR

ARCHITECTURE.

The principle way in which microprocessors and microcomputers are categorized is in

terms of the maximum number of binary bits in the data they process, which is their word
length.
• Five standard data widths have evolved for microprocessor and microcomputer.
i. 4 bit (1 nibble)
ii. 8 bit (1 Byte)
iii. 16 bit (1 Word)
iv. 32 bit (1 long word)
v. 64 bit.(2 long word)

Figure 1.2 below, illustrates the evolution of Intel’s microprocessor since their
introduction in 1972.

Figure 1.2 Evolution of the Intel microprocessor architecture

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Table 1.3 illustrates the evolution of Intel’s microprocessors since their introduction in
1972.

Year Processor
1972 4004
1974 8008
1975 8080
1977 8085
1979 8086
1980 8088
1982 80186,80286
1983 80188
1985 80C186,80C188
1986 80386
1990 80386EX, 80486
1993 Pentium® processor
1995 Pentium® pro processor
1998 Pentium®II processor
1999 Pentium III
2000 Pentium IV
2003 Pentium M
2004 Pentium 4 HT
2005 Pentium D

Table 1.3 evolution of Intel microprocessors

4004

• The first generation of microprocessor

• Design to process data arranged as 4 bit words (a nibble)
• Implement a very low performance microcomputer by today standard.
• Used for simpler, special purpose applications.
• Commonly used in electronic calculators.

8008.8080 and 8085

• The second generation of microprocessor.

• 8 bit microprocessors.
• Design to process 8 bit ( 1 byte wide ) data.
• Higher performance operation, larger system capabilities and greater ease of
programming.
• Used for special purpose system designs. Example ; electronics instruments,
cash register and printers.

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8086 family (8086,8088,80186,80188 and 80286)

8086
• The third generation of microprocessor.
• The first Intel 16 bit processors.
• Introduced in 1979

8088
• 16 bit processor and 8 bit external bus version.
• Introduced in 1980

80186,80188 and 80286

• 16 bit processors.
• Provided higher performance and had the ability to satisfy a broad scope of
special purpose and general purpose microcomputer application.
• Have ability to handle 8-bit,16-bit, and special-purpose data types and their
powerful instruction sets are more in line with those provided by a minicomputer.

80386DX

• Introduced in 1985
• The first generation of 32-bit microprocessor.
• Change minicomputer level to microcomputer level.

80386SX

 Introduced in 1988
 32-bit microprocessor
 16- bit external bus version.

80486DX

 Introduced in 1989
 Intel second generation of 32 bit microprocessors.

80486SX

 Introduced in 1990
 Intel 32 bit microprocessors and 16 bit external bus.

Pentium processor

 Introduced in 1993
 32 bit processor
 Higher performance family.

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1.21 Microprocessor Performance: MIPS and iCOMP

Performance of microprocessors is measured in what are called MIPS – that is how

many million instructions they can execute per second.

• Notice that performance of microprocessor increased with each new generation.

• MIPS are measured by running a test program called Drystone program, and the
resulting performance measurement are normalized to those of a VAX 1.1
computer (VAX 1.1 was a minicomputer manufactured by Digital Equipment
Corporation).
Example: The 80486DX is capable of delivering up to 27 VAX MIPS of
performance.

The second method of measuring microprocessor performance is the iCOMP index.

• This method is provided by Intel Corporation for comparison of the performance

of their 32-bit microprocessors in a personal computer environment.
• The higher the iCOMP rating, the higher the performance offered by the MPU.

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Exercise 1.2
1. What are the standard data word lengths for which microprocessor have
been developed?

2. What was the first 4 bit microprocessor introduced by intel corporation? 8-

bit, 16-bit, 32-bit.

3. Named five 16-bit members of the 8086 family architecture.

4. What do the MIPS stand for ?.

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1.3 TERM AND CONVERSION

1.3.1 Term

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange )

The ASCII code has 128 standard characters and a further 128 characters that vary from
machine to machine and country to country. ASCII be being replaced by a 16 bit code
with 65536 characters that can represent every text character in the world including
those used historically.

Codes with special meanings to DOS, Printers or ANSI screens.

Decimal
0 Nul NULL character. ( End of text string marker. )
7 Bel Bell or beep character.
8 Bak Delete or back space character.
9 Tab TAB character.
10 Lf Line Feed (start a new line).
13 Cr is the Carriage Return code.
26 Eof DOS End Of File code.
27 Esc Escape code. It has special effects on printers and ANSI screens.
ANSI = American National Standards Institute.
32 Spa Space Character.
255 Nul another NULL character.

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386
CPU chips in IBM compatible computers are typically numbered 086, 186, 286, 386,
486, 586 or Pentium. 086 chips are now regarded as old fashioned and slow. The
Pentium pro was the latest chip when this was written. To run Windows, a 386 chip is
the minimum recommended.

8 Bit CPU
The CPU has registers and connections to the outside world that are 8 bits wide. 16
bit and 32 bit CPUs are also common, more powerful and more expensive. 64 bit
CPUs exist but are not common (1995)

80x86
The family of Intel chips numbered 8086, 80186, 80286, 80386, 80486 and Pentium.

Accelerator Key
Improves your productivity. For example Alt+F4 closes the current window and is
quicker to press than the equivalent mouse or menu actions.

Analogue
Electronic systems that deal with continuously varying signals. Radio, TV and HiFi
systems are all analogue. CD Players are digital but the digital signals must be
converted to analogue before being sent to the HiFi system.

ANSI
American National Standards Institute

Architecture
CPU designs are more complex than typical building designs. Computer architecture
is equivalent to building architecture. To make best use of a computer, it is useful to
know something about the computer design or architecture.

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ASCII
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange. This is an eight bit code.
There are 128 characters which are standard. There are a further 128 characters
that vary depending on the country and the graphics symbols required by and
printers. American ASCII is being replaced by International Unicode.

ASCII
Code zero is used to mark the end of text strings.

ASM
The usual file extension for assembly code programs

Assembler

Assembly code
Human readable commands like MOV AL,33 correspond closely to CPU machine
codes. The assembler program translates the human readable codes into machine
codes readable by the CPU

Backup copy
Copies of files kept in case of disaster. These should be kept in a secure place away
from the computer system they belong to. Important files should be backed up in
more than one place. Sod's law applies to back up files. The file you is the one you
have failed to back up.

Base Address
The start address of an object stored in memory. For example : The IBM PC VGA
screen base address is B800:0000 followed by 4000 more bytes.

Binary
Base two numbers used by digital systems. Count with two symbols [ 0 1 ] Binary
numbers are composed of noughts and ones. Electronically this is achieved by
circuits that are switched off or on.

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Bit Masks
Patterns of noughts and ones used with AND, OR and XOR to extract or inserts bits
into bytes.

Bits
Binary digits. Single digits that are nought or one.

Byte
Eight Bits.

Carriage Return
ASCII code 13 used to move the printer carriage or head to the left of the page. The
screen cursor performs in the equivalent way. See also - Line Feed

Case Sensitive
Upper and lower case are taken to be different. This simulator is not case sensitive.

Chip
Shorthand for microchip or integrated circuit. The CPU is often referred to as the
CPU Chip.

Click
Usually the left mouse button being pressed when the mouse is pointing at a screen
object.

Clock
The CPU clock steps the computer and CPU at regular time intervals keeping all
parts of the computer in step. A typical clock speed might be 160 Megahertz.

Comments
These begin with ';' and are used to explain what the program is doing. Good
comments explain why things are being done. Bad comments simply repeat what is
obvious by looking at the code.

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Conditional Jumps
These jumps either take place or not depending on the flags in the status register.
See JS, JNS, JO, JNO, JZ, JNZ, JMP.

Control Key
This is used to give keys special meanings. For example the combination of the
control key with the F4 function key will close a window in some software packages.

Control Systems
Industrial and domestic equipment is frequently controlled by a small microcomputer
called a microcontroller. The control system is programmed once for life so a TV
remote controller can not be re-programmed as a washing machine controller.

CPU
Central Processing Unit. The part of the computer that does the computations.
Usually this is a single microchip.

Cursor
A flashing symbol that indicates position within text. Alternatively the mouse cursor
indicates the mouse position. Special purpose cursors are used in some software.

Data tables
These store numbers, text or pointers to other data objects. It is easier to look after
data in a table than data scattered throughout a program. It is good style to use data
tables.

Decimal Base 10 numbers.

Count with ten symbols. [ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ]

Digital Electronic
Systems that use binary. Computers use binary numbers and are digital. HiFi
systems do not use binary and are not digital. (A HiFi remote control system is
digital) See analogue.

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Direct
Same as Immediate.

Directory or Folder
File systems are organised into directories in much the same way that filing cabinets
are organised into draws and folders. Your files should be stored in a directory that
you have created. This keeps your files from getting muddled up with all the other
files on the computer.

Divide by zero
This will cause an error. Any number divided by zero is infinitely big. This can not be
calculated.

End Of File
ASCII code 26 used to indicate the end of MS DOS text files.

Escape ASCII code 27

This character is often interpreted in a special way by programs, VDUs and printers.

Executable Code
Non human readable program code executed by the CPU.

Explorer
See File Manager

Extension
The MS DOS file extension is zero or more characters after the dot in the file name.
Word processor files often have .DOC on the end. Assembly code files end in .ASM

F1 Key
Commonly this access the on line helps.

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File
Data stored on disk or tape. When the data is loaded from the file into RAM, it could
consist of a program or data used by the program.

File Manager or Explorer

A windows program that enables you to manage your files. Copying, renaming and
deleting files and directories are typical file management tasks.

Flags
The Sign, Zero and Overflow flags in the status register indicate the outcome of the
previous calculation. See S Flag, O flag and Z flag.

Floppy disk
Used to store files. 3.5 inch disks have a hard rectangular plastic casing to protect
the thin floppy disk inside. Older disks are actually floppy. The case is bendy
cardboard.

Folder
See Directory

Function keys
F1, F2 ... F10. These keys have special purposes depending on the software in use.
F1 usually activates help. F10 usually activates the menu.

General Purpose Registers

AL, BL, CL and DL are used to store data and perform calculations.

Graphics
Images, pictures and geometrical shapes are examples of graphics. Windows
displays everything as graphics. This gives good looking displays but a lot of
processing is needed to achieve it.

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Hard disk
A disk that can not normally be removed from the computer. Most computer files are
stored on the hard disk. There should also be backup copies stored elsewhere in
case the hard disk fails.

Hexadecimal
Base 16 numbers. Count with 16 symbols. [ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F ]
Hexadecimal and Binary are easily converted which is why hexadecimal is used.

Hot Keys
Ctrl+S and Ctrl+O are examples of hot keys. These give quick access to menu
options. Ctrl+S gives the File Save command. Ctrl+O gives the File Open command.

Immediate
The instruction MOV AL,25 is an example of an immediate instruction. See also :
Register, Indirect, Register indirect and MOV.

Indirection
This is where data in RAM is referred to with a pointer. For example MOV AL,[20]
moves the data from RAM location 20 into the AL register. [20] is a pointer to the
RAM location. The technique is called indirection. See MOV, Immediate, Register,
Register indirect

Instruction Pointer
IP points to the instruction being executed. When the instruction is complete, the IP is
moved onto the next instruction. In the RAM displays, the instruction pointer is
highlighted red with yellow text.

Instruction Set
The set of instructions that are recognised by a CPU. Typical instructions are Move,
Add and Subtract.

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Interrupt routine
A program fragment designed to be activated at any time that an interrupt occurs.
The fragment is stored at an address pointed to by an interrupt vector. Interrupts can
be triggered by hardware. For example a key press or the printer running out of
paper cause a hardware interrupt. The CPU switches to the code that handles the
interrupt. When finished, the CPU continues with its earlier task.

Interrupt Vector
A pointer stored in a table. The pointer points at the interrupt handler. See INT.

IO
Short for Input Output. See IN and OUT

Least significant bit

LSB. The right most bit in a byte which is worth 0 or 1.

LIFO
See Stack.

Line Feed
ASCII code 10 used to start a new line on the printed page or screen. See also -
Carriage Return.

List File
This is generated by the simulator assembler. It contains the program written by the
programmer. It also contains the machine codes generated by the assembler.

Low level
Low level programming is done using the CPU machine code or mnemonics the are
close to the machine codes.

LSB
Least Significant Bit. Right hand bit in a byte. Has a value of 1.

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Machine codes
Machine codes are executed by the CPU See Assembly codes.

Human readable commands MOV AL,55

Hexadecimal equivalent D0 00 55
Binary machine code 110100000000000001010101

Megabytes
One million bytes.

Megahertz
MHz. Million clock cycles per second. A 33 MHz clock means that the CPU performs
33 million steps per second. These sorts of speeds are needed to fill screens with
high resolution graphics quickly.

Memory Mapped
Memory mapped hardware is controlled by writing data into memory locations
occupied by that hardware device. This simulator has a memory mapped screen so
each screen position corresponds to a memory location.

Microchip
Complex electronic circuits miniaturised onto a single wafer or chip of silicon

Microcontroller
Usually a single chip microcircuit containing a CPU and RAM. Microcontrollers are
used in TV remote controllers, washing machines, digital clocks, microwave ovens,
industrial plant controllers, car engine management systems and computer games.

Microprocessor
A single chip CPU.

Mnemonic
A memorable and human readable item like MOV that corresponds to a non
memorable item like 11010000 that means the same thing.

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Most significant bit

MSB. The left most bit in a byte which is worth 128.

MSB
Most Significant Bit. The left hand bit in a byte. It has a value of 128 decimal or
80Hex if the byte is unsigned (positive numbers only). It has a value of -128 if the
byte is signed (positive and negative numbers). The MSB has a value that depends
on how wide in bits the data storage location is.

Multiplexing
Combining two or more data flows onto a single carrying medium. For example a
thousand telephone calls can be carried on a single cable. De-multiplexing separates
the channels and routes them to their correct destinations.

NULL
ASCII code zero used to mark the end of text strings.

O Flag
The O or overflow Flag in the status register indicates if the previous calculation
overflowed its register.

Off Line
Computer resources that will be connected and made available at some later time.
Off line resources do not need interaction with the user.

On Line
Computer resources that are connected and can be accessed with a negligible or
short time delay. On line resources usually need interaction with the user.

OP Code
A binary code that the CPU can interpret as a command. These correspond to
commands like MOV and ADD.

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Overflow Flag
This is set if the result of the previous calculation was too big to fit the register.

Parameters
Data passed into procedures of functions. Parameters can be passed using
registers, RAM locations or the Stack.

Peripherals
Hardware plugged into the computer. Anything from a keyboard or mouse to a power
station or chemical works.

Pointers
In the command MOV AL,[25] the 25 is a pointer to the RAM location with address
25. See indirection.

Ports
Input Output Ports. Peripherals are connected to ports. The IN and OUT machine
instructions are used to communicate with the peripherals.

Procedures
Code fragments that can be used many times during the execution of a program.
See CALL and RET in the instruction set.

Programs
Instructions executed by a computer to perform tasks.

Ram
Random access memory. Electronic memory that stores bytes. Normal RAM forgets
what it was storing when switched off.

Recursion
A powerful technique where a procedure or function re-uses itself to achieve a task.

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Register
A location in the CPU where data is stored. This simulator has four general purpose
registers called AL, BL, CL and DL. It has special purpose registers called IP, SR
and SP.

Register
In the instruction CMP AL,BL registers are being compared. See also : Immediate,
Indirect, Register indirect.

Register indirect.
In the instruction MOV AL,[BL] the BL register contains a pointer to a RAM location.
The data in this RAM location is moved into AL. This is a register indirect move. See
also : Immediate, Indirect and Register.

Repetition
This is achieved by using jump commands to make the program jump back and
repeat instructions.

Reset CPU
Clear the general purpose registers to zero. Set IP to zero. Set the flags to Zero. Set
the stack pointer to BF. The stack grows downwards from address FB.

Return address
The address stored on the stack that the program returns to when a procedure or
interrupt is complete.

Run
Run a program. Programs are collections of stored instructions that are usually
inactive. To run a program, it must be copied from disk into RAM and the CPU is
given the address of the first instruction in the program so it can run it

Unicode
A 65536 character code including every text character for all languages in the world
including most dead (disused) languages. This code is replacing ASCII

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S Flag
The S or sign flag in the status register indicates if the previous calculation gave a
negative result.

Save a file
Copy processed data from RAM onto disk.

Seven segment
displays are used in digital clocks, watches, calculators and so on. Numbers are built
up by illuminating combinations of the seven segments.

Sign bit
The left most bit in a binary number that is used to indicate if the number is positive
or negative.

Sign Flag
This is set if a calculation gives a negative result.

Signed Numbers
Numbers where the left most bit is the sign bit.

Simulator
Computer software that models reality in some way. Virtual reality aims to make the
simulation so realistic that it seems real. Most simulations are designed to be useful
rather than realistic.

Source Code
The human readable program code typed into the computer. See executable code.

SP
The stack pointer register. In the RAM displays, the stack pointer is highlighted blue
with yellow text.

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SR
The status register.

Stack
An area of memory used for temporary storage according to the LIFO rule. Last in
First out. The stack is used to save register contents for later restoration, pass
parameters into procedures and return results, reverse the order in which data is
stored, save addresses so procedures can return to the right place and there are
other uses include doing postfix arithmetic.

Stack Pointer
Points to the next free location on the stack. In the RAM displays, the stack pointer
is highlighted blue with yellow text.

Status Register
The status Register contains status flags that indicate the outcome of the previous
calculation. The flags are Sign, Zero and Overflow.

Stepper motor
A special motor that rotates in small controlled angular movements. It is used
commonly in printers, plotters and medical instruments.

Task Switching
Use Alt Tab to task switch manually. Operating systems also task switch
automatically. For example when word processing, the clock display continues to
work because from time to time the operating system switches tasks to keep both
going.

Thermostat
A temperature controlled switch. On when too cold. Off when too hot.

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Token List
When programs are translated into machine code, one of the first steps is to convert
the source code of the program into tokens. These are not usually human readable.
The tokens are designed to occupy minimal memory.

Twos complement
Binary numbers where the left most bit determines whether the number is positive or
negative.

Unsigned numbers
Numbers without a sign bit. These are always positive.

VDU
Visual display unit. Computer output is commonly displayed on the VDU. There are
several VDU display technologies.

Write
A simple Windows word processor. Data is saved to disk in a format unique to the
Write program.

Z Flag
The Z or zero flag is set it the previous calculation result was zero.

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SUMMARY
In this unit we have studied:

1. The hardware of a microprocessor system can be divided into four section , that is
input unit , micro processing unit ( MPU ), memory unit and output unit.
2. Evolution of the 8088 microprocessor system begin with 4 bit micprocessor , then
8 bit , 16 bit 32 bit and 64 bit.
3. Microprocessor performance is measured in MIPS and Icomp.
4. Term and conversion in the microprocessor and microcomputer world.

ANSWERS

EXERCISE 1.1

1. Four building blocks of microprocessor system are , input unit , output unit , MPU ,
and memory unit.
2. The heart of microcomputer called MPU.
3. 8088 IS 16 bit.
4. Primary input unit is keyboard. 2 another examples of input unit are joystick and
mouse.
5. The primary output device of the PC is printer.
6. ROM – Read only memory, RAM – Random Access Read / Write Memory.

EXERCISE 1.2

1. 4 bit , 8bit , 16 bit , 32 bit and 64 bit.

2. First 4 bit is 4004 , 8 bit is 8008/ 8080, 16 bit is 8086 and 32 bit is 80386DX.
3. Five , 16 bit members of the 8086 family are 8086 , 8088 , 80186, 80188 and 80286.
4. MIPS – million instruction per second.

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