Math TGG11

MATHEMATICS
TEACHER’S GUIDE
GRADE 11
Authors, Editors and Reviewers:
Rachel Mary Z. (B.Sc.)

Kassa Michael (M.Sc.)
Kinfegabrail Dessalegn (M.Sc.)
Sebsibe Teferi (M.Sc.)
Tilahun Abebaw (Ph.D.)
Hunduma Legesse (M.Sc.)
Mulugeta Naizghi (M.Sc.)
Berhanu Bekele (Ph.D.)
Evaluators:
Tesfaye Ayele
Dagnachew Yalew
Tekeste Woldetensai
FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Published E.C. 2002 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry
of Education, under the General Education Quality Improvement Project
(GEQIP) supported by IDA Credit No. 4535-ET, the Fast Track Initiative
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United Kingdom.
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INTRODUCTION
The study of mathematics at this cycle, grades 11 -12, prepares our students for the
future, both practically and philosophically. Studying mathematics provides them not
only with specific skills in mathematics, but also with tools and attitudes for
constructing the future of our society. As well as learning to think efficiently and
effectively, our students come to understand how mathematics underlies daily life and,
on a higher level, the dynamics of national and international activity. The students
automatically begin to apply high-level reasoning and values to daily life and also to
their understanding of the social, economic, political and cultural realities of the
country. In turn, this will help them to actively and effectively participate in the
ongoing process of developing the nation.
At this cycle, our students gain a solid knowledge of the fundamental mathematical
theories, theorems, rules and procedures. They also develop reliable skills for using this
knowledge to solve problems independently. To this end, the objectives of mathematics
learning at this cycle are to enable students to
• apply the mathematical knowledge and capabilities gained to solve problems

independently.
• develop mental abilities and high skills and competencies in calculations,
especially, in the field of logical thinking, reasoning, proving, defining and use
of mathematical language, terminologies and symbols correctly.
• develop an appreciation for the importance of mathematics as a field of study
by learning its historical development, scope and its relationship with other
disciplines.
• develop scientific outlook and personality characteristics such as working
activities with algorithms, exactness, neatness, honesty and carefulness
according to self-prepared plans for solving problems in line with the needs of
the society.
Recent research gives strong arguments for changing the way in which mathematics has
been taught. The rote-learning paradigm has been replaced by the student-centered
model. A student-centered classroom stimulates student inquiry, and the teacher serves
as a mentor who guides students as they construct their own knowledge base and skills.
A primary goal when you teach a concept is for the students to discover the concept for
themselves, particularly as they recognize threads and patterns in the data and theories
that they encounter under your guidance.
One of our teaching goals is particularly fostered by the student-oriented approach. We

want our students to develop personal qualities that will help them in real life.
For example, student-oriented teachers encourage students’ self-confidence and their

confidence in their knowledge, skills and general abilities. We motivate our students to
express their ideas and observations with courage and confidence. Because we want
I
II Mathematics Grade 11
them to feel comfortable addressing individuals and groups and to present themselves
and their ideas well, we give them safe opportunities to stand before the class and
present their work. Similarly, we help them learn to learn to answer questions posed
directly to them by other members of the class.
Teamwork is also emphasized in a student-centered classroom. For example, the

teacher creates favorable conditions for students to come together in groups and
exchange ideas about what they have learned and about material they have read. In this
process, the students are given many opportunities to openly discuss the knowledge they
have acquired and to talk about issues raised in the course of the discussion.
This teacher's guide will help you teach well. For example, it is very helpful for
budgeting your teaching time as you plan how to approach a topic. The guide suggests
tested teaching-time periods for each subject you will teach. Also, the guide contains
answers to the review questions at the end of each topic.
Each section of your teacher’s guide includes student-assessment guidelines. Use them
to evaluate your students’ work. Based on your conclusions, you will give special
attention to students who are working either above or below the standard level of
achievement. Check each student’s performance against the learning competencies
presented by the guide. Be sure to consider both the standard competencies and the
minimum competencies. Note that the minimum requirement level is not the standard
level of achievement. To achieve the standard level, your students must fulfill all of their
grade-level’s competencies successfully.
When you identify students who are working either below the standard level or below
the minimum level, give them extra help. For example, give them supplementary
presentations and reviews of the material in the section, give them extra time to study,
and develop extra activities to offer them. You can also encourage high-level students in
this way. You can develop high-level activities and extra exercises for them and can
offer high-level individual and group discussions. Some highlighting exercise problems
are given in this teacher’s guide. Be sure to show the high-level students that you
appreciate their good performance, and encourage them to work hard. Also, be sure to
discourage any tendencies toward complacency that you might observe.
Some helpful reference materials are listed at the end of this teacher’s guide. For
example, the internet is a rich resource for teachers, and searching for new web sites is
well worth your time as you investigate your subject matter. Use one of the many search
engines that exist – for example, Yahoo and Google.
Do not forget that, although this guide provides many ideas and guidelines, you are
encouraged to be innovative and creative in the ways you put them into practice in your
classroom. Use your own knowledge and insights in the same way as you encourage
your students to use theirs.
Contents
Active Learning and Continuous Assessment Required .............. 1
Unit 1 Further on Relations and Functions ...... 7
1.1 Revision on relations ................................... 8

1.2 Some additional types of functions ............ 15
1.3 Classification of functions ........................... 29
1.4 Composition of functions............................ 32
1.5 Inverse functions and their graphs ............. 37
Unit 2 Rational Expressions and Rational
Functions .............................................................. 43
2.1 Simplification of rational expressions ......... 44
2.2 Rational equations ...................................... 55
2.3 Rational functions and their graphs............ 58
Unit 3 Coordinate Geometry ..................................... 71
3.1 Straight lines ............................................... 72

3.2 Conic sections ............................................. 78
Unit 4 Mathematical Reasoning ............................... 109
4.1 Logic .......................................................... 110

4.2 Arguments and validity............................. 125
III
IV Mathematics Grade 11
Unit 5 Statistics and Probability.............................. 133
5.1 Statistics ................................................... 134

5.2 Probability ................................................ 163
Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants ......................... 179
6.1 Matrices .................................................... 180

6.2 Determinants and their properties ........... 195
6.3 Inverse of a square matrix ........................ 204
6.4 Systems of equations with two or
three variables .......................................... 210
6.5 Cramer’s rule ............................................ 218
Unit 7 The Set of Complex Numbers..................... 227
7.1 The concept of complex numbers ............. 228

7.2 Operations on complex numbers.............. 231
7.3 Complex conjugate and modulus.............. 236
7.4 Simplification of complex numbers .......... 239
7.5 Argand diagram and polar representation
of complex numbers ................................ 242
Table of Contents V
Unit 8 Vectors and Transformation of the Plane ... 251
8.1 Revision on vectors and scalars ................ 252

8.2 Representation of vectors ........................ 258
8.3 Scalar (dot) product of vectors ................. 261
8.4 Application of vectors ............................... 266
8.5 Transformation of the plane ..................... 271
Unit 9 Further on Trigonometric Functions ...... 293
9.1 The functions y = sec x, y = csc x and

y = cot x ................................................ 294
9.2 Inverse of trigonometric functions ......... .300
9.3 Graphs of some trigonometric functions..... 306
9.4 Applications of trigonometric functions .. 323
Unit 10 Introduction of Linear Programming ...... 343
10.1 Revision on linear graphs.......................... 344

10.2 Graphical solutions of systems of linear
inequalities .............................................. 346
10.3 Maximum and minimum values .............. 349
10.4 Real life linear programming problems .... 353
VI Mathematics Grade 11
Unit 11 Mathematical Applications in Business ... 363
11.1 Basic mathematical concepts in business....364

11.2 Compound interest and depreciation .......369
11.3 Saving, investing and borrowing money ...373
11.4 Taxation .................................................... 382
Reference Materials ......................................................................................... 391
Minimum Learning Competencies ......................................................... 393
Syllabus of Grade 11 Mathematics ......................................................... 401
Allotment of periods ...................................................... 405
Unit 1 Further on relations and functions ............................. 409
Unit 2 Rational expressions and rational functions ............ 418
Unit 3 Coordinate geometry ............................................... 422
Unit 4 Mathematical reasoning........................................... 427
Unit 5 Statistics and probability............................................ 431
Unit 6 Matrices and determinants ...................................... 462
Unit 7 The set of complex numbers .................................... 466
Unit 8 Vectors and transformation of the plane ................. 473
Unit 9 Further on trigonometric functions ............................ 477
Unit 10 Introduction to linear programming......................... 479
Unit 11 Mathematical applications in business .................... 482
ACTIVE LEARNING AND CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT REQUIRED!
Dear mathematics teacher! For generations the technique of teaching mathematics at
any level was dominated by what is commonly called the direct instruction. That is,
students are given the exact tools and formulas they need to solve a certain
mathematical problem, sometimes without a clear explanation as to why, and they are
told to do certain steps in a certain order and in turn are expected to do them as such at
all times. This leaves little room for solving varying types of problems. It can also lead
to misconceptions and students may not gain the full understanding of the concepts that
are being taught.
You just sit back for a while and try to think the most common activities that you, as a
mathematics teacher, are doing in the class.
Either you explain (lecture) the new topic to them, and expect your students to
remember and use the contents of this new topic or you demonstrate with
examples how a particular kind of problem is solved and students routinely
imitate these steps and procedures to find answers to a great number of
similar mathematical problems.
But this method of teaching revealed little or nothing of the meaning behind the
mathematical process the students were imitating.
We may think that teaching is telling students something, and learning occurs if students
remember it. But research reveals that teaching is not “pouring” information into
students’ brain and expecting them to process it and apply it correctly later.
Most educationalists agree that learning is an active meaning-making process and
students will learn best by trying to make sense of something on their own with the
teacher as a guide to help them along the way. This is the central idea of the concept
Active Learning.
Active learning, as the name suggests, is a process whereby learners are
actively engaged (involved) in the learning process, rather than "passively"
absorbing lectures. Students are rather encouraged to think, solve problems, do
activities carefully selected by the teacher, answer questions, formulate
questions of their own, discuss, explain, debate, or brainstorm, explore and
discover, work cooperatively in groups to solve problems and workout projects.
The design of the course materials (student textbooks and teachers guides) for
mathematics envisages active learning to be dominantly used. With this strategy, we
feel that you should be in a position to help students understand the concepts through
relevant, meaningful and concrete activities. The activities should be carried out by
students to explore the world of mathematics, to learn, to discover and to develop
interest in the subject. Though it is your role to exploit the opportunity of using active
learning at an optimal level, for the sake of helping you get an insight, we recommend
that you do the following as frequently as possible during your teaching:
1
2 Mathematics Grade 11
Engage your students in more relevant and meaningful activities than just
listening.
Include learning materials having examples that relate to students life, so that
they can make sense of the information.
Let students be involved in dialog, debate, writing, and problem solving, as
well as higher-order thinking, e.g., analysis, synthesis, evaluation.
Encourage students’ critical thinking and inquiry by asking them thoughtful,
open-ended questions, and encourage them to ask questions to each other.
Have the habit of asking learners to apply the information in a practical
situation. This facilitates personal interpretation and relevance.
Guide them to arrive at an understanding of a new mathematical concept,
formula, theorem, rule or any generalization, by themselves. You may realize
this by giving them an activity in which students sequentially uncover layers of
mathematical information one step at a time and discover new mathematics.
Select assignments and projects that should allow learners to choose
meaningful activities to help them apply and personalize the information. These
need to help students undertake initiatives, discover mathematical results and
even design new experiments to verify results.
Let them frequently work in peers or groups. Working with other learners gives
learners real-life experience of working in a group, and allows them to use their
metacognitive skills. Learners will also be able to use the strengths of other
learners, and to learn from others. When assigning learners for group work
membership, it is advisable if it is based on the expertise level and learning
style of individual group members, so that individual team members can benefit
from one another's strengths.
In general, if mathematics is to develop creative and imaginative mathematical minds,
you must overhaul your traditional methods of presentation to the more active and
participatory strategies and provide learning opportunities that allow your students to be
actively involved in the learning process. While students are engaged with activities,
group discussions, projects, presentations and many others they need to be continuously
assessed.
Continuous Assessment
You know that continuous assessment is an integral part of the teaching learning
process. Continuous assessment is the periodic and systematic method of assessing and
evaluating a person’s attributes and performance. Information collected from continuous
behavioral change of students will help teachers to better understand their strengths and
weaknesses in addition to providing a comprehensive picture of each student over a
period of time. Continuous assessment will afford student to readily see his/her
development pattern through the data. It will also help to strengthen the parent teacher
relationship and collaboration. It is an ongoing process more than giving a test or exam
frequently and recording the marks.
Active Learning and Continuous Assessment Required 3
Continuous assessment enables you to assess a wide range of learning competencies and
behaviors using a variety of instruments some of which are:
• Tests/ quizzes (written, oral or practical)
• Class room discussions, exercises, assignments or group works.
• Projects
• Observations
• Interview
• group discussions
• questionnaires
Different competencies may require different assessment techniques and instruments.
For example, oral questions and interviews may serve to assess listening and speaking
abilities. They also help to assess whether or not students are paying attention, and
whether they can correctly express ideas. You can use oral questions and interviews to
ask students to restate a definition, note or theorem, etc. Questionnaires, observations
and discussions can help to assess the interest, participation and attitudes of a student.
Written tests/exams can also help to assess student’s ability to read, to do and correctly
write answers for questions.
When to Assess
Continuous assessment and instruction are integrated in three different time frames
namely, Pre-instruction, During-instruction and Post-instruction. To highlight each briefly
1. Pre-instruction assessment
This is to assess what students luck to start a lesson. Hence you should start a lesson by
using opportunities to fill any observed gap. If students do well in the pre-instruction
assessment, then you can begin instructing the lesson. Otherwise, you may need to
revise important concepts.
The following are some suggestions to perform or make use of pre-instruction
assessment.
i. assess whether or not students have the prerequisite knowledge and skill to
be successful, through different approaches.
ii. make your teaching strategies motivating.
iii. plan how you form groups and how to give marks.
iv. create interest on students to learn the lesson.
2. Assessment during instruction:
This is an assessment during the course of instruction rather than before it is started or
after it is completed. The following are some of the strategies you may use to assess
during instruction.
i. observe and monitor students’ learning.

ii. check that students are understanding the lesson. You may use varying
approaches such as oral questions, asking students to do their work on the
board, stimulate discussion, etc.
iii. identify which students need extra help and which students should be left
alone.
iv. ask a balanced type of exercise problems according to the students ability,
help weaker students and give additional exercise for fast students.
v. monitor how class works and group discussions are conducted
3. Post Instruction Assessment:
This is an assessment after instruction is completed. It is conducted usually for the
purpose of documenting the marks and checking whether competencies are achieved.
Based on the results students scored, you can decide whether or not there is anything the
class didn’t understand because of which you may revise some of the lessons or there is
something you need to adjust on the approach of teaching. This also help you analyze
whether or not the results really reflect what students know and what they can do, and
decide how to treat the next lesson.
Forming and managing groups
You can form groups through various approaches: mixed ability, similar ability, gender
or other social factors such as socioeconomic factors. When you form groups, however,
care need to be taken in that you should monitor their effort. For example, if students
are grouped by mixed ability the following problems may happen.
1. Mixed ability grouping may hold back high-ability students. Here, you should
give enrichment activities for high ability students.
2. High ability students and low ability students might form a teacher-student
relationship and exclude the medium ability students from group discussion. In
this case you should group medium ability students together.
When you assign group work, the work might be divided among the group members,
who work individually. Then the members get together to integrate, summarize and
present their finding as a group project. Your role is to facilitate investigation and
maintain cooperative effort.
Highlights about assessing students
You may use different instruments to assess different competencies. For example,
consider each of the following competencies and the corresponding assessment
instruments.
Competency 1. Recall measures of central tendency.
Instrument: Oral question.
Question: What are the measures of central tendency?
Active Learning and Continuous Assessment Required 5
Competency 2 - Students will calculate percentiles.

Instrument: class work/homework/ quiz /test
Question: Find the 30th and 75th percentiles for the following grouped data
Class Frequency
1–7 2
8 – 14 4
15 – 21 7
22 – 28 3
29 – 35 4
20
Competency 3 – Apply statistics in their daily life problems.
Instrument: Assignment/project.
Question: Go to your school’s record office, collect data of students’ scores in
their EGSSCE, and then calculate each of the following. Mean,
Median and Mode, 80th and 60th percentiles, and interpret the results.
How often to assess

Here are some suggestions which may help you how often to assess.
• Class activities / class works: Every day (when convenient).
• Homework/Group work: as required.
• Quizzes: at the end of every one (or two) sub topics.
• Tests: at the end of every unit.
• Exams: once or twice in every semester.
How to Mark
The following are some suggestions which may help you get well prepared before you
start marking:
• use computers to reduce the burden for record keeping.
• although low marks may diminish the students motivation to learn, don’t
give inflated marks for inflated marks can also cause reluctance.
The following are some suggestions on how to mark a semester’s achievement.
1. One final semester exam 30%.
2. Tests 25%
3. Quizzes 10%
4. Homework 10%
5. Class activities, class work, presentation demonstration skills 15%
6. Project work, in groups or individually 10%.
Moreover
In a group work allow students to evaluate themselves as follows using format of the
following type.
A B C D
The ability to communicate
The ability to express written works
Motivation
Responsibility
Leadership quality
Concern for others
Participation
Over all
You can shift the leadership position or regroup the students according to the result of
the self evaluation. You can also consider your observation.
Reporting students’ progress and marks to parents

Parents should be informed about their children’s progress and performance in the class
room. This can be done through different methods.
1. The report card: two to four times per year.
2. Written progress report: Per week/two weeks/per month/two months.
3. Parent – teacher conferences (as scheduled by the school).
The report should be about the student performance say, on tests, quizzes, projects, oral
reports, etc that need to be reported. You can also include motivation or cooperation
behavior. When presenting to parents your report can help them appraise fast learner,
pay additional concern and care for low achieving student, and keep track of their
child’s education. In addition, this provides an opportunity for giving parents helpful
information about how they can be partners with you in helping the student learn more
effectively.
The following are some suggested strategies that may help you to communicate with
parents concerning marks, assessment and student learning.
1. Review the student’s performance before you meet with parents.
2. Discuss with parents the students good and poor performances.
3. Do not give false hopes. If a student has low ability, it should be clearly informed
to his/her parents.
4. Give more opportunities for parents to contribute to the conversation.
5. Do not talk about other students. Don’t compare the student with another student.
6. Focus on solutions
NB. All you need to do is thus plan what type of assessment and how many of each
you are going to use beforehand (preferably during the beginning of the
year/semester).
UNIT
1 FURTHER ON
RELATIONS AND
FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
This unit is devoted to the discussion of relations and functions. The concepts of
relations and functions are very important for problem solving. They influence the
study of mathematics from elementary level to advanced level. It is very important that
students should have a firm grasp of these concepts.
Since students have studied this topic in grade 9, you need to make sure that the
students have worked through the examples and exercises given in the unit.
This unit consists of five sections: revisions on relations, some additional types of
functions, classification of functions, composition of functions, and inverse functions
and their graphs.
Encouraging students to do the activities and exercises in pairs and small groups is
advised because group work helps them to develop confidence in expressing their ideas.
They may also develop team spirit in working in small groups.
In addition to the examples given in the textbook, help students to construct their own
examples.
Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, students will be able to:
• know specific facts about relations.
• know additional concepts and facts about functions.
• understand methods and principles in composing functions.
7
Suggested Teaching Aids in unit 1

In addition to the students textbooks and teachers guide, the following are
recommended teaching aids for this unit.
Chart showing sample graphs of relations, functions and their inverses
Sample graphs showing the symmetry of R and R-1 on the line y = x
Graph Board.
Sample graph of invertible functions together with their inverses.
Software such as Geometer’s sketch pad, tinkerplot, Matlab, etc.
1.1 REVISION ON RELATIONS

Periods Allotted: 2 Periods
Competencies
At the end of this sub-unit, students will be able to:
• find out the inverse of a given relation.
• sketch the graph of a relation and its inverse.
Vocabulary: Relation, Inverse, Domain, Range, Graph, Mirror image
Introduction
The main purpose of this sub-unit is to help the students find out inverses of given
relations and sketch their graphs. But the students may need to revise what they learnt
in Grades 9 and 10.
Since the students studied this topic in grades 9 and 10 you may first need to assess their
background through oral questions and answers. Whenever you find it essential, you
may start the sub-unit by revising the concepts of relation, domain, range and graph of a
relation. In addition, give the graphs of simple relations and help students to write the
relations that define them. However, before attempting to discuss these, it is advisable to
give the opening problem to brainstorm the thinking of the students.
1.1.1 Inverse of a Relation
Teaching Notes
As a consequence of the opening problem, which the students might not be able to
answer, you form groups and let them do Activity 1.1. The purpose of this activity is to
help the students revise relations represented as a set of ordered pairs, and to determine
their domains and ranges. They will also revise what happens if the ordered pairs in a
relation are reversed. This will help them revise inverse of a relation too.
Unit 1 – Further on Relations and Functions 9
Answers to Activity 1.1

The purpose of this Activity is to help students recall the basic concepts of relations.
Use it as an indicator of how much they recall of what they studied in the lower grades.
1. Domain of R = {1, 5, 6, 7, 8} and Range of R = {–1, 2, 4, 9}.
Relation:
R
1 –1
5 2
6 4
7 9
8
Figure 1.1
2. (–5, 6) and (π, 3.4) belong to R, while (–4, –6.234) does not belong to R.
3. When the order of each of the ordered pairs of the relation in 1 is reversed, we
get the set {(–1, 5), (4, 6), (9, 7), (2, 8), (–1, 1)}.
Similarly, for the relation in 2, when the elements are reversed, we get the set
{(y, x): x < y} = {(x, y): y < x}.
After the revision through Activity 1.1, you can proceed with the new lesson by taking
inverses of relations with finite elements and then proceed with more complex ones.
For Example: R1 = {(1, 3), (b, a), (c, 1), (a, 2)}
R2 = {(x, y): y = x + 1}
R3 = {(x, y): y < x + 1}
R4 = {(x, y): y < x + 1 and y ≥ 3x – 2} and so on.
Students need to develop the ability of sketching graphs of relations. So, make sure that
they identify basic components of the Cartesian plane and clearly indicate the difference
of inequalities like (y ≥ 2x + 3) and strict inequalities like (y > 2x + 3) in their sketches.
(In sketching y ≥ 2x + 3, the line y = 2x + 3 is expressed by unbroken line, while in
sketching y > 2x + 3, the line y = 2x + 3 is given by a broken line).
At this stage, you can state the definition of a relation and its inverse given on page 3
and definition 1.1.
To let the students identify relations between two nonempty sets and determine their
domain and range, you can form groups and let them do Group Work 1.1. This group
work also guides the students to find inverse of a relation with its domain and range.
Finally, it helps them relate the domain and range of a relation and its inverse. That is, it
will help them to establish the fact that
Domain R–1 = Range R and Domain R = Range R–1
For talented students you can give exercises to find maximum and minimum values of
relations.
Example: Find the maximum and minimum values of the relation
R = {(x, y): y ≤ x + 3, y ≤ –x + 1 and y ≤ x – 4}
Solution:
y
5
4
3 y=x+3
2
1
y = − x +1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2 y=x−4
−3  5 −3 
 , 
−4 2 2 
−5
Figure 1.2
 5 −3 
From the graph of the relation R, we have the maximum value at  ,  and no
2 2 
minimum value.
Answers to Group Work 1.1
1. Only R1 and R4 are relations from A to B.
2. a. Domain of R = {−1, 0} and Range of R = {5, 6} = B
b. Domain of R–1 = {5, 6}
Range of R–1 = {−1, 0}
c. Domain of R = Range of R–1 and Range of R = Domain of R–1.
3 c and d
4 Domain of R–1 = R and Range of R–1 = (1, ∞)
  6 
5. a. R −1 = (5,1), (−6,3), (3.5, 4),  ,1 
  5 
6
Domain of R–1 = {5, –6, 3.5, }; Range of R–1 = {1, 3, 4}
5
−1
b. R = {( y , x ) : y = 3 x − 7} = { x, y) : x = 3 y − 7}
(
 1 7
= ( x, y ) : y = x + 
 3 3
Domain of R = R = Range of R–1
–1
c. R −1 = {( y, x) : y < −3x and y ≥ x − 4} = {( x, y ) : x < −3 y and x ≥ y − 4}

 1 
= ( x, y ) : y < − x and y ≤ x + 4 
 3 
–1 –1
Domain of R = R ; Range of R = (–∞, 1)
Assessment
You may use Exercise 1.1 for assessing the understanding of your students either as
class work or home work.
Answers to Exercise 1.1
1. b, c, d and f are true. Check by inserting the points in the relation.
2. a.
y
5
4
y=3
3
2
1
y = x2 − 1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3
Figure 1.3
b. To find the domain, find the intersection points of y = x2 – 1 and y = 3
x2 – 1 = 3 ⇒ x2 = 4 ⇒ x = ± 2
Thus, the domain is [–2, 2] and the range is [–1, 3].
3. R = {(x, y): x ≥ y2 and x2 + y2 ≤ 9}
4. a. R–1 = {(x, y): y is a brother of x}
b. R–1 = {(x, y): y2 + 1 = x2}
c. R–1 = {(x, y): x ≥ y + 3 and x < – 3y – 1}
 1 1
= ( x, y ) : y ≤ x − 3 and y < − x − 
 3 3
5. a. R–1 = {( x, y ) : x ≥ y 2
+ 1} = {( x, y ) : x − 1 ≥ y 2 }
Now for each y, y2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x – 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 1
Thus Domain of R–1 = [1, ∞) and Range of R–1 = R .
b. R−1 = {(x, y): x ≤ –y2 and x ≥ –1}
–1 ≤ x ≤ –y2 ⇒ –1 ≤ x ≤ 0, (since –y2 ≤ 0)
Thus Domain of R–1 = [–1, 0]
Besides –1 ≤ x ≤ –y2 ⇒ 1 ≥ –x ≥ y2.
So, y2 ≤ 1 ⇒ |y| ≤ 1 ⇒ Range of R–1 = [–1, 1].
c. R–1 = {(x, y): –3 ≤ y ≤ 3, x∈ R }
Thus Domain of R–1 = R and Range of R–1 = [–3, 3].
1.1.2 Graphs of Inverse Relations

By guiding the students to work in pairs through Activity 1.2 in the student textbook,
and by giving additional examples, encourage them to arrive at the facts
Domain of R = Range of R–1 and Range of R = Domain of R–1
Give additional examples, activities and group work to
- draw R–1 and R using the separate set of coordinate axes.
- draw R–1 and R using the same Cartesian coordinate axes and notice that
they are mirror images on the line y = x.
- reflect R on the line y = x to get R–1.
- Find domain and Range of R–1 from the graph of R and that of R–1.
Use large graph papers and display for the students. Note also that it is easier to find
domain and range of a relation using its graph.
1. a. R–1 = {(–2, 1), (9, 3), (6, 4), (–7, 5), (2.5, 5)}
b. Domain of R–1 = {–2, 9, 6, –7, 2.5}
Range of R = {–2, 9, 6, –7, 2.5}
⇒ Domain of R–1 = Range of R.
c. Range of R–1 = {1, 3, 4, 5} = Domain of R.
d. R–1 = {(x, y): –3 ≤ y ≤ 3, x∈ ℝ }
Thus Domain of R–1 = R = Range of R and
Range of R–1 = [–3, 3] = Domain of R.
e. For any relation R, Domain of R–1 = Range of R and
Range of R–1 = Domain of R.
Once the students are able to relate domain and range of a relation and its inverse, you
can now proceed to discuss the behavior of graphs of a relation and its inverse. To this
end, you can use Group Work 1.2. The purpose of this Group Work is to show that, for
any relation R, the graph of R–1 is the reflection of the graph of R with respect to the
line y = x.
1. a. R-1 = {(−1, 3), (2, 4), (3, 6), (1, −5)}
b. c.
7 y
6 ∆(3, 6)
y 5 y=x
4 4 ∆ (2, 4)
3 (−1, 3)∆ 3 (6, 3)
*
2 y=x 2
*(4, 2)
(−5, 1)
* 1
1 x
x −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1 *(3, −1)
−1 −2
−3
−2
−4
−3 (1, −5)
−5 ∆
Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5

d. When you fold the graph in (c) above, along the line y = x, you can see that
the points on the graph of R and the points on the graph of R-1 coincide.
2. As investigated in (1) above, the graph of R: y= x3 and R-1: x = y3 is given below.
y
4
3
y = x3
2
1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
x = y3 −3
Figure 1.6
3.
y
5
y=x+2
4
3
2
R
1
y=x−1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
Figure 1.7
From the graph, if you turn the paper over and rotate the paper 90o clockwise, you
will get the graph of R-1.
Through the Group Work, the students will recall at the conclusion that the graph of a
relation is mirror image of the graph of its inverse. After ensuring this, you can give
exercise 1.2 as a class work or homework with which students can practice determining
graphs of inverse relations.
Assessment
You can assess the understanding of the students either through homework or by giving
them assignments consisting of problems related to the topic.
1. a.
y
5
4
3
2 2
y+1=x
1 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
x + 1 = y2
−3
Figure 1.8
Note:- Curve in quadrant I is reflected on quadrant I
Curve in quadrant II is reflected on quadrant IV
Curve in quadrant III is reflected on quadrant III
Curve in quadrant IV is reflected on quadrant II
b. iii
2. a. b.
y y
5 5
4 y=x+1
4
3
y = −3x 3
2 y+x=1 y=x−1
1
R 2
x 1
2 3 4 5
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1
−1 1 2 3 4 5
4 −3 −2 −1 1
R = R-1 −2 −1 -1 y=− x
R 3
−3 −2

c. d.
y y
5
2 2
5 x2 + y2 = 16
4 x + y = 16 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
x x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5
R = R-1
−5
1.2. SOME ADDITIONAL TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

Competencies
• define power functions.
• describe the properties of power functions in relation to their exponents.
• determine the domains and ranges of power functions.
• sketch the graphs of power functions.
• define the Modulus (Absolute value) function.
• determine the domain and the range of the modulus function.
• sketch the graph of the Modulus function.
• define the signum function.
• determine the domain and range of the signum function.
• sketch the graph of the signum function.
• define the (the greatest integer) function.
• determine the domain and range of the greatest integer function.
• sketch the graph of the greatest integer function.
Vocabulary: Function, Parity, Power function, Modulus (absolute value) function,
Signum function, Greatest integer (floor) function, Inflection point, Cusp
Introduction
In the same way as you did for revising relations, you can see Unit 4 of Grade 9 Student
Textbook and Units 1 and 2 of Grade 10 Student Textbook to revise concepts so far
covered on functions, polynomial, exponential and logarithmic functions.
The concept of a function is undoubtedly the most important concept in mathematics.

Thus, enough attention must be given to revise this important concept. The purpose of
this sub-unit is to familiarize the students with power functions and piece-wise defined
functions. Piece-wise defined functions occur in many situations. For instance, the
amount of money you pay for a parcel you send through the postal service versus the
weight of the parcel gives a step-wise function.
1.2.1 Revision on Function

Teaching Notes
To begin the revision, you can guide the students to do Activity 1.3 which will be useful
to discuss identifying functions from relations, determine domain of a function and
finally evaluate functional value at a point. Following this activity, the students can also
discuss different ways of representing functions. They will also be able to use vertical
lines in diagnosing whether a certain graph represents a function.

1. b and c are functions
Domain of f = R ; domain of g =  , ∞ 
−7
2.
 3 
a. –20 b. –6.5 c. 4
Right after this, you can define different types of functions as even or odd, and
introduce the term parity (being even or odd). Some other types of functions:
exponential and logarithmic are also defined.
For talented students you can give exercises to determine the parity of rational functions
such as the following.
x5 − 5 x 3 + x
Example: Determine the parity of f ( x ) = .
x2 + 1
5 3
( −x) − 5( −x) + (− x) − x 5 + 5 x3 − x
Solution: f (− x ) = 2
= = − f ( x) .
(−x) +1 x2 +1
Therefore, f is odd.
Assessment
To assess the understanding of the students, you can use Exercise 1.3 which you may
give them as homework assignment.

1. a. b.
4 y
3 4 y
2 3x − 1 3
y=
1 2 x 2
1 y = x +1
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2 −1
−3 −2
−
c.
y
5
y=4
4
3
2
1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 3 4 5
−1
−2
Figure 1.15
2. p(50) = 29%, p(100) = 26% , p(200) = 20% and p(400) = 8%
y
30
20
10
x
−50 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
−10
Figure 1.16
3. a. g (–x) = 8( − x)4 +1 = 8x 4 +1 = g (x) ⇒ g is even
b. f (–x) = 4(–x)3 +5(–x) = – (4x3 – 5x) = –f(x) ⇒ f is odd.
c. f (–x) = (–x)4 + 3(–x)2 = x4 + 3x2 = f (x) ⇒ f is even
1 1
d. h (–x) = = −   = –h (x) ⇒ h is odd.
−x x
4 a and b are functions; the others are not.
1.2.2 Power Functions

Power functions have many varieties. The definition and their general behaviors, when r
is an integer or a fraction and when r is negative or positive, are given in the student
textbook.
But, due to their variety, students may find them confusing. So, in order to clear their
confusion they need to do as many examples as possible, through group work or home
take exercises. To start discussing power functions, however, you can let the students
do Activity 1.4. The purpose of this activity is to guide students to identify the functions
as power and exponential functions.
a, b and d are power functions. But c and e are exponential functions.
Though students might differentiate power function and exponential function, for a
function of type f ( x) = ax r the behavior depends on the value of r. To identify the
change in the behavior, you can group the students and let them do Group Work 1.3.
The purpose of the Group Work is to help students identify the basic properties of
power functions by themselves. The important properties to look for are domain, range,
parity (whether they are odd, even or neither), symmetry (if the function has any) and
also the regions where they are decreasing or increasing.
Here you need to note that any function of the form y = ax where a is fixed is
exponential function and that of y = axr where the base x is variable is power function.
1. a. Domain of f = Range of f = ℝ
b.
x –2 –1 0 1 2
f (x) –32 –4 0 4 32
c.
y
5
4
f (x) = 4x3
3
2
1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−
Figure 1.17
d. Since f (–x) = 4(–x)3 = –4x3 = –f (x), then f is odd.

e. Since the function is odd, the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the
origin.
2. a. Domain of f = ℝ
Range of f = [0, ∞)
b.
x –2 –1 0 1 2
f (x) 16 4 0 4 16
c.
y
5
4
y = 4x2
3
2
1
x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
−3
Figure 1.18
d. Since f (–x) = 4 (–x) = 4x2 = f (x), f is even.
2
e. Since f is even, the graph of f is symmetric with respect to y-axis

3. f (x) = 2x–3
a. Domain of f = ℝ \ {0}
Range of f = ℝ \ {0}
b.
x –2 –1 0 1 2
f (x) 1 –2 ∃ 2 1
−
4 4
c.
y
5
4
3
f (x) = 2x-3
2
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
Figure 1.19
d. Since f (–x) = 2(–x) –3 = –2x–3 = –f (x). ⇒ f is odd

e. Since f is odd, its graph is symmetric with respect to the origin
4. f (x) = 2x–2
a. Domain of f = ℝ \{0}
Range of f = (0, ∞)
b.
x –2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) 1 2 ∃ 2 1
2 2
c.
y
5
4
f (x) = 2x-2
3
2
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
Figure 1.20
d. Since f (–x) = 2(–x)−2 = 2x−2 = f (x), f is even.
e. Since f is even, the graph of f is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
After the students do the Group Work and make some generalizations, it will be better
m
to consider the behavior of power function where r is a rational number of the form ,
n
where m and n are integers, with n ≠ 0. Make charts of typical functions with their
important behaviors listed and post them on the wall, for students to review as they go
through the group work. Here, it is worth to note that students need to be reminded what
it is and how they identify “inflection point”. For further investigation of the domain,
range, parities, symmetry and other related parameters, you can let the students discuss
Activity 1.5.

m
a. f (x) = x n , m even, n odd (Figure 1.9)
2
Specific example f (x) = x 5
1. Domain = R , Range = [0, ∞)
2. f is even
3. symmetric with respect to the y-axis
4. f is increasing on [0, ∞) and decreasing on (–∞, 0].
m
n
b. f (x) = x , m odd, n even (Figure 1.10)
5
2
Specific example: f (x) = x
1. Domain = [0, ∞); Range = [0, ∞)
2. f is neither odd nor even
3. it has no symmetry
4. f is increasing on [0, ∞)
−1
c. f (x) = x n , n odd (Figure 1.11)
−1
Specific example: f (x) = x 7
1. Domain = R \{0}; Range = R \ {0}
2. f is odd
3. symmetric with respect to the origin
4. f is decreasing on (-∞, 0) ∪(0, ∞)
−1
n
d. f (x) = x , n even (Figure 1.12)
−1
Specific example: f (x) = x 4
1. Domain = (0, ∞); Range = (0, ∞)
2. f is neither odd nor even
3. has no symmetry
4. f is decreasing on (0, ∞)
m
−
n
e. f (x) = x , m even, n odd (Figure 1.13)
−2
5
Specific example: f (x) = x
1. Domain = R \{0}, Range = (0, ∞)
2. f is even
3. symmetric with respect to the y = axis
4. f is increasing on (–∞, 0) and decreasing on (0, ∞)
Assessment
You can assess the students’ understanding of power functions by using different
approaches. You can give them homework and check their work.

1. b and c are the only power functions because these are the only ones that can be
written in the form of f(x) = axr.
2. a. R b. [0, ∞) c. R\ {0} d. (0, ∞)
3.
y
5
4
y = 2x2
3
2
1 y = x2
x
−3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5
−2
y = −2x2
−3
−4
Figure 1.21
4. a=1
a
5. a. f (x) = ; Domain = R \{0}; Range = R \{0}
x
b. The graph is symmetrical w.r.t the origin.
y
5
4
3 2
y=
2 x
1
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
Figure 1.22
1.2.3 Absolute Value (Modulus) Function
Absolute values are essential in mathematics. The students have learned about absolute
values in grade 9. Before giving the formal definition of absolute value function, it will
be helpful to assess their prior knowledge and take any remedial measure if needed.
After, ensuring the backlog of the students, you can guide them to do Activity 1.6 for
the purpose of revising absolute values of numbers.

The purpose of this Activity is to determine the absolute value of a number.
a. 2 b. 3 c. 0 d. 6.014
It is also good to help the students recall some of the properties of absolute value and
derive a few of them. The derivation of the basic properties are based on the fact that
x = x 2 . Using this relation, discuss with the students how to find modulus of a
number using calculators.
When the students see the tip that is helpful to derive properties of absolute values, you
can give them Activity 1.7 to let them see how absolute values of a number and its
opposite are equal.
1. a.  –3.5 =3.5  = 3.5 b. 4.213  = –4.213= 4.213
c. x = –x 
2. a. i. xy =2.4 × 3=  7.2  = 7.2
 x y  = 2.4× 3  = 2.4 × 3 = 7.2
ii. xy =  –6 × 4 = –24 = 24
x y=–6 4  = 6 × 4 = 24
b. xy  =  x y , for each x, y ∈ ℝ
By taking the presentations of Activity 1.7 and other numerous examples, help students
to establish
i. x= –x ii. x≥ 0 iii. xy = xy
x x
iv. = ,y≠0 v. x= a ⇔ x = a or x = –a, if a > 0.
y y
You can assign the proofs of the above facts to fast learners. (They can base their proofs
on the fact x = x 2 )
Once they see the absolute values of numbers through examples and their properties, it
will be better to give them the formal definition of absolute value. Afterwards, they can
try to discuss absolute value function and its domain, range and graph.
Assessment
You can give various exercises of absolute values for the purpose of assessing your
students.

4
1. a. 13 b. 25 c.
5
1  4
2. a. {–4, 4} b. ∅ c. {− } d. −2, 
3  3
3. a. R b. R c. R \{0} d. R
4. a. c.

1.2.4 Signum Function
The students may not have been familiar with signum function. Before you start the
lesson, you can let the students do Activity 1.8 so that they can revise functions defined
differently at different intervals (subsets of the domain). This Activity will guide them
to easily grasp the idea of signum function.

a. R b. {–2, 3}
c.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
−3
−4
Figure 1.25
When the students discuss this activity, you can give instances where piece-wise
defined functions that are similar to the function in the activity are treated. The
following example dealing with the intervals and income tax in each interval can help
you present the application of piece-wise defined function.
N.B. You may not let your students know each detail of this function. But, you give the
highlights of the function since it is one of our practical applications.
Example: Income tax of a salary.
Income tax in Birr
0 0 ≤ x ≤ 150
(0.1) x 151 ≤ x ≤ 650
0.15x 651 ≤ x ≤ 1400
0.2x 1401 ≤ x ≤ 2350
f ( x) =
0.25x 2351 ≤ x ≤ 3350
0.3x 3551 ≤ x ≤ 5000
0.35x x ≥ 5001
 1 for x > 0

Then, discuss the signum function f (x) =  0 for x = 0
−1 for x < 0

Discuss that f is related with the modulus (absolute) function. The graph is
different from any graph the students have experienced so far. So, see to it that the
students to pay attention to the jump discontinuity at x = 0. The break in the graph
at x = 0 is called a jump (probably because anything that moves from left to right
along the path given by f (x) has to jump up to move from the part of the graph
on the left of the y-axis to the part of the graph on the right of the y-axis). Pay
attention to the facts that (0, –1) and (0, 1) do not belongs to the graph (shown
by hollow circle) and that (0, 0) belongs to the graph (shown by filled-in small
circle).
For talented students, you can give an exercise that applies such a function. First
give the above income tax function where x is the gross salary. The pension tax
function is given by g(x) = 0.04x , x > 150. If the gross salary of an employee is
Birr 2000, ask them to find the amount of the net salary of the employee so that
they can see the application of piece-wise defined functions.
Solution: First notice that the pension tax and income tax are calculated separately
from the gross salary.
First calculate income tax as:
Income tax = (650−150) × 0.1 + (1400−650) × 0.15 + (2000−1400) × 0.2
= Birr 282.50.
Second find pension tax as:
Pension tax = (0.04×2000) = Birr 80.00
Total deduction = Income tax + Pension tax = 282.50 + 80.00 = Birr 362.50
Therefore, the Net salary = Gross salary – Total deduction
= 2000 − 362.5 = Birr 1637.50.
Assessment
You can use exercise 1.6 for students to practice functions that consist of signum
function and their graphs. You can let them do this exercise as homework and check
their work.

1. y = x + sgn(x)
Figure 1.26
Domain = R ; Range = (–∞, –1) ∪ {0} ∪ (1, ∞)
2. f (x) = x sgn(x) = |x|.
3. y = x2 sgn(x) 4. Domain = R ;
Domain = R ; Range = [0, ∞)
Range = R Symmetry = y-axis

5. a. odd b. even
1.2.5 The Greatest Integer (floor) Function

Once the students have captured the ideas of piece-wise functions in general and signum
function in particular, they can see some other functions that have similar nature with
signum function but with a different level. To this end, the students need to discuss the
floor function. But, before the students draw the graph of the floor function, let them do
the examples on the textbook and give them as many examples as possible so that they
can state the definition by themselves. Students need assistance in sketching the graph.
In order to help the students sketch the graph of floor function, you can let them do
Activity 1.9.

1. a. f (–3) = f (–2.7) = f (–2.5) = f (–2.1) = f (–2.01) = –3
b. f (x) = –3
c.
x −3 ≤ x<−2 −2 ≤ x < –1 −1 ≤ x < 0 0≤x<1 1≤x<2 2≤x<3
f (x) −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
2.
Figure 1.29
After doing the Activity, the students need to give an explanation about floor functions.
Notice that for each n∈ ℤ , if n ≤ x < n + 1, then f(x) = n, and (n, n) is part of the graph
(shown by a filled-in small circle), while (n + 1, n) is not part of the graph (shown by a
hollow small circle).
Domain = R while Range = ℤ .
So f : R → ℤ . The graph has infinite jumps.
Assessment
By giving exercises to sketch graphs and determine domain and range of different floor
functions, you can assess your students.

1. a. 3 b. –22 c. 21 d. 0
2. i. a. f (4.25 + 6) = f (10.25) = 10 and
f (4.25) + 6 = 4 + 6 = 10
⇒f (4.25 + 6) = f (4.25) + 6
b. f (–3.21 + 7) = f (3.79) = 3 and
f (–3.21) + 7 = –4 + 7 = 3
⇒f (–3.21 + 7) = f (–3.21) + 7
c. f (8 + (–11)) = f (–3) = –3
f (8) + (–11) = 8 + (–11)= –3
⇒f (8+(–11)) = f (8) + ( –11)
ii. a. f (4.25) + f (6.32) = 4+6 = 10
f (4.25+6.32) = f (10.57) = 10
4.25 + 6.32 =10.57
⇒f (4.25)+f (6.32) ≤ f (4.25+6.32) ≤ 4.25+6.32.
b and c can be done similarly
iii. a. f (2.5) = 2, x = 2.5, f (2.5) + 1 = 2+1=3
⇒f (2.5) ≤ 2.5 ≤ f (2.5) + 1
b and c can be done similarly
3. a. f (x) ≤ x < f (x) + 1 ⇒  x  ≤ x <  x  + 1
⇒  x  –  x  ≤ x –  x  <  x  + 1 –  x  ⇒ 0 ≤ x –  x  < 1
⇒0≤a<1
b. a = x –  x  ⇒ x =  x  + a , 0 ≤ a < 1.
c. f (x + k) = f (  x  + a + k) = f(  x  + k + a)
= [  x  + k + a], where  x  + k∈ ℤ and 0 ≤ a < 1.
=  x  + k = f(x) + k
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF FUNCTIONS

Periods Allotted: 2 periods
Competencies
• define one-to-one function.
• identify functions which are one-to-one.
• define onto function.
• identify functions which are onto.
• identify one-to-one correspondence.
Vocabulary: One-to-one, Onto, One-to-one correspondence
Introduction
There are various classifications of functions in mathematical studies. But this unit is
devoted to the study of one-to-one and onto functions.
Teaching Notes
Students are aware of a function. Yet functions can be either one-to-one or many-to-
one. In this sub-unit, the students are required to study one-to-one functions so that they
will be able to understand its essence in studying inverse of functions.
1.3.1 One-to-one Function

Before stating the definition of one-to-one function, it is advisable to enable students
identify different types of functions and try to select those that are one-to-one. For this
purpose, you can give them Activity 1.10.

f is not one-to-one because b and c are both mapped to 3 whereas g is one-to-one.
After that, you can give the definition of one-to-one function. Give examples in which
the functions are defined by rules as well as by Venn diagrams. In addition, give
examples of one-to-one functions which are not numeric.
Example: f = {(x, y): x is a student and y is his school identity number} or
f = {(x, y): x is a country and y is its president}.
After discussing this, you may assess how the students try to identify whether a function
is one-to-one. For this purpose, they may try to use the formal definition. However,
relying on the formal definition alone makes it difficult to check the one-to-oneness of
functions.
When the students are given a function f which is not one-to-one, they should be able to
show the case by producing x1, x2 ∈ Domain of f such that x1 ≠ x2 and f (x1) = f (x2).
Example: If f (x) = x2 then −2, 2∈ Domain of f such that −2 ≠ 2 and f (−2) = f (2)
implying f (x) = x2 is not one-to-one.
It is also possible to use a horizontal line test to check whether a function is one-to-one.
However, the horizontal line test works by using the graphs of real-valued functions.
Therefore, students need not use this for all types of functions since it will require them
to draw the graphs of the functions.
Assessment
By giving different types of functions, let the students try to identify those that are one-
to-one functions.

1. a, e, and f are one-to-one.
2. If x1, x2 ∈ ℝ , f (x1) = f (x2)
ax1 + b ax + b
⇒ = 2
cx1 + d cx2 + d
⇒ (ax1 + b) (cx2 + d) = (ax2 + b) (cx1 + d)
⇒ acx1x2 + adx1 + bcx2 + bd = acx1x2 + adx2 + bcx1 + bd
⇒ (ad – bc) x1 = (ad – bc) x2
⇒ x1 = x2 , because ad – bc ≠ 0
Therefore, f is one-to-one
1.3.2 Onto Function
Once the students have discussed one-to-one functions, it will be better for the students
to tell the condition in which a function will be onto. You can do this through question
and answer. After the students try to explain these conditions, you can discuss their
answers and give them the formal definition of onto functions.
Given a function f: A → B, f is onto if and only if Range f = B. This means, for any
y ∈ B, there exists x∈A such that y = f (x).
To enrich their understanding, you can give the students examples first by use of Venn
diagrams and then other simple examples. At this moment, you can give students the
chance to discuss how they check whether a function is onto. Finally, you can present
the following to show f is onto. When f is given by a rule from A to B, to show that f is
onto check the following. If for any y∈B, there exists x∈A such that y = f (x), then f is
onto.
Example: Let f : ℝ 
→ ℝ , given by f (x) = 9x + 5.
y − 5
Now y = 9x + 5 ⇒ x =
9
y−5  y−5
From this we see that for any y∈ ℝ , x = ∈ ℝ and f   = y . Thus f is onto.
9  9 
But f : ℝ → ℝ , given by f (x) = x4 is not onto, because y = x4 ⇒ x = 4 y , and x is

defined only when y ≥ 0. This means that if we select negative y∈ ℝ then there is no
x∈ ℝ such that f(x) = y i.e., x is not defined for negative y.
Assessment
You can give various functions and ask the students to identify whether each is onto.
They also need to give reasons for their answers. You can also use Exercise 1.9 for the
purpose of assessment.

1. a, c, d, are onto
2. a. [2, ∞) b. [5, ∞) c. [0, ∞) d. (–∞, 1]
3x1 + 1 3x2 + 1
3. a. f (x1) = f (x2) ⇒ = ⇒ 3x1 = 3x2
5 5
⇒ x1 = x2, for any x1, x2 ∈ ℝ ⇒ f is one-to-one.
3x + 1 5y − 1
For any y ∈ ℝ , y = gives x = ⇒, f is onto.
5 3
Therefore, f is a one-to-one correspondence.
b. Let x1, x2 ∈ [0, ∞) such that f (x1) = f (x2)
⇒ x1 = x2 ⇒ x1 = x2 , by squaring.
⇒, f is one-to-one
For any y∈[0, ∞), y = x ⇒ x = y2 ⇒ x ≥ 0, and
f (x) = f (y2) = y 2 = y = y (because y∈[0, ∞))
⇒ f is onto
c. For any x1, x2 ∈ ℝ, f (x1) = f (x2)
x x
⇒ 5 1 = 5 2 ⇒ log 5 x1 = log 5 x2 ⇒ x1 = x2
⇒ f is one-to-one and, for any y ∈[0, ∞), y = 5x

⇒ log 5 y = log 5 5 x ⇒ x = log 5 y ∈ ℝ . ⇒ f is onto
d. Let x1, x2 ∈[1, ∞), f (x1) = f (x2)
2 2 2 2
⇒ ( x1 − 1) + 1 = ( x2 − 1) + 1 ⇒ ( x1 − 1) = ( x2 − 1)
2 2
⇒ ( x1 − 1) = ( x2 − 1) ⇒ x1 − 1 = x2 − 1
⇒ x1 – 1 = x2 – 1 , ( x1 ≥ 1, x2 ≥ 1) ⇒ x1 = x2
Therefore, f is one-to-one
Also (x – 1)2 ≥ 0, for any x∈ [1, ∞) ⇒ (x – 1)2 + 1 ≥ 1
⇒ f (x) ≥ 1, ∀ x ∈ [1, ∞ ) ⇒ Range f = [1, ∞) ≠ [0, ∞)
⇒, f is not onto.
Therefore, f is not a one-to-one correspondence.
4. (Possible solutions)
a. b. f (x)= −x c. f (x)= 3x + 2
Figure 1.30
1.4 COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Competencies
• define the composition of functions.
• determine the composite function given the component functions.
• determine the domain and the range of a composite function of two given
functions.
Vocabulary: Function, Combination, Composition
Introduction
It is expected that the students have background about combinations of real valued
functions. For this purpose it is advisable to revise a little about combinations and get
into compositions of functions which is the main issue of this subtopic.
Teaching Notes
In discussing composition of functions, you can start by considering functions f and g
such that
f: A → B and g: B → C , with Range of f ⊆ B.
Example 1
A B C
f g
a 1 e
b f
c 2 g
d 3 h
Figure 1.31
Example 2 Let f : ℝ \ {0} → (0, ∞ ) given by f (x) = x–2 and
g : (0, ∞ ) → ℝ given by g(x) = log x
Then gof : ℝ \ {0} → ℝ is given by log ( x −2 ) = − 2 log x
Here Domain of gof = Domain of g.
After demonstrating the examples, you need to introduce the following.
1. When we think of composition of functions f : A → B and g: C →D , it is required
that B ∩ C ≠ ∅
i.e., Range of f ∩ Domain of g ≠ ∅.
In case range of f ∩ domain of g = ∅, gof (x) is not defined. i.e gof = ∅.
2. In all cases, Domain of gof ⊆ Domain of f.
Right after the students have become able to determine the forward approach in finding
composition of functions from their component ones, it may also be of interest to
determine the component functions from another function that can be taken as a
composition. This is where majority of students may find it difficult to determine how
they can identify the component functions of a composite function.
Example: The composite function f (x)=log x 2 + 1 has three component functions in it.
Let h (x) = x2 + 1, g (x) = x , k (x) = log x. If you ask your students the
question “Which of the following is correct?”
f = kogoh or f = kohog?
or ask them to express f as a composition of the functions g, h and k, you may get
different replies.
When they try to determine the composition of these functions, they may not have a
guiding principle. However, it is possible to assist them with the use of calculators in
determining the order of component functions h, g and k whose composition will be f.
For this purpose, ask the students to find the value of f (x) at a given point a and narrate
the steps they followed to calculate this value.
Students usually answer that they calculate a2 + 1 first, then take the square root of a2 + 1
and then take the logarithm of the result. With this step narration, you can relate that in
finding the composition function the most inner function must be a2 + 1, then square root
of a2 + 1,and finally the logarithm of the square root of a2 + 1.
Hence, the order in the composition will be to get f (x) = log x 2 + 1 = (kogoh)(x). To
help the students practice the ideas outlined above, you can give them Activity 1.11 as
class work or homework, and some more examples on finding the component functions
in a composition of functions.

In this activity, students will find composition of functions and then domain and range
of composition of functions.
1. a. (fog) (x) = x + 1; (gof ) (x) = x +1

b. i. [0, ∞) ii. [–1, ∞) iii. [1, ∞) iv. [0, ∞)
2. a. fog (x) = | x |2 – 1; gof (x) = x 2 − 1
b. Domain gof = ℝ
c.
Figure 1.32
3. a. fog(x) = log 2 x ; gof (x) = log 2 x
b. Domain fog = ℝ \ {0} ; Domain gof = ( 0, ∞ )
c. d.
y y
5 5
4
4
3 y = log 2 x 3 y = log 2 x
2
2
1
x 1
1 2 3 4 5
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5
−3 −2 −1
−2 −1
−3 −2
−4 −3
y = log 2 x y = log2 x
For talented students, you may give functions which involve different types of functions
and ask them either to find their composition or to find the component functions.
Example:
2
3 x +1
1. Let f ( x) = x 4 − 6 x 2 + 6 , g ( x) = 2 and h( x ) = 3 x + 1 then find ( fogoh )( x ) .
 1
2. Let f ( x ) = log  sin  + 2 x + 1 then write f as a composition of at least three
 x
simpler (component) functions.
Solution:
2
3 ( 3 x +1 ) +1 3(3 x +1) +1
1. ( fogoh )( x ) = f ( g ( h ( x ))) = f ( g ( 3 x + 1)) = f (2 ) = f (2 ) = f (29 x + 4 )
4 2
= ( 29 x + 4 ) − 6 ( 29 x + 4 ) + 6 = 236 x +16 − 6 ( 218 x +8 ) + 6
1
2. Let g ( x ) = x , h ( x ) = log x , k ( x ) = sin x , l ( x) = , m( x) = x , n ( x) = 2 x + 1 ,
x
then f ( x) = g ( h(k (l ( x))) + m(n( x) ) or f ( x) = g ( h(k (l ( x))) + g (n( x))
Assessment
There are different ways that you can use to assess your students. However, approaches,
such as giving a test/quiz or giving an assignment can be helpful.

1. a. 3 b. 4 c. 9
61  7   7   7 
2. a. –19 b.
28
c. − 3 , ∞  d. − 3 , ∞  e.  − 3 , ∞
 
−x 11x
3. a. (f + g) (x) = , (f – g) (x) =
2x − 1 2x − 1
−30 x 2
 f  5
(fg) (x) = 2
,  ( x) = −
( 2 x − 1)  g  6
x + 2 x
b. (f + g) (x) = (f –g)(x) = ,
x + 1 x + 1
 f 
(fg) (x) = 1,   ( x ) = x + 1, x > −1
g
4. a. (fog) (3) = 46 b. (fof ) (0) = −8 c. (gof ) (–5) = −84
d. (gog) (–7) = –169 e. (fogof ) (2) = 61
5. a. i. (fog) (x) = 2 (4x+2) –1 = 8x + 3;
ii. (gof ) (x) = 4 (2x–1) + 2 = 8x – 2
iii. (fof ) (x) = f (2x – 1) = 2(2x –1) – 1 = 4x – 3
iv. (gog) (x) = g (4x + 2) = 4 (4x + 2) +2 = 16 x + 10
b. i. (fog) (x) = x ii. (gof ) (x) = x2 = x
iii. (fof ) (x) = x4 iv. (gog ) (x) = 4 x
c. i. (fog) (x) = 1 – 5 2x + 3 ii. (gof ) (x) = 5 − 10 x
iii. (fof ) (x) = 25x – 4 iv. (gog) (x) = 2 2x + 3 +3
d. i. (fog) (x) = 3(2x) ii. (gof) (x) = 23x
x
iii. (fof ) (x) = 3(3x) = 9x iv. (gog) (x) = 22
6. a. l ( x) = 3 x = hof ( x ) b. k (x) = fog (x)
c. t (x) = hog(x)
7. a. g (x) = 3x +1, h (x) = x , so, f = (hog) (x)
b. g (x) = x2 , h (x) = 16x – 3 and f = (hog) (x) or
g (x) = 4x, h (x) = x2 –3 and f = (hog) (x)
c. g (x) = 3x2 +1, h (x) = 2x and f = (hog) (x)
d. g (x) = 2x, h (x) = 5x2 + 3 and f = (hog (x)
e. g (x) = x2, h (x) = x2 – 6x + 6 and f =(hog) (x)
8. (fog) (x) = 4 (3x + k) +1 = 12 x + 4k + 1 and
(gof ) (x) = g (4x + 1) = 3 (4x +1) + k = 12 x + 3 + k
Now (fog) (x) = (gof ) (x) ⇒ 12x + 4k +1 = 12x +3 +k
2
⇒3k = 2 ⇒ k =
3
9. (gof ) (x) = g (ax + b) = x
Take g (x) = cx + d (you get the same function if you consider
g (x) = cx2 + d x + e)
Then (gof ) (x) = c(ax + b) + d = acx + bc + d
Now (gof ) (x) = x ⇒ ac x + bc + d = x ⇒ ac = 1 and bc + d = 0
1 −b
⇒ c = ( a ≠ 0 ) and d = −bc =
a a
1 b
Thus g (x) = x − .
a a
10. (fog) (x) = f (g (x)) = (2x + 3)4 and gof (x) = g (f (x)) = 2x4 + 3
Thus (fog) (x) ≠ (gof ) (x). In general, this is the case.
1.5 INVERSE FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Competencies
• define inverse function.
• describe the condition for the existence of the inverse function.
• determine the inverse function of an invertible function.
• determine whether or not two given functions are inverses of each other.
• sketch the graph of the inverse of a function.
• determine the domain and range of the inverse of a given function.
Vocabulary: Inverse, Invertibility, Identity function
Introduction
At the beginning of this unit, the students have learned how to find inverses of relations.
Since functions are relations, finding their inverses are not far from the ideas of finding
inverses of relations. However, there are major questions that need to be addressed
when dealing with inverses of functions. These will be addressed in this sub-topic.
Teaching Notes
In dealing with inverse functions, there are points that need focus. So as to relate these
points and proceed to discuss inverses of functions, you can start the lesson by asking
the following major questions.
a. Given a function f, is f –1 a function?
f –1 can be a function only if f is one-to-one. In this case,
(fof –1)(x) = x, for all x ∈ Domain f –1 and (f –1o f)(x) = x, for all x ∈ Domain f
b. If f is invertible, how can we find its inverse?
c. Can you recognize the graph of an invertible function?
Accordingly, revise what the students did about inverse of relations. Then lead them to
try to find inverses of functions of type:
i. one-to-one
ii. Many-to-one and let them discuss if each inverse is a function.
For this purpose you can give Activity 1.12.

 x + 4  –1
a. f –1 = ( x, y ) : y =  ; f is a function.
 3 
 x + 4 –1
b. R − 1 =  ( x, y ) : y ≤  ; f is not a function.
 3 
c f = {(x, y) : x = y }; f –1 is not a function.
–1 2
d. g–1 = {(x, y) : y = 2x}. g –1 is a function.

This leads them to conclude that f –1 is a function if and only if f is one-to-one. At this
level, the students need to know that if a function f has an inverse, then it is called
invertible.
When the students are aware of functions and their inverses, it will be recommended to
let them know how they can find an inverse of a given function. For this purpose you
can give the following steps and give them as many examples as possible to enable
them practice the steps.
Algebraic method of finding f –1:
a. Write the equation y = f (x)
b. Interchange x and y wherever they occur in the equation found in step a).
c. Solve the equation found in step b) for y in terms of x, to get y = f –1(x)
Example Let f (x) = 1 – 2x3
Step a. Put y = 1 – 2x3
Step b. x = 1– 2y3
1− x 1− x
Step c. x = 1 – 2y3 ⇔ 2y3 = 1– x ⇔ y3 = ⇔ y=3
2 2
1− x
Hence f –1(x) = 3
2
At this moment, you can define an identity function which is its own inverse.
Cognizant of the fact that the students are already capable of finding inverse of
functions, it is recommended that they should be given the chance to identify by
themselves, how the graphs of functions and their inverses look like.
As one of their observation assist the students to identify that
Domain f –1 = Range f and Range f –1 = Domain f.
It is also of interest to help the students determine graphs of inverse functions from the
graph of the functions themselves. You can let the students note that graphs of
functions and their inverses are mirror images along the line y = x. To detect whether a
function has an inverse or not from its graph, you help them realize that a horizontal line
intersects the graph of the function at only one point. That is, a function f is invertible if
and only if no horizontal straight line intersects its graph more than once.
To help the students realize how to draw the graphs of inverse functions and to
determine the properties of inverse functions, you can let them do Activity 1.13.

a. b.
Assessment
Since this is an end of the unit, in addition to assessing students’ understanding on
inverses of functions, you can also give them a comprehensive evaluation for the unit.
For this purpose, you may give them a test.

1 x –1
1. a. f –1(x) = 3 ; f is a function
2
13 − x
b. h–1(x) = ; h–1 is a function
5
c. g–1(x) = (x – 1)2 ; g–1 is a function
d. Take k = {(x, y): y = (x – 2)2}
Then k–1 = {(x, y): y = 2 ± x }; k –1 is not a function.
2. a. R b. R c. [1, ∞) d. [0, ∞)
x −2  x−2
3. a. Let f (x) = 3x + 2, g (x) = . Then fog (x) = 3  + 2 = x
3  3 
and gof (x) =

(3x + 2) − 2
= x. They are inverses of each other.
3
3
3
b. fog (x) = ( x) 3
= x and gof (x) = x3 = x
They are inverses of each other

c. They are not inverses of each other, because Range f –1≠ Domain g.
3
3
d. fog (x) = x 3 − 8 + 8 = x and gof (x) = ( 3
x + 8 ) −8 = x
They are inverses of each other

4. a. f (x) = x3 is invertible.
b. g ( x ) = 4 − x 2 is invertible if the domain is [0, ∞) or (−∞, 0].
−1
c. h (x) = x + 5 is invertible.
3
d. f ( x ) = log x 2 is invertible when the domain is (0, ∞) or (−∞, 0).
5. a and c are invertible
6. a.
y
y y
x x
x
a. b. c.
Figure 1.37
Answers to Review Exercises on Unit 1

1. a. {(–2, 2), (3, –3), (–4, –4)}; R–1 is a function.
b. {(1, 2), (3, 2), (7, 2)}; R–1 is a function.
x − 3
2. a. f –1(x) = (function)
2
b. f –1 = {(x, y): x + 9 = y2}(not a function)
c. f –1 = {( x, y ) : x = ( y 2 − 9) 2 } (not a function)
d. f –1(x) = 9x2, x ≥ 0 (function)

3. R
4. a. (0, 0), (–1, –1) and (1, 1) are all the intersection points of y = x5 and y = x7
b. yes.
c. i. f (x) = 4x3 grows 4 times faster than y = x3
ii. The graph of f is shifted upwards by 4 units.
d. f (ab) = (ab)3 = a3b3 = f (a)f (b). They are equal
e. yes.
5. a. b.
y y
5
5
4 4
3 3
2
f ( x) = log x
2
f ( x) = x + 1 1
1 x
x
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1 −1
−2 −2
Figure 1.38 Figure

− 1.39
c.
y
5
4
3
2
f ( x) = x3
1
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2
Figure 1.40
−1 for x > 0

6. sgn(–x) =  0 for x = 0
 1 for x < 0

 1 for x > 0 −1 for x > 0
 
–sgn(x) = −  0 for x = 0 =  0 for x = 0
−1 for x < 0  1 for x < 0
 
⇒ sgn (–x) = –sgn(x)
Therefore, y = sgn x is an odd function.
1 1
b. h(–x) = (sgn(–x) + 1) = (–sgn x + 1)
2 2
1 1
Thus h(x) + h(–x) = (sgn x + 1) + (–sgn x + 1)
2 2
1
= ((sgn x + 1) + (–sgn x + 1)) = 1
2
1
 2 (1 + 1) for x > 0  1 for x > 0
 1
1 1 
c. h(x) = (sgn x + 1) =  (0 + 1) for x = 0 =  for x = 0
2 2 2
1  0 for x < 0
 2 (-1 + 1) for x < 0

7. a. f (−3.9 +(−16.4)) = f (−20.3) = −20 and
f (−3.9) + f (−16.4)) +1 = −20
⇒ f (−3.9 +(−16.4)) ≤ f (−3.9) + f (−16.4)) +1
b. f (3.9 +(−16.4)) = f (−12.5) = −13 and
f (3.9) + f (−16.4)) +1 = −13
⇒ f (3.9 +(−16.4)) ≤ f (3.9) + f (−16.4)) +1
c and d can be done similarly.
8. Taking any value for x say x = 3.75.
 1
⇒  2(3.75)  = 3.75  + 3.75 + 
 2
⇒ 7.5 = 3 + 4.25
⇒ 7 = 3+ 4
9. a. fog(x) = 1 + 2x; fof (x) = 1 + 2 (1 + 2x) = 3 + 4x
gof (x) = 1 + 2x ; gog (x) =x
b. fog(x) = log (3x + 1); gof (x) = 3 log x + 1
fof (x) = log (log x); gog (x) = 3(3x + 1) + 1 = 9x + 4
10. a. Domain fog = R ; Domain gof = R
Domain fof = R ; Domain gog = R
 1 
b. Domain fog =  − , ∞  ; Domain gof = (0, ∞)
 3 
Domain fof = (1, ∞); Domain gog = R
11. a. They are inverses of each other.
b. They are not inverses of each other.
UNIT
2 RATIONAL
EXPRESSIONS AND
RATIONAL FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
In this unit, rational expressions and rational functions will be discussed. A rational
expression is a quotient of two polynomials where the denominator is nonzero. Since
students are familiar with polynomials, it may be useful to start the unit by revising the
zeros of polynomials and domains of some familiar expressions and proceed to the
domain of a rational expression by excluding the zeros of the denominator polynomials.
Following this, the operations with rational expressions and decomposition into partial
fractions will be discussed. Finally, students will be introduced to the concepts of
rational equations, rational functions and their graphs.
Unit Outcomes
• know methods and procedures in simplifying rational expressions.
• understand and develop efficient methods in solving rational equations and
inequalities.
• know basic concepts and specific facts about rational functions.
43
Suggested Teaching Aids in Unit 2

For this unit, several teaching aids can be used. Some of these include: coloured chalks
(white board markers), chalk board, graphics software such as Geometers Sketchpad,
Matlab, Mathematica, Tinkerplot, Fathom, etc (Free software may be found on the
Internet), graphing calculators such as TI-83, or TI 84, etc, straight edged rulers and
squared papers, graphed flip charts, etc.
2.1 SIMPLIFICATION OF RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Periods allotted: 4 Periods
Competencies
• define rational expression.
• identify the universal set of a given rational expression.
• show the simplified form and the necessary steps to simplify a given rational
expression.
• perform the four fundamental operations on rational expressions.
• decompose rational expressions into sums of partial fractions.
Vocabulary: Fractional expression, Rational expression, Universal set, Domain,
Lowest term, Decomposition, Partial fraction, Proper rational fraction,
Improper rational fraction
Introduction
This unit has three subunits: rational expression, rational equation and rational
functions. To work on rational expressions, students need to realize that they will use
the properties of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of fractions. The
subunit on simplification of rational expressions will be useful to express rational
functions in simplest forms. For instance, knowing how to expand and simplify
x 2 + 4x
will help students to observe later that, while the graph of
5 x 4 + 20x 3
x 2 + 4x
f ( x) = 4 has a hole at x = −4 , it has vertical asymptote at x = 0.
5x + 20 x 3
Teaching Notes
In this section, there are three topics. These are rational expressions, operations with
rational expressions and decomposition of rational expressions into partial fractions.
You may start the section by giving a list of different expressions which the students
had seen in previous grades and making students discuss the domains and some
Unit 2 – Rational Expressions and Rational Functions 45
properties of these expressions. For instance, ask students to identify the domains of
polynomials, logarithmic and square root expressions. Then give some rational
3 2x
expressions like , , . . . and ask students to give their domains.
x x−7
For the purpose of revising and strengthening the ability of students in determining domain
of an algebraic expression, you can let each student do Activity 2.1. A domain is the subset
of ℝ that makes a given expression meaningful. In the case of rational expressions,
students have always to remember that the denominator of a rational expression cannot be
zero. Before passing into discussing how students determine domain of rational functions,
it will be useful to revise how to find domains of expressions and elementary functions
which the students know. To help you discuss these, you can use Activity 2.1 which is
meant to check how much the students are knowledgeable in finding domain of a function.
 1
a. ℝ b. ( −2, ∞ ) c.  −∞,  d. ℝ \ {−5}
 5
Let the students do the activity. In the process, clever students may find the question
easier. You can ask these clever students questions like:
Find the domain of each of the following expressions.
x2 + 1 x3 + x 2 + 1
a. log x − 1 b. log x2 5 c. d. 2
x x − 1 ( x + 2)
( )
whose answers are:
a. x>1 b. x ≠ 0, ±1 c. x>0 d. x ≠ −2, ±1
2.1.1 Rational Expressions
Introduce this lesson by giving the definition of a rational expression (together with its
universal set) and providing additional examples. Ask students to evaluate rational
expressions for given values of x. When simplifying rational expressions into lowest
form, give emphasis to the universal set and cancel out common factors from the
numerator and the denominator of a given rational expression.
Emphasize the fact that two expressions are equal only in their common domains
(a common domain on which both are defined).
5x 2 − 14 x − 3  7  5x + 1  7
For Example, 2
has domain ℝ\ − ,3 , while has domain ℝ \ − 
2 x + x − 21  2  2x + 7  2
5x 2 − 14 x − 3 5 x + 1  7 
This means, 2
= , only in ℝ \ − ,3 .
2 x + x − 21 2 x + 7  2 
Therefore, when students simplify rational expressions, they should determine the
universal set before they start simplifying. For this purpose, you can let the students do
Activity 2.2 in pairs. In this Activity, students will practice simplifying rational
expressions to their lowest terms and finding domains of rational expressions.
Let the students answer the questions by discussing in pairs and ask some of the
students to give their answers orally and loudly and write them on the board. Then
guide the whole class to discuss the answers. Give corrections as necessary. When the
students do the activity, you can round through the groups and identify the talents of the
students so that you can regroup or prepare additional questions to support weaker
students or engage gifted students in some more exercises.

2 x 2 + 2 x x( x + 2)
a. {x: x ∈ R and x ≠ 0} b. x +2x = x(x + 2). Thus, =
5x 5x
x 2 + 2 x x( x + 2) x + 2
c. = = d. When x ≠ 0
5x 5x 5
9x2 − 4
e Given
9 x 2 + 9 x − 10
 −5 2  (3x − 2)(3x + 2)
i.  x : x ∈ ℝ and x ≠ ,  ii.
 2 3 (3x − 2)(3x + 5)
9x2 − 4 3x + 2 5 2
iii. 2
= iv. Only when x ≠ − ,
9 x + 9 x − 10 3x + 5 3 3
You can give high achievers the following additional exercises.
1. Reduce to the lowest terms
cd − c 2 16 x − 32
a. 2 2
b.
c −d 8 y ( x − 2) − 4( x − 2)
2. Give the domain for each of the following
1 1 1
1+ −
x x+ y x− y
a. b.
1 2y
x−
x x − y2
2
3. Simplify each of the following

1 1 1 1 1
1+ − −
x d c x+ y x− y
a. b. 2 2
c.
1 c −d 2y
x−
x x − y2
2
Solution:
c (d − c ) −c 16( x − 2) 4 1
1. a. = ; c ≠ ± d b. = ; x ≠ 2, y ≠
(c − d )(c + d ) c + d 4( x − 2)(2 y − 1) 2 y − 1 2
2. a. ℝ\{0, 1} b. {(x, y ): y ≠ 0, x ≠ ± y }
1 c−d 1
3. a. ; x ≠ 0, 1 b. = ; c ≠ ± d , c, d ≠ 0
x −1 cd (c − d )(c + d ) cd (c + d )
x− y−x− y
( x + y )( x − y )
c. = −1; x ≠ ± y , y ≠ 0
2y
( x − y )( x + y )
Assessment
You can give to the students various algebraic expressions and ask them to identify the
rational expressions among them. You can also give them homework or class activities
on determining the universal sets of rational expressions and on simplifying
expressions.
Assessment should be on
1. Reducing to lowest terms.
Example: Reduce to lowest terms
5 x 2 − 14 x − 3 x−3
a. 2
b. 2
2 x + x − 21 x + 3x − 18
2. Identifying rational expression
Example: Choose the one that is a rational expression
x2 + x + 1 5x2 + 5x  x +1  x+4
a. b. c. log  3  d. 3
x x +1  x  x + 3x + 2
Solution:
(5 x + 1)( x − 3) 5 x + 1 7
1. a. = ; x ≠ 3, −
(2 x + 7)( x − 3) 2 x + 7 2
( x − 3) 1
b. = ; x ≠ 3, −6
( x + 6)( x − 3) x + 6
2. d
a. Since 4x = 0 when x = 0, domain is {x x∈ R , x ≠ 0} = R \{0}. Thus
4 x − 12 x − 3
= , for x ≠ 0
4x x
3
b. The denominator 2x2 + 5x – 12 = (2x – 3) (x + 4) = 0 for x = and x = –4.
2
 3
Thus domain = ℝ \ −4,  .
 2
2
The numerator 6x + 23x + 20 = (3x + 4) (2x + 5)
6 x2 + 23x + 20 (3x+4) (2x +5)
Thus 2
=
2 x + 5 x − 12 (2 x − 3) (x + 4)
x3 + 3x2 x 2 ( x + 3)
c. The domain is {x x∈ R ,x ≠ –3}= R \{–3} and = = x 2 , for
x+3 x+3
x ≠ –3.
d. The denominator x4 + 3x3 – 27x – 81 = (x – 3) (x + 3) (x2 + 3x + 9)
Since x2 + 3x + 9 ≠ 0, for all x∈ R , the domain is R \ {–3, 3}
x3 − 27 ( x − 3)( x 2 + 3x + 9) 1
Thus 4 3
= 2
= , for x ≠ 3, −3
x + 3x − 27 x − 81 ( x − 3)( x + 3)( x + 3 x + 9) x + 3
x2 − 5 x + 6 ( x − 2) ( x − 3) x −3 4
e. 3 2
= = , for x ≠ − , 0, 2
3x − 2 x − 8 x x ( x − 2) (3 x + 4) x(3 x + 4) 3
x4 − 8x x( x − 2) ( x2 + 2 x + 4) x2 + 2x + 4 4
f. 3 2
= = , for x ≠ − , 0, 2.
3x − 2 x − 8 x x( x − 2) (3 x + 4) 3x + 4 3
2.1.2 Operations with Rational Expressions

You may start this lesson with a brief revision of operations on rational numbers. We
use the rules of the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of
rational numbers on rational expressions. In your discussion, emphasize on how to find
the L.C.M. of the denominators of the expressions which should be factorized into
prime polynomials. Let the students mention the rules for the operations alongside each
step and mention the universal set at the beginning and the end of each example.
Since the students can simplify rational expressions, you can start this lesson by
forming groups of students and letting them do Activity 2.3. The purpose of this activity
is to help students revise addition and subtraction of rational numbers. Addition and
subtraction of rational expressions are very closely related with addition and subtraction
of rational numbers.

12 3 19 7 3
a. = b. c. d.
8 2 12 12 10
Assessment
For the purpose of assessing students understanding on using the operations and
simplifying rational expressions, you can give them questions similar to those in
Activity 2.3. You can also give them various algebraic expressions to simplify.

2x − 3 3 x − 5 (2 x − 3) − (3 x − 5) − x + 2
a. 2
− 2 = = 2 , for x ≠ –5, 0.
x + 5 x x + 5x x 2 + 5x x + 5x
x2 + 3x − (2 x + 12) x 2 + x − 12 ( x + 4) ( x − 3) x + 4
b. = 2 = = , for x ≠ –5, 3
x 2 + 2 x − 15 x + 2 x − 15 ( x + 5)(x − 3) x+5
12 + x − 2 x + 10
c. = , for x ≠ 0
5x 5x
6 y + 11 − (4 y + 4) 2y + 7 1
d. 2
= = , for y ≠ − 7 , 1
4 y + 12 y − 7 (2 y −1) (2 y + 7) 2 y −1 2 2
To simplify addition and subtraction of rational expressions, guide students to factorize
the denominators of the expressions to be added and then find the LCM, using Activity
2.4 and example 6. Add some more examples if you find it necessary. It is good if the
students practice good style of writing. Guide them to write the rule they have used for
verifying each step. In Activity 2.4, the students will practice factoring the
denominators of the rational expressions to be added and then finding the least common
denominator. An additional purpose of this Activity is to lead the students to generalize
the steps required in order to add and subtract rational expressions with unlike
denominators. So, before you discuss the steps given in the student textbook, guide the
students to reach the steps required.
a. x2 – 9 = (x – 3) (x + 3) and x2 + 11x + 24 = (x + 3) (x + 8).
x−4 x+2
Thus the domain of 2
+ 2 is R \ {–8, –3, 3 }
x − 9 x + 11 x + 24
b The LCM of the denominators is (x – 3)(x + 3) (x + 8)
x−4 x+2 x−4 x+2
c 2
+ 2 = +
x − 9 x + 11 x + 24 ( x − 3)( x + 3) ( x + 3)( x + 8)
( x − 4)( x + 8) + ( x + 2)( x − 3)
=
( x − 3)( x + 3)( x + 8)
2 x2 + 3x − 38
= 3 , for x ≠ –8, –3, 3
x + 8x2 − 9x − 72
d Since there are no common factors, we leave the result as it is.
2
x−4 x+2 2 x + 3x − 38
Therefore 2 + 2 = 3 2 , for x ≠ –8, –3, 3
x − 9 x + 11 x + 24 x + 8x − 9x − 72
You can give high achievers problems on addition and subtraction of rational
expressions with more than one variable.
Example: Find the LCD of the fractions, perform the operations and simplify each of
the following.
y 2y 3 yz
a. − + 2
y − z y + z z − y2
1 1 1
b. + −
(a − b)(a − c) (b − a )(c − b) (a − c)(b − c)
Solution:
y 2 + yz − 2 y 2 + 2 yz + 3 yz
a.
( z − y)( z + y)
b − c + ( a − c) − ( a − b ) 2(b − c) 2
b. = = ;b ≠ c
(a − b)(a − c)(b − c) (a − b)(a − c)(b − c) (a − b)(a − c)
Assessment
To evaluate students’ understanding of the concepts discussed so far, give them
problems on finding domain of an algebraic expression, and addition and subtraction of
rational expressions. You can also use quiz, homework, etc to assess them.
25 y 2 16 25 y 2 − 16 (5 y − 4)(5 y + 4) 4
a. + = = = 5 y + 4, for y ≠
5y − 4 4 − 5y 5y − 4 5y − 4 5
2
1 1 2x + x 2x +1
b. 2
+ 2 = 2 2 = 2 , for x ≠ –1, 0
x x + x x ( x + x) x ( x + 1)
1 (u + 1)2 + 1 u 2 + 2u + 2
c. u+1+ = = for u ≠ –1
u +1 u +1 u +1
2 3 4 2b2 − 3ab + 4a 2
d. − + = , for a ≠ 0, b ≠ 0
a2 ab b2 a 2b2
3 2 3( x + 2) − 2 x x+6
e. 2
− 2 = = , for x ≠ –2, 0, 1.
x −x x + x−2 x( x − 1) ( x + 2) x( x − 1) ( x + 2)
x 2 x + 2( x + 1) 3x + 2
f. 2
+ = = , for x ≠ −1
( x + 1) x + 1 ( x + 1)2 ( x + 1)2
−50 x 2 − 55x + 8 − 25x(3x −1) + (25x 2 + 15 x) (5x + 2) 125 x3 + 8 −2 1
g. 2
= 2 for x ≠ ,
15x + x − 2 15x + x − 2 5 3
(5 x + 2) (25 x2 − 10 x + 4) 25 x2 − 10 x + 4
= =
(5 x + 2) (3 x − 1) 3x − 1
16
h. , z ≠ −4
3( z + 4)
Pursuant to their ability of applying the operations and simplifying rational expressions,
you can group the students and proceed by letting each group do Activity 2.5.
The purpose of the group activity is to help the students revise multiplication and
division of rational numbers. This in turn helps them to recognize the similarity of
multiplication and division of rational numbers and rational expressions.

9 2 8 3
1. a. b. c. d.
35 9 9 10
After the students have completed Activity 2.5, do the examples in class and let them do
Exercise 2.4 in small groups. Let a student from each group do a problem from the
exercise on the board.
You can give for high achievers the following types of problems:
Example: Give the domain, perform the operations and simplify.
6 1
2
−
2u − v 2u − v p + 3 p − 10 p − 2
a. . 2 b.
4u 4u − 4uv + v 2 1
+1
p−2
x3 − y 3 x 2 + xy + y 2 x 2 n+ 2 + x 2 n+1 + x 2n y 2
c. ÷ d. ÷ xn
x − y x2 − 2 xy + y 2 n +3
x −x y n 3
Solution:
2u − v 2u − v 1
a. . 2
= ; v ≠ 2u, u ≠ 0
4u (2u − v) 4u
6 1  p−2 1− p ( p − 2)
b. − . = .
( p + 5)( p − 2) p − 2  p − 1  ( p + 5)( p − 2) ( p − 1)
1
=− ; p ≠ 2,1, −5
5+ p
( x − y)( x 2 + xy + y 2 ) ( x − y)2
c. . 2 2
= ( x − y)2 ; x ≠ y
x− y ( x + xy + y )
x 2n ( x 2 + x + y 2 ) 1 x 2 + x + y 2
d. × n = ; x ≠ 0, x ≠ y
xn ( x3 − y 3 ) x x3 − y3
Assessment
To assess students’ understanding of the concepts discussed so far, give them problems
on multiplication and division of rational expressions and expressions that also involve
addition and subtraction of rational expressions using quiz, homework, class group
work etc. Ask them questions that check their understanding of the properties of the
four operations.

x 2 − x − 12 3 + x ( x + 3) ( x − 4) ( x + 3) −( x + 3)
1. a. × = × = , x ≠ – 3, 3, 4
x2 − 9 4 − x ( x − 3) ( x + 3) (4 − x) x−3
( x − 3) (x2 + 3 x + 9) (x + 3)
b. = 1, for x ≠ – 3, 3
( x − 3) (x + 3) (x2 + 3 x + 9)
( x − 3) (x − 4) 5 −5
2. a. × = , for x ≠ –3, 3, 4
4− x ( x − 3) (x + 3) x +3
2x2 − 3x − 2 x2 + x − 2 (x − 2) (2x +1) ( x −1) ( x + 2) x−2
b. 2
× 2 = × = ,
x −1 2 x + 5x + 2 ( x −1) (x + 1) ( x + 2) (2 x + 1) x + 1
1
for x ≠ − 1, −2, − ,1
2
x2 − x − 6 2 − x ( x − 3) ( x + 2) 2− x −1
c. 2
× 2 = × = , for x ≠ −2, 0, 2, 3
3x − 12 x − 3 x 3( x − 2) ( x + 2) x (x − 3) 3x
2.1.3 Decomposition of Rational Expressions into Partial

Fractions
So far, students have been adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing rational
expressions. They also know how to simplify an expression by cancelling common
factors from both the numerator and denominator. In this lesson, you guide them to use
partial fraction decomposition. Decomposition of rational fractions into simpler partial
fractions is a method your students will find useful in future (when for instance they
learn integration in calculus). Do the examples given in the student textbook by
considering the different cases addressed through each example. Explain the concepts
and steps, and add some more examples. When they practice simplifying rational
expressions, the students need to recognize that the simplified expression may have
linear or quadratic factor that cannot be further simplified. To this end, guide them to
understand the statement of Theorem 2.1. This theorem indicates that there may be
quadratic factors that cannot be reduced further in the set of real numbers. These are
those quadratic factors whose discriminants are negative. To help the students
understand the theorem, encourage them to do the examples and Activity 2.6. The
purpose of this Activity is to help students revise factorization of polynomials. They
will also use the discriminant (b2 – 4ac) to decide whether or not a quadratic expression
is irreducible.

1. x3 –3x2 + 2x = x(x–1)(x–2)
2. a. x2 – 6x + 9 = (x – 3)2
b. 15x2 + 14x – 8 = (3x + 4) (5x – 2)

c. x2 – x + 2 is not factorable.
3. a. b2 – 4ac = 0
b. b2 – 4ac = 676 > 0
c b2 – 4ac = –7 < 0
Yes we can use b2 – 4ac to decide which quadratic polynomial can be factorized.
When b2 – 4ac < 0, we say the quadratic equation is not factorized.
4. x4 + 7x3 + 12x2 –7x −13 = (x – 1)(x + 1)(x2 + 7x + 13)
After the students performed the activity, you can proceed to discuss the different
examples supplied in the students textbook.
Assessment
Give the students problems on partial fraction decomposition that evaluate each of the
cases that are treated in the section. Give them questions like the following.
1. Factorize the following. Which of them have quadratic factors that cannot be
reduced further? How can you check?
a. x2 − 5x + 6 b. x3 − 2x2 − 20x − 24 c. x3 + x2 + 4x +4
2. Based on what you did in 1), give the partial fraction decomposition of each of the
following. Use the rules given in your text book.
4 3x + 4 1
a. 2
b. c.
x − 5x + 6 x − 2 x2 − 20 x − 24
3 2
x ( x − 1)
8 x 2 + 3 x + 20 x3 − x2
d. e.
x3 + x 2 + 4 x + 4 ( x2 + 3)2
Solution:
1. a. x2 − 5x + 6 = (x− 3)(x −2)
b. x3 − 2x2 − 20x − 24 = (x +2)2(x − 6)
c. x3 + x2 + 4x +4 = (x +1)(x2+ 4)
4 4
2. a. −
x −3 x − 2
11 1 11
b. + 2
−
32( x − 6) 4( x + 2) 32( x + 2)
Notice that x3 − 2 x2 − 20 x − 24 = ( x − 6)( x + 2)2
1 1 1
c. 2
− −
x x −1 x
5 3x
d. + 2
x +1 x + 4
Notice that x3 + x2 + 4 x + 4 = ( x + 1)( x2 + 4)
x − 1 3( x − 1)
e. −
x 2 + 3 (3 + x 2 )2
Let the students do the problems in groups and submit the answers they have agreed
upon. Then you might select a student from each group and let them do their answers on
the board. Based on their performances, you may give them some additional problems.

7x + 6 A B 4 3
a. = + = +
( x − 2) ( x + 3) x−2 x + 3 x−2 x + 3
A Bx + C
b. + 2 gives A (x2 + x + 2) + (Bx + C) (x – 1) = 5x + 7
x −1 x +x+2
⇒ A+B=0
A – B + C = 5 ⇒ A = 3, B = –3 and C = –1
2A – C = 7
5x + 7 3 3x + 1
Thus 2
= − 2
( x − 1) ( x + x + 2) x −1 x + x + 2
3x + 5 A B 3 11
c. 2
= + 2
= +
( x − 2) x−2 ( x − 2) x−2 ( x − 2)2
2
d.
( x + 3) =
x + 3
, for x ≠ – 3
2
( x + 1) ( x + 3) x2 +1
x2 + 4 x − 3 9
e. = x + 6 + (by long division)
x−2 x −2
7 x 2 − 11x + 6 A Bx + C
f. 2
= + which gives
( x − 1) (2 x − 3 x + 2) x −1 2 x 2 − 3x + 2
2A + B = 7
–3A – B + C = –11 ⇒ A = 2, B = 3 and C = − 2
2A – C = 6
7 x2 − 11x + 6 2 3x − 2
Thus 2
= + 2
( x − 1) (2 x − 3x + 2) ( x − 1) 2 x − 3x + 2
2.2 RATIONAL EQUATIONS

Competency
• solve rational equations.
Vocabulary: Rational equation, Extraneous solution
Introduction
In this sub-unit, students will learn how to solve rational equations. Remind the
students that an equation is an algebraic expression with the equality sign somewhere in
between or simply equality of two expressions which they studied in grade 9. When one
or more of the expressions involve a fractional one, it becomes a rational equation.
Teaching Notes
Before starting this lesson, it will be advisable to assess how much the students recall
what they know about equations. This can be done in a question and answer form.
Following this, you can write examples of equations and ask them to determine their
domains. To this end, you can also enquire them about how they solve the equations and
let them do Activity 2.7. This activity is meant for revising what the students have
already learned on solving equations. Guide the students to do the activity individually
and let some of them go to the board and explain the steps and the answers. Next, go
through the examples. Here, you may write simple rational equations (together with
their domain) and solve them together with active participation of the students. You
may also give real life problems that can become rational equations. For solving rational
equations, you need to consider different cases that refer to the domain. Your equations
should include equations whose solution sets are empty and equations with extraneous
solutions.
Example: Give the solution sets of each of the following.
x+2
a. = 1 (Please ask the students to give justifications for each step they
x
take to answer the question). Here the solution is empty.
1 1 1 x 2 − 2 x − 15
b. − = c. =0
x( x − 1) x x − 1 2 x 2 + 3 x − 15
( x − 1)( x + 2)(3 − x)
d. =0
( x + 3)( x 2 − x − 2)
Solution:
1 − ( x − 1) 1 2− x 1 2 − 2x 2
b. − = − = = − = 0 ⇒ S .S = ∅
x( x − 1) x − 1 x( x − 1) x − 1 x( x − 1) x
( x − 5)( x + 3)
c. = 0 ⇒ x = 5, −3 ⇒ S .S = {−3, 5}
2 x 2 + 3x − 15
( x − 1)( x + 2)(3 − x)
d. = 0 ⇒ ( x − 1)( x + 2)(3 − x) = 0
( x + 3)( x 2 − x − 2)
⇒ x = 1, −2, 3 ⇒ S.S = {1, −2, 3}
This Activity is designed to help the students to recall ways of solving the equations.
a. The universal set can be any number system, and x = 2
b. x + 2 – 3 (x – 2) = 0 ⇒ –2x + 8 = 0 ⇒ x = 4
24
c. x=
13
d. 2 (10x + 3) = 5x + 6 ⇒ x = 0
e Let x be the number of staff members initially.
200x = (x + 2)195 ⇒ 200x = 195x + 390
5x = 390 ⇒ x = 78
Number of staff members now is 78 + 2 = 80.
Assessment
Give the students several rational equations to solve. Your equations should include
equations whose solution sets are empty and equations with extraneous solutions. You
can let the students do the problems in Exercise 2.6 in groups and submit the answers
they have agreed upon. Then you might select a student from each group and send them
to the board to do and state their answers. Based on their performances you may give
them some additional problems.

1. a. U = { x ∈ ℝ x ≠ 0 ∧ x ≠ −2} = ℝ \ {0, −2}
3 1 1 12 4
− = ⇔ 15x – 5 (x + 2) = x + 2 ⇔ 9x = 12 or x = =
x + 2 x 5x 9 3
4 
or S.S =  
3 
b. U= R\{0}
x−6 x + 4
= + 1 ⇔ x – 6 = x + 4 + x, for x ≠ 0 ⇔ x = −10
x x
or S.S = { −10}
c. U = {a ∈ ℝ a ≠ 0 ∧ a ≠ −4} = ℝ \ {0, −4}
4 1 a+3 −18
= 2 − 2 ⇔ 4 (a + 4) = 1 – (a + 3) ⇔ 5a = −18 or a =
a a + 4 a a + 4a 5
 18 
or S.S = − 
 5
d. U = R \ { −1, 1, 4 }
2 3 6
− = ⇔ 2(x + 1)(x – 1) –3(x – 4)(x – 1) = 6(x – 4)(x + 1)
x − 4 x +1 x −1
⇔ 7x2 – 33x – 10 = 0
 −2 
which gives the solution set  , 5 
7 
e. U= ℝ
3x − 2 4x
= ⇔ 7 (3x – 2) = 5 (4x).
5 7
S.S = {14 }
f. U = R \ { −5, 5 }
x+4 1 10
− = 2 ⇔ (x + 4)(x + 5) – (x – 5) = 10
x−5 x+5 x − 25
⇔ x2 + 8x + 15 = 0 ⇔ x = –3 or x = −5
But since x = −5 ∉ U, S.S = {−3}.
2. Suppose the first plane flew for x hrs, and the second plane flew for y hrs.
Then x = y + 1.5 or y = x – 1.5
distance 2700 2025 2025
Since they flew at the same rate, we have rate = = = =
time x y x −1.5
4050
which gives 2700 (x – 1.5) = 2025x ⇒ x = = 6 hrs ⇒ y = 4.5 hrs.
675
Therefore, the first plane flies for 6 hours and the second plane flies for 4.5 hours.
3. Let the height of the tree be h feet. Then
h 34
= = 20 ⇒ h = 3 ( 20 ) = 60 feet.
3 1.7
2.3 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS

Periods allotted: 5 periods
Competencies
• define rational function.
• determine the domain of a given rational function.
• determine the range of a given rational function.
• sketch the graph of a given rational function.
• determine the intercepts and symmetry of the graph of a given rational
function.
• identify the types of asymptotes that the graph of a given function may have.
• tell the properties of a given rational function from its graph.
• use graphs of rational functions to solve rational inequalities.
Vocabulary: Rational function, Vertical asymptote, Horizontal asymptote, Oblique
asymptote, Zero of a rational function, x-intercept, y-intercept, Parity
Introduction
This sub-unit is devoted to rational functions and their graphs. Issues of asymptotes and
holes, and the zero of functions will be addressed. By using these and other concepts such
as parity, x and y-intercepts sketching graphs of rational functions will be discussed.
Teaching Notes
You may start the lesson by listing several functions familiar to the students and asking
them to tell the type of the functions and their domains. Following this entry, you can
let the students do Activity 2.8 individually. In this activity, students will summarize
what they know about some of the commonest functions. This paves the way for stating
rational functions and helps in finding their domains.

a. Polynomial function (linear function); dom (f) = R
b. Polynomial function (quadratic function); dom (g) = R
c. Logarithmic function ; dom (f) = (−1, ∞)
d. Exponential function ; dom (g)= R
e. Trigonometric function; dom (f) = R
f. Square root function ; dom (g) = [−3, 3]
2.3.1 RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

Once the students have become familiar with various functions and can identify rational
functions, it may be sound to state the formal definition of rational function. To make it
formal you can give the definition of a rational function as given in the student textbook
and elaborate the fact that the denominator is non-zero. This will help the students in
determining the domain of a rational function. At this moment, you may present rational
functions and their domains with some examples. Once the students have the ability to
identify a rational function and determine its domain, you can ask them to describe how
they can determine functional values at a point. To help them practice, you can give
activity 2.9 to the students to prepare table of values and plot the corresponding points
with special attention to values near vertical asymptotes. In this activity, the students
will practice calculating the values of functions for some specific x values in the
domains of the functions.

1 1 2
1. a. b. − c. 2.5 d. −
2 3 3
1
2. a. 0 b. 3 c. d. 5
2
y y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5 • ( 2.5,5)
4 4
3
• ( 0.4, 2.5 )  1
3 • ( 3, 3)
 2 2
 1  −2,  2
 −1.5, −  1  2,   2
 3 •  2 x •
1
x
• −2 −1 •
−5 −4 −3 • 1 2 3 4 5 6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1 −1
 1 ( 0, 0 )
 −3, −  −2
 3 −2
−3 −3

Now that the students have the ability to determine functional values, you can form
students groups and let them do Group Work 2.1. Here inform the students that selection
of points in the domain is essential. From this group activity, students will recognize the
1
behaviour of the function f (x) = . In so doing, they will be introduced to the concept of
x
asymptotes of rational functions. The group work requires a lot of input from you.
Students may not easily understand the meaning of “approaches from the left or from the
right”, “grows without bound” and so on. Use graphs of familiar functions like y = logx,
or y = 2x, if necessary. After filling in the table and observing the behaviour of the
function from the table, let the students practice plotting these points on the coordinate
plane and observe, if their graph looks like the one given in the group work.

1. Domain = ℝ\{0}
2.
x −1 −0.5 −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 → 0
f (x) −1 −2 −10 −100 −1000 → −∞
x 1 0.5 0.1 0.01 0.001 → 0
f (x) 1 2 10 100 1000 → ∞
−
3. x → 0 , f (x) → −∞
x → 0+, f (x) → ∞
x → ∞, f (x) → 0+ (above)
x → −∞, f(x) → 0− (below)
4. Yes
With active participation of students, discuss how to determine the type of asymptotes a
function may have. To this end, you can give Activity 2.10 for the students to do in
pairs. In this activity, the students will find domain of functions and the asymptotes of
the functions. However, guide the students to note the points where holes may occur
and also realize the fact that oblique asymptotes occur when the degree of the numerator
is larger than the degree of the denominator by only 1. In this case, they use long
division to find the oblique asymptote.

a. dom (f) = R \ { −4 } – Vertical asymptote , x = –4
– horizontal asymptote , y = 0
b. dom (f) = R \ { 0 } – vertical asymptote, x = 0
– horizontal asymptote, y = 2
c. dom (f) = R \ { −3, 3 } – vertical asymptote ,x = –3
 x −3 1  1
 2 = , x ≠ 3  – a hole at x = 3, y =
 x −9 x + 3  6
– horizontal asymptote, y = 0
d. dom (f) = R \ { −1 } – vertical asymptotes, x = −1
x2 − x 2
By long division, = x−2 +
x +1 x −1
Thus oblique asymptote at y = x – 2.
1  1
e. dom (f) = R \   – vertical asymptote x =
3 3
4
– horizontal asymptote, y = −
3
f. dom (f) = R \ {1} – vertical asymptote , x = 1
2
x − x −2 2
By long division, = x−
x −1 x −1
Thus oblique asymptote is, y = x.
2.3.2 GRAPHS OF RATIONAL FUNCTIONS

After ensuring the students understanding of rational function, the next point of
discussion is on graphs of functions. But before dealing with graphs, it will be good to
discuss the zero of a rational function. Knowing the zeros of a rational function helps
the students to find the x- intercept of the function. Graphs of rational functions are
difficult to construct. So, guide the students to note the domain, the intercepts, the
asymptotes, and if there are points where the graph crosses its asymptotes. To help
students practice, you can form groups and let them do Group Work 2.2. In this group
work, the students will find domain of functions, x and y intercepts, the asymptotes of
the functions and their parity (when existing). Doing this is necessary for sketching the
graphs of rational functions.

Domain x-intercept y-intercept Asymptote Parity
ℝ\{−3, 2} x = −1 1 V.A, x = 2, x =−3 Neither

y=−
18 H.A, y = 0
ℝ\{−1} x = −3, x = −2 y=6 V.A, x = −1 Neither

O.A, y = x + 4
ℝ\{−2, 2} --- 1 V.A, x = −2 Neither

y=
2 Hole, x = 2
H.A, y = 0
With these characterizations, guide the students how they can draw/sketch graphs of
rational functions. You can use example 6 of the student textbook on Page 60 for the
purpose of illustration. In addition to sketching graphs of rational functions, you may
also guide students to determine behaviours of functions from their graphs. For
example, you can encourage them to determine the range of a function from its graph.
(Note that for graphs like in Example 6(d), it may be difficult at this stage, to tell the
range, since you may need the concepts of calculus to find the turning point). Finally,
you can give Exercise 2.7 as an assignment.

1
a. i. f ( x) = − < 0 on (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞)
x2
1
ii. f ( x) = − > 0 , No solution.
x2
3x 2
b. i. f ( x) = < 0 on (−1, 2)
( x − 2)( x + 1)
3x 2
ii. f ( x) = > 0 on (−∞, −1) ∪ (2, ∞)
( x − 2)( x + 1)
x +1
c. i. f ( x) = < 0 on (−1, 2) ∪ (0, ∞)
( x − 2)( x + 3) 2
x +1
ii. f ( x) = > 0 on (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, −1) ∪ (2, ∞)
( x − 2)( x + 3) 2
x2 + 5x + 6
d. i. f ( x) = < 0 on (−∞,−3) ∪ (−2, −1)
x +1
x2 + 5x + 6
ii. f ( x) = > 0 on (−3,−2) ∪ (−1, ∞)
x +1
x−2
d. i. f ( x) = < 0 on (−∞, −2)
x2 − 4
x−2
ii. f ( x) = > 0 on (−2, ∞)
x2 − 4
Assessment
Graphing is a skill that improves with practice. So, guide the students to practice
graphing in groups. Insist that they should use squared papers and rulers. Let them first
prepare a table of values that will help them in sketching the graph. Your questions
should check at least the following:
• Have they understood how to determine the significance of the domain, the
intercepts, and the asymptotes?
• Can they explain the nature of the graph near its asymptote?
• Can they give the region in which the function is above (below) its oblique
or horizontal asymptote, if any?

x 2 − x − 12 ( x + 3) ( x − 4) x + 3
1. a. f (x) = 2
= = , for x ≠ −2, 4
x − 2x − 8 ( x + 2) ( x − 4) x + 2
7
A hole at x = 4, y =
6
Vertical asymptote. x = – 2
horizontal asymptote. y = 1
 3
y-intercept at  0, 
 2
x-intercept at (−3, 0)
Domain R \ { −2 ,4 }
Range = R \ { 1 }
Figure 2.3
3x2 − 5x − 2
b. f (x) = , for x ≠ −1, 1
x2 − 1
Vertical asymptote. x = −1 and x = 1
Horizontal asymptote. y = 3
y- intercept at (0, 2)
3x2 – 5x – 2 = 0
⇒ (3x + 1) (x – 2) = 0
 1 
⇒ x-intercepts at  − , 0  and (2, 0)
 3 
Figure 2.4
x3 + 1 ( x + 1) ( x 2 − x + 1) x2 − x + 1
c. f (x) = = = , for x ≠ −1, 1
x2 − 1 ( x + 1) ( x − 1) x −1
By long division,
x2 − x + 1 1
= x +
x −1 x −1
Vertical asymptote. x = 1
3
A hole at x = −1, y = −
2
y-intercept at (0, −1)
oblique asymptote ,y = x
Figure 2.5
x2 + 3x − 4
d. f (x) = , for x ≠ 5
x −5
Vertical asymptote. x = 5
oblique asymptote. y = x + 8
 4
y-intercept at  0, 
 5
x-intercepts at (−4, 0) and (1, 0)
Figure 2.6
16
2 x 2 − 3x + 2 y
e. f ( x) = 14
x2 +1
12
No vertical asymptote 10
Horizontal asymptote y = 2 8
y-intercept at (0, 2) 6
2
x
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
Figure 2.7
x + 2
f. f (x) = , for x ≠ −3.3
x2 − 9
Vertical asymptote. x = −3 and x = 3
x-intercept at (−2, 0)
 2
y-intercept at  0, − 
 9
Figure 2.8
2
You can also plot some additional points to see where the graph lies, say f (−4) = −
7
6
and f (4) = . Note that the graph crosses its horizontal asymptote at x = −2.
7
−x
g. f (x) = 2
, for x ≠ −2, 1
x + x−2
Intercept at ( 0, 0)
Vertical asymptote. x =−2 , x = 1
Plot additional points
x −3 −1 2
3 1 1
f (x) − −
4 2 2
Figure 2.9
( x −1) ( x + 3)
h. f ( x) = 16
y
( x − 2)
14
 3
y- intercept  0,  12
 2
10
x-intercept (1, 0) and (–3, 0)
8
Oblique asymptote y = x + 4
6
Vertical asymptote x = 2
4
2
x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
Figure 2.10
x2 − 9
i. f (x) = , for x ≠ 3
x −3
For x ≠ 3, f (x) = x + 3 except for a hole at x = 3, y =6
8
y
7
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
Figure 2.11
 1 
2. For 1b, f (x) > 0, for x ∈ (−∞, −1), x ∈  − ,1 , x ∈ (2, ∞)
 3 
 1
f (x) < 0, for x ∈  −1, −  , x ∈ (1, 2)
 3
For 1d, f (x) > 0 for x ∈ (− 4, 1) ∪ (5, ∞) and f (x) < 0, for x ∈ (− ∞, − 4) ∪ (1, 5)
For 1h, f (x) > 0 for x ∈ (− 3, 1) ∪ (2, ∞) and f (x) < 0, for x ∈ (− ∞, − 3) ∪(1, 2)

2x − 4 2( x − 2) 2
1. a. 2
= = , for x ≠ 2, −3
x + x−6 ( x + 3) (x − 2) x + 3
x2 − x − 6 ( x − 3) ( x + 2) x−3
b. 2
= = , for x ≠ –1, –2
x + 3x + 2 ( x + 1) (x + 2) x +1
x2 − 5x x( x − 5) x
c. 2
= = , for x ≠ –5, 5
x − 25 ( x +5) ( x − 5) x+5
x3 + 8 x 2 + 24 x + 45 ( x + 5)( x 2 + 3x + 9) x+5
d. 4 3
= 2
= , for x ≠ −3,3
x + 3x − 27 x − 81 ( x − 3)( x + 3)( x + 3 x + 9) ( x − 3)( x + 3)
2. a. x
2 x2 − 162 2(x − 9) (x + 9)
b. = = 2x −18
x+9 x+9
2( x + 1) + ( x − 1) ( x − 1) x2 − 1
c. . = 2 (x + 1) + x2 – 2x + 1 = x2 + 3
( x − 1) ( x + 1) 1
( x − 1) ( x + 1) ( x + 4) (x − 3) x −3
d. . =
( x − 1) ( x + 4) ( x + 1) ( x + 3) x+3
( x − 5) ( x + 5) ( x + 4)2 ( x + 5) ( x + 4)2
e. . 2 =
( x − 5)2 x + 16 ( x − 5) ( x 2 + 16)
x  x − 2 x x −1 1
f. 3
÷ 2 −  = 2
. = 2
x −1  x − 1  ( x − 1) ( x + x + 1) x x + x +1
3 3 A B A(x − 3) + Bx
3. a. 2
= = + =
x − 3x x( x − 3) x x−3 x( x − 3)
⇒ (A + B) x – 3A = 3
⇒ A + B = 0 ⇒ A = –1, B = 1
−3A = 3
3 −1 1
Thus 2
= +
x − 3x x x−3
x +1 x +1 1
b. 2
= =
x + 4 x + 3 ( x + 3) ( x + 1) x +3
2x − 3 A B A(x − 1) + B 2 1
c. 2
= + 2
= 2
= −
( x − 1) x − 1 ( x − 1) ( x −1) x −1 ( x − 1)2
x+ 1 A Bx + C A(x 2 + 1) + x (Bx + C)
d. = + =
x( x 2 + 1) x x2 + 1 x (x 2 + 1)
⇒ A = 1; C = 1; A + B = 0 ⇒ B = –1
x +1 1 −x +1
Thus 3
= + 2
x +x x x +1
x −1 x −1 A B C Ax 2 + Bx( x + 1) + C(x + 1)
e. = = + + =
x3 + x2 x2 ( x + 1) x+1 x x2 x2 ( x + 1)
⇒ A+B=0 ⇒ A = –2
B+C=1 B=2
C = –1 C = –1
x −1 −2 2 1
Thus 3 2
= + − 2
x +x x+1 x x
5 1
x+
5x + 1 A B Cx + D 5 1
f. 2 2
= + 2 + 2 = + 2 − 42 4
x ( x + 4) x x x +4 4x 4x ( x + 4)
5 1 5x + 1
= + 2−
4 x 4x 4( x 2 + 4)
4. a. U = R \ {0}. Multiplying both sides by x2, we get
4 = 5x – 1 ⇒ S.S = {1}
b. U = R \ {0} S.S = {–10}
c. U = R \ {–3} Multiplying both sides by y + 3 gives
3 + 3y = y + 3 ⇒ 2y = 0 S.S = {0}
d. U = R \ {0, 3 } Multiply by y (y – 3) to get
1 + y = 3⇒ S.S = {2}
10
5. a. U = R \ {–2} y
8
x-intercept: (3, 0)
6
 3
y-intercept:  0, −  4
 2
2
Vertical asymptote. x = –2 x
-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
f (–3) = 6, f (–1) = –4 -4
-6
Figure 2.12
b. U= R\ {5} y
No x-intercept 4
 3 
y-intercept  0, 
 25 
2
Horizontal asymptote y = 0
x
-2 2 4 6 8 10
-2
Figure 2.13
c. U= R
Intercept : ( 0, 0)
No vertical asymptote.
x –2 –1 1 2
f (x) 4 1 1 4
5 2 2 5
Figure 2.14
d. U = R \ {–2, 2 }
Intercept. ( 0, 0)
Vertical asymptote. x = –2 and x = 2
x –3 –1 1 3
f (x) –3 5 5 3
−
3 3
Figure 2.15
1 x3 +1
e. f (x) = x + 2 =
x x2
U= R\ {0}
x – intercept (–1, 0)
No y - intercept
Oblique asymptote y = x
9
f (1) = 2, f (2) =
4
Figure 2.16
2 x3 2x
f. g (x) = 2 = 2x − 2
x +1 x +1
U= R
Intercept : ( 0, 0)
No vertical asymptote.
Oblique asymptote. y = 2x
x –2 –1 1 2
f (x) 16 –1 1 16
−
5 5
Figure 2.17
UNIT
3 COORDINATE
GEOMETRY
INTRODUCTION
The plane figures that will be discussed in this unit namely lines, circles, parabolas,
ellipses and hyperbolas are interesting curves that have wide applications. In this unit,
we will deal with these plane figures. The unit is divided into two sections. Each section
is divided into subsections. The first section is about straight lines and the second
section is on conic sections: circles, parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas. It is a known
fact that the planets revolve around the sun in elliptical paths. Satellite receivers are
made in parabolic shape because of a very interesting property which a parabola
exhibits. Due to their stable property, smoke vents in nuclear reactors are made in
hyperbolic shape.
Students may find this unit very interesting and practical. You can help the students to
investigate their surroundings for objects that use these curves.
Unit Outcomes
• understand specific facts and principles about lines and circles.
• know basic concepts about conic sections.
• know methods and procedures in solving problems on conic sections.
71

In this unit, use of teaching aids is vital for the better understanding of the concepts.
Most of the topics discussed in this unit are of practical nature. Therefore, apart from
the student textbook and teachers' guide, the following teaching aids can be used for
instruction purposes.
Sample graphs of the conic sections.
Cones made from cartons, wood or other materials.
Ruler and Mathematical instruments.
Thread of various lengths.
Graphing softwares like Geometer's Sketch Pad, Fathom, Matlab,
Mathematica, etc. (you can find free software from the internet).
3.1 STRAIGHT LINES

Competencies
• write different forms of equation of a line.
• determine the slope, x-intercept and y-intercept of a line from its equation.
• determine the angle between two intersecting lines on the coordinate plane
whose equations are given.
• determine the distance between a point and a line given on the coordinate
plane.
Vocabulary: Coordinate plane, Point, Line, Inclination, Angle, Slope, Intercept, Distance,
Parallel, Perpendicular
Introduction
The purpose of the section is to revise lessons learnt about lines, slopes of lines and
intercepts of lines, and to show the students how to relate the angle of inclination of a
line and the slope of a line, and how to find distance from a point to a line.
Start the unit by revising the lessons the students have learned so far such as equation of
straight lines, x-intercept and y-intercept. Encourage students to use straight edges to
draw lines instead of doing free sketching. For delivery of this sub-unit, you need to tell
the students to come to class with Mathematical Instruments.
Unit 3 – Coordinate Geometry 73
3.1.1 Angle Between two Lines on the Coordinate Plane
Teaching Notes
Before starting the lesson, it is advisable to assess the background of the students about
lines through oral questions and answers. Pursuant to this, you can start the lesson by
revising about lines. To do so, form groups of students and let them do Activity 3.1.
The purpose of this Activity is to revise what the students learned so far about lines,
perpendicularity and parallelism. The important facts that students need to remember
are pointed out in the student textbook.
1. Equation of the line through the points P (1, 4) and Q (3, –2) is y = –3x + 7.
So, slope = –3 and y-intercept = 7.
2. a. neither b. horizontal c. vertical d. neither
3. a. intersecting but not perpendicular
b. intersecting and perpendicular
c. parallel
d. Intersecting and perpendicular
After the students complete the activity, you can proceed to discuss angle between two
lines on the coordinate plane. To do so, let them draw various lines on a coordinate
plane and:
- measure their inclinations using compass.
- draw other lines with the same inclination and stress the fact that such lines
are parallel.
- given a line, let students draw lines which are perpendicular to it by using
compass.
- given a line, let students measure angle of inclination and find its slope
using a trigonometric table or a calculator.
- by using a ruler, let students take a point on a line and measure the distance
from the point to the x and y-axis and decide what the slope of the line is.
Activities like the above help the students to grasp the concepts of inclination,
parallelism and perpendicularity. When you make sure that they can do the above
activities, you can guide the students to do Group Work 3.1. The main purpose of this
group work is to help the students relate the angle of inclination and slope of a line. In
this group work, it is hoped that students will recognize that if α is the angle that a line
makes with the positive x-axis, then the slope m of the line is tan α.

y y
a. tan α = b. Slope of ℓ1 = c. Slope of ℓ1 = tan α
x − x0 x − x0
d. α = 90o e. 0o f. Yes
This time you can define angle of inclination of a line as presented in the student
textbook. Here, what the students know is the angle of inclination that was considered
with respect to the x-axis. But, it may sometimes be of interest to measure an angle of
inclination of a line with respect to another line that we commonly call an angle between
two lines. Before going into the definition of this angle, you can form groups and let them
do activity 3.2. The purpose of this activity is to help students see the relationship
between the angles of inclinations of the two lines and the angle between these lines.

a. the angle of inclination of ℓ1 is α,
b. the angle of inclination of ℓ2 is γ,
c. the relation between α, γ and β is,
β = γ – α and m1 = slope of ℓ1 = tan α , m2 = slope of ℓ2 = tan γ
Following this activity, you need to define angle between two intersecting lines. To define
angle between two intersecting lines, first let the students recall the relationship between
the angles of inclinations of the lines and the angle between the lines from activity 3.2.
Since the relationship is β = γ – α, it will be apparent to represent this as
tan β = tan(γ − α ) .
This time guide the students to arrive at the relation

tan γ − tan α m2 − m1
tan β = tan(γ − α ) = = , if m1m2 ≠ –1.
1 + tan γ tan α 1 + m1m2
Caution: Put emphasis on the fact that the above relation does not work if one of the
two intersecting lines is vertical or when the two lines are perpendicular to
each other.
Assessment
In order to assess the students’ understanding, you can give them exercises as
homework and check their work.

y−2
1. a. =4 ⇒ y – 2 = 4x + 24 ⇒ y = 4x + 26
x+6
y−7 7−6 y−7 −1 −1
b. = ⇒ = ⇒ y–7= ( x + 1)
x +1 −1 − 6 x +1 7 7
−1 48
⇒y= x+
7 7
y+4
c. =7 ⇒ y + 4 = 7x – 14 ⇒ y = 7x – 18
x−2
y+4 −1 −1 −1
d. = ⇒ y+4= x+1 ⇒y= x−3
x−2 2 2 2
e. Let m be the slope of the line.
m −1 m −1
Then tan 45o = ⇒ 1=
1 +m m+1
⇒ m + 1 = m – 1 which has no solution.
At this point, students may get confused because they have applied the formula
properly, but cannot go further. What happens is that y = x + 2 makes 45o already and
the required line makes another 45o with y = x + 2. In other words, the required line is
vertical. Thus its equation is x = 1.
2. Let α be the angle from ℓ1 to ℓ2, then
−1 − ( −3) 2 1 4−3 1
a. tan α = = = b. tan α = =
1+ 3 4 2 1 + 4 × 3 13
−5 6
3. 5x + By – 6 = 0 ⇒ By = –5x + 6 ⇒ y = x + , provided that B ≠ 0. Now
B B
−5 4 35
a. to be parallel, = ⇒B= −
B 7 4
−5 7 20
b. to be perpendicular, =− ⇒ B=
B 4 7
4. The fixed cost for 5 days is 5 × 20 = 100 Birr.
Since 1 km costs 2 Birr, x km cost 2x Birr
Thus y = 2x + 100
5. At 2001 (x = 0), it was 7gm per 1000l.
At 2002 (x = 1), it is 0.75 less (Hence 6.25 g per 1000l)
y − 6.25 7 − 6.25
⇒ = = − 0.75
x −1 0 −1
⇒ y – 6.25 = –0.75x + 0.75 ⇒ y = –0.75x + 7
3.1.2 Distance between a Point and a Line on the

Coordinate Plane
To find distance between a point and a line, there are various approaches. However, that
distance is the shortest one. To let the students arrive at this conclusion, you can let
them do Activity 3.3.

In this activity, it is hoped that students will recognize that there are infinitely many
lines through the point P and that the line segment perpendicular to the line has the
shortest length. But, you can let them measure the distance and the angle to justify that
the distance is the shortest one and the angle is a right angle.
With this understanding, you can proceed to deriving the formula for the distance from a
point to a line. To do so, two steps are used. First, we find the formula for a distance from
the origin to a line, i.e., the distance from (0, 0) to the line with equation
C
Ax + By + C = 0 which is , A ≠ 0 or B ≠ 0 as discussed in the student
A + B2
2
textbook.
Then using the translation formulas
x' = x – h and y' = y – k which they will see after Group Work 3.2,
Axo + Byo + C
the general case for any point (xo, yo) is derived to be .
A2 + B 2
Although this approach seems to be easier to calculate the distance of a point from a
line, there is also an alternative approach that applies distance between two points. To
do so, first you need to find the line that passes through the given point and is
perpendicular to the given line. Next, find the point of intersection of the two lines.
Finally, compute the distance between the given point and the point of intersection.
Example: Find the distance of the point (3, 1) from the line y = x + 1.
To find this distance, we can use the above stated rule, and
Axo + Byo + C −1(3) + 1(1) + −1 3 3 2
d= = = = .
A2 + B 2 12 + 12 2 2
We also can determine the distance alternatively using another method. You can ask
talented students to do the problem in a different approach as follows.
1. Since our line is y = x + 1, the line that passes through (3, 1) and perpendicular
to y = x + 1 is y = -x + 4.
3 5
2. The point of intersection of these two lines y = x + 1 and y = -x + 4 is  ,  .
2 2
3. The distance of the point (3, 1) from the line y = x + 1 is the same as the
3 5
distance between the points (3, 1) and  ,  which is
2 2
2 2
3  5  3 2
d =  − 3  +  −1 =
2  2  2
To help them derive the translation formula, let them do Group Work 3.2 by
themselves.
Answers to Group Work 3. 2
1. From the picture, guide the students to reach to the formulas
x' = x – h and y' = y – k
2. P (–3, 2) and C(h, k) = (3, 4)
Thus x' = x – h = –3 – 3 = –6 and y' = y – k = 2 – 4 = –2
Thus in the x'y' – system P (−6, −2)
Assessment
You can assess the understanding of the students when they do group work. You can
also give them homework a problem of the following type.
Given the points (1, 3), (-3, 1) and (0, -4).
a. Find equations of the lines that pass through any two of the points.
b. Angle of inclination of these lines.
c. Distance from one of the points to the line containing the other two points.
d. Angle between any two of the lines.
C 10
1. a. d= = = 2 units
A2 + B2 42 + 32
C 2 26
b. d= = = units
A 2 + B2 12 + 52 13
C 7 7 10
c. d= = = units
A +B2 2
3 +1 2 2 10
5(−3) + 4(2) − 3 10 10 41
2. a. d= = = units
25 +16 41 41
2(4) − 3(0) − 2 6 6 13
b. d= = = units
2
2 + ( −3) 2
13 13
2( −3) − 3( −5) + 11 20 20 13
c. d= = = units
2
2 + ( −3) 2
13 13
3.2 CONIC SECTIONS

Competencies
• name the different types of conic sections.
• explain how the conic sections are generated (formed).
• define circle as a locus.
• write equation of a circle.
• find the radius and centre of a circle from its equation.
• determine whether a given line and circle have a point of intersection or not.
• determine the coordinates for the intersection points (s) of intersecting lines.
• write equation of a tangent line to a given circle, (where the point of
tangency is given.)
• write the standard form of equation of a parabola.
• draw different types of parabolas.
• describe some properties of a parabola.
• define “ellipse” as a locus. (set of points on the plane which satisfy a
certain given condition).
• write the standard form of equation of an ellipse.
• sketch ellipse.
• describe some related terms (latus rectum, eccentricity, major and minor axis)
• define a hyperbola as locus.
• write the standard form of equation of a hyperbola.
• describe related terms to hyperbola (foci, centre, transverse axis,
asymptotes, conjugate axis . . .).
• sketch hyperbola based on its given equation.
• give eccentricity of a given hyperbola.
• solve problems on hyperbola.
Vocabulary: Cone, Locus, Conic section, Circle, Center, Radius, Parabola, Focus,
Directrix, Latus rectum, Axis, Ellipse, Major axis, Minor axis, Hyperbola,
Conjugate axis, Transverse axis, Eccentricity
Introduction
The purpose of this section is to deal with the sections formed by the intersection of a
cone and a plane; conic sections that include circles, parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas.
To start the section, you need to introduce cone and sections of the cone using physical
models. These will help students to understand why the plane curves discussed in the
section got the name conic sections.
Teaching Notes
In this sub-unit, a conic section and each one of the sections formed by the intersection
of a cone and a plane; conic sections that include circles, parabolas, ellipses and
hyperbolas will be discussed.
3.2.1 Cone and sections of a cone

To present this topic, you may need to have models of a cone that can be made either
by using cartons or any other material that can be accessed around the school. With
these models, prepare one cone and the other sections of the cone as cut by a plane
that represent circle, parabola, ellipse and hyperbola as explained in the student
textbook. You may give activities for the students to prepare such prototypes and
identify how the conic sections are formed. After doing this, you can discuss each
conic section one by one.
3.2.2 Circles
To start this lesson, you may first make sure that the students can identify a circle from
the above task. Pursuant to this effort, let students sketch loci of circles by using
compass. The students can also use a piece of string to sketch loci of circles.
Tie one end of the string to a nail inserted at the centre of the circle. Attach the other
end of the string to a pencil, and, holding the string tight, draw the circle. The radius
will be the length of the string. To justify this, you can let them do Activity 3.4 and
reach a similar conclusion.
Figure 3.1

In this activity, students will find circles that satisfy certain conditions by themselves.
Guide them to take a point P(x, y) on the locus of the curves required and find the
distance:
Let P(x, y) be a point on the locus. Then
a. ( x − 0) 2 + ( y − 0) 2 = 5 or x2 + y2 = 25
b. ( x − 1) 2 + ( y + 2) 2 = 4 or (x −1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 16
When the students realize that the locus of a point on the circle is at equal distance from
a fixed point, called the center, they can algebraically determine this distance between
the two points to formulate the equation of a circle. For this purpose, you can use the
example presented in the student textbook and encourage the students to determine
equations of various circles. That is, you can define a circle using the idea of locus. By
using different examples, help the students to find equations of circles and, from a given
equation help them how to find radius and centre of a circle.
Once we have a circle on a plane, it is worth discussing possible presentations that the
circle can have with a line on the same plane. To discuss this, you can let the students
to Activity 3.5. The main purpose of this activity is to show the students all the possible
cases of intersection of a circle and a line.
You can use the distance formula which we have seen in the previous section and guide
students to compare the perpendicular distance (d) they find with the radius of the circle
which is 4. Then using the solutions which are given below, you can define tangent line,
secant line and point of tangency.
18 21
1. a. d= = 3.6 b. d=4 c. d= = 4.2
5 5
2 a. b.
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1 x
x
−4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5
−6 −6
−7 −7
−8 −8

c.
y
5
4
3
2
1 x
−4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
Figure 3.4
So, from the graphs we can observe that
18
ℓ1: 3x – 4y – 1 = 0 is secant line to the circle and d = < 4.
5
ℓ2: 3x – 4y + 1 = 0 is tangent line to the circle and d = 4 .
ℓ3: 3x – 4y + 2 = 0 and the circle are disjoint since the distance between the
center of the circle and ℓ3 is greater than the radius of the circle.
When we find the distance between the center of a circle and the line of interest, if:
- the distance is greater than the radius, then the line does not intersect the
circle.
- the distance is equal to the radius, then the line intersects at only one point
and hence it is tangent to the circle.
- the distance is less than the radius, then the line intersects the circle at two
points and hence is secant to the circle.
Assessment
Using exercise 3.3, you can assess the students’ understanding about circle and related
ideas.

1. a. (x + 2)2 + (y – 3)2 = 25 b. (x – 8)2 + (y – 2)2 = 2
c. (x + 2)2 + (y + 1)2 = 16
2. a. C (2, 3) , r = 7 b. C (–7, −12), r = 6
7
c. C (–3, –2), r = d. C (1, –3), r = 20 = 2 5
2
e x2 + y2 −8x +12y – 12 = 0
⇔ x2 – 8x + 16 + y2 +12y + 36 = 12 + 16 + 36
⇔ (x – 4)2 + (y + 6)2 = 64 and hence C (4, –6), r = 8
f (x − 1)2 +(y + 2)2 = −3. The equation does not represent a circle (the circle is
imaginary).
2 2
3. a. C (5, 2). To find r, r = ( 0 − 5) + ( 0 − 2 ) = 29
Thus, the circle is (x – 5)2 + ( y – 2)2 = 29

b. (x – 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 9
2 2
c. d= ( 4 + 2 ) + ( 5 + 3) = 36 + 64 = 10
d  4 + (−2) 5 + ( − 3) 
⇒ r= = 5 and C (h, k) =  ,  = (1, 1)
2  2 2 
Thus (x – 1)2 + (y – 1)2 = 25 is equation of the circle.
4. C (5, 12). To find r, find the distance from the centre to 2x – y + 3 = 0
2 ( 5 ) − 12 + 3 1
⇒ r= = is radius of the circle.
4 +1 5
1
⇒ (x – 5)2 + (y – 12)2 = is equation of the circle.
5
5. a. x2 + y2 = 145; p (9, –8)
Centre C (h, k) = (0, 0) and point of tangency is (9, –8), then,
y − yo 0 − ( − 8) −8
= = is the slope of the radius.
x − xo 0−9 9
y − yo 9
The equation of the tangent line is given by: =
x − xo 8
y − ( − 8) 9 y +8 9
⇒ = ⇒ =
x−9 8 x −9 8
9 145
⇒ y= x− is equation of the tangent line.
8 8
b. C (2, 3), P = (–1, 2)

2−3 −1 1
⇒ m= = = is the slope of the radius.
−1 − 2 −3 3
⇒ The slope of the tangent line is −3.
y−2
= −3 is equation of the tangent line. Or y = –3x – 1
x +1
3.2.3 Parabolas
You can start the section by giving the students physical examples of parabolas, such as
arcs in bridges, satellite dishes, car head lamps, etc. You can also use local materials
that represent parabolas. Then, draw the graphs of different quadratic functions which
are parabolas. You can use Activity 3.6 for this purpose. Put emphasis on axis, vertex of
a parabola and whether the parabola opens upward or downward. Then, you can define
a parabola and different parts of a parabola. Guide the students to derive the standard
form of equation of parabolas with vertical and horizontal axes. You can also give
different examples on these points.
The activity helps students to observe that quadratic functions have parabolic graphs
and that the line of symmetry of the quadratic function is the axis of a parabola.
1. a. b.
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 x 1 x
−4 −3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2 −2
−3 −3
y = x2 +2x + 3 y = –x2 + 5x – 4
5
2 a. Axis: x = –1 b. Axis: x =
2
Although there are various types of parabola say, parabolas whose axes are parallel to
the x or y axes, there are also others whose axes might not be parallel to any of these
axes. Such parabolas are not discussed in good detail in this grade level. However, if
there are talented students who might want to investigate more, you can give them as an
assignment of the following type.
Example: Find the equation of the parabola having focus at (1, 1) and directrix y = -x
for the talented students.
Solution: Let P(x, y) be any point on the parabola. Then by definition of the parabola,
the distance from P to the directrix y = −x is equal to the distance from p to
F(1, 1).
2 2 x+ y
From this, ( x − 1) + ( y − 1) =
2
Squaring both sides,
2
2 2 ( x + y)
( x − 1) + ( y − 1) = ⇔ x 2 + y 2 − 2 xy − 4 x − 4 y + 4 = 0
2
Assessment
For assessing students’ understanding, you can use the questions in exercise 3.4. You
can also give an assignment for the students to identify a parabola from their
surrounding and report the parts in the parabola.
Example: If we consider a satellite dish in their surrounding, the dish represents the
parabola and the decoder is located at the focus, etc.
1. a. h = – 2, k =5 and k + p = –8 ⇒ 5 + p = –8 ⇒ p = –13
⇒ The parabola opens downwards. Thus, the equation is
(x + 2)2 = –52 (y – 5)
b. h = –3, k = 4 and k + p =12 ⇒ 4 + p = 12 ⇒ p = 8
⇒ The parabola opens upwards, thus the equation is
(x + 3)2 = 32 (y – 4)
c. h = 4, k = 6 and h + p = –8 ⇒ 4 + p = –8 ⇒ p = –12
⇒ The parabola opens to the left, thus the equation is
(y – 6)2 = –48 (x – 4)
d. h = –1 , k = 8 and h + p = 6 ⇒ –1 + p = 6 ⇒ p = 7
⇒ The parabola opens to the right
Thus, the equation is (y – 8)2 = 28 (x + 1)
2. a. x2 = 2y ⇔ (x – 0)2 = 2 (y – 0)
1
⇒ Vertex V (0, 0), and 4p = 2 ⇒ p = .
2
 1  1
The parabola opens upwards, with focus F  0, 0 +  =  0,  and the directrix
 2  2
1 −1 −1
is y = k – p = 0 – = , i.e., y =
2 2 2
Figure 3.7
b. ( x + 2)2 = 4 ( y – 6)
⇒ V (–2, 6) and 4p = 4 ⇒ p = 1. The parabola opens upwards, with
F (–2, 7) and directrix y = 5
y
10
9
8 2
7 ( x + 2) = 4 ( y − 6)
6
y=5
5
4
3
2
1 x
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 3.8
2
c. (y + 2) = –16 (x – 3)
⇒ V = (3, –2) and 4p = 16 ⇒ p = 4
The parabola opens to the left.
⇒ F = (3+ (–4), –2) = (–1, –2) and directrix x = h + p = 3 + 4 = 7
y
6
(y + 2)2 = − 16(x − 3)
5
4
3
2
1 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
−2
−3
−4
x=7
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9
−10
Figure 3.9
2
d. (x – 3) = 4y = 4 (y – 0)
V = (3, 0) and 4p = 4 ⇒ p = 1
⇒ F = (3, 0 + p) = (3, 1) and directrix: y = –1
The parabola opens upwards
y
7
6
5
4 2
( x − 3) = 4y
3
2
1 x
−2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
y = −1
−2
−3
Figure 3.10
3. a. F (3, 5); directrix : y = 3
The focus is above the directrix y = 3. The distance from F to y = 3 is 2p.
⇒ p = 1 and the vertex is V(3, 4).Thus the equation is (x – 3)2 = 4(y – 4)
b. V (–2, 1) ; axis y = 1 and p = 1,hence the parabola opens to the right
⇒ F (–2 + 1, 1) ⇒ F (–1, 1))
So (y – 1)2 = 4 (x + 2)
c. V (4, 3) ; passes through (5, 2); vertical axis

⇒ Axis x = 4
⇒ (x – 4)2 = 4p (y – 3)
Since it passes through (5, 2), (5 – 4)2 = 4p (2 – 3)
1
⇒ 1 = 4p (–1) ⇒ – 4p = 1 = p = –
4
Hence, we have (x – 4)2 = – (y – 3)
d. F (5, 0); p = 4; vertical axis
⇒ k+p=0⇒k+4=0 ⇒k=–4
V = (5, –4)
Now the equation is:
(x – 5)2 = 16 (y + 4)
4. a. V (0, 0); Axis y = 0
Passes through A (3, 6). Hence the parabola is
y2 = 4px, since it passes through A( 3,6)
36
So 36 = 4p × 3 ⇒ p = = 3 ⇒ the parabola opens to the right
12
Thus the equation is y2 = 12x
b. V (4, 2) ; Axis y = 2; passing through A (8, 7)
⇒ The equation is (y – 2)2 = 4p (x – 4)
From this,
25
(7 – 2)2 = 4p (8 – 4) ⇒ 25 = 4p (4) ⇒ 4p =
4
25
Thus (y – 2)2 = (x – 4)
4
c. V (5, −3); Axis x = 5; B (1, 2) is to the left of Axis and above the vertex.
⇒ (x – 5)2 = 4p (y + 3) ⇒ (1 – 5)2 = 4p (2 + 3)
16
⇒ 16 = 4p (5) ⇒ 4P =
5
16
⇒ (x – 5)2 = (y + 3)
5
5. a. Consider the following representation of the reflector.
Figure 3.11
2
We get x = 4py
36
⇒ 6 2 = 4 p4 ⇒ 4 p = =9
4
Thus the parabola has the equation x2 = 9y
9  9
⇒ p= and F  0,  . Thus the focus must be at 2.25m.
4  4
b. Consider the figure below.
Figure 3.12
64 32
The equation is x2 = 4py and 82 = 4p (6) ⇒ = = 4p
6 3
32
⇒ The equation is x2 = y
3
 8
Now the focus is F  0,  .
 3
8
To find how wide the lamp is at the focus (at the depth of cm) insert
3
8
y= in the equation.
3
32  8  256
⇒ x2 =   ⇒ x =
2
3 3 9
16  −16 8   16 8 
⇒ x= ± . The points  ,  and  ,  are on the parabola.
3  3 3  3 3
32
Now the width is the distance between these points, which is .
3
Notice that this equals to 4p, and the length is called the latus rectum.
Thus for any parabola, latus rectum = the width of the parabola at the focus = 4p.
6. a. V (1, 2) ; Axis y = 2; passes through (6, 3)
⇒ (y – 2)2 = 4p (x – 1)
⇒ (3 – 2)2 = 4p (6 – 1) (since the parabola passes through (6, 3))
1 1
⇒ = 4p and hence (y – 2)2 = ( x − 1) is equation of the parabola.
5 5
b. F (3, 4) ; directrix: x = 8
⇒ Axis y = 4 and directrix x = 8 both meet at (8, 4)
 3 + 8   11  5
Thus V =  , 4 =  , 4  and P = FV =
 2  2  2
Besides, the directrix is to the right of the focus F. Thus the parabola opens to the
 11 
left and hence (y – 4)2 = −10  x −  .
 2
3.2.4 Ellipses
Before starting this lesson, it would be good to give the students a reading assignment
about the path of the planets around the sun, and some applications of ellipses.
Let the students practice drawing ellipses; to draw an ellipse, put pins on the plane at
foci F1 and F2, take a piece of string with length ℓ, ℓ > F1F2 (the distance between F1
and F2), hold the string tight and draw a curve around F1 and F2 as shown in the figure
below. The resulting figure will be an ellipse with equation PF1 + PF2 = ℓ, for every
point P on the curve.
Figure 3.13
Before we proceed to discuss ellipse, it will be advisable for the students to differentiate
a circle and an ellipse. For this purpose, you can let them do Group Work 3.3.

Though there could be different observation notes, the following are recognized
differences between a circle and an ellipse.
1. A circle has only one reference point (the center) and the distance from any
point of the circle to this reference point is the same.
2. An ellipse has two reference points called foci. Though any point on the
ellipse might not be at constant distance from any of the reference points, the
length of the string is always constant.
3. They have different shapes.
Construct an ellipse on a gridded plane with centre mid way between F1 and F2 and ask
students if they can give its equation.
Give the definition of an ellipse and the parts on the ellipse. Then using the definition,
derive the standard form of equation of the ellipse by considering horizontal and vertical
axes. Referring the drawing on the student textbook, derive the relation between a, b
and c. To make them relate these, it will be good to discuss the examples in the students
textbook. However, ellipses that have only vertical or horizontal axes are treated in this
unit. Those ellipses with oblique axes are not treated. But for talented students, they
may raise the questions. So, you can give exercises of the following type.
Example: Find the equation of an ellipse whose center is the origin, one focus at (2, 2)
and length of the semi minor axis is 8.
Solution: The position of the ellipse is as shown in the following figure.
y′ y x′
5
4
3
2 •
F1(2, 2)
1 x
O
−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1
−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
• −2
F2(−2, −2)
−3
−4
−5
Figure 3.14
If we choose the axes x' and y' so that the x'-axis coincides with the major axis of
the ellipse then c = OF1 = 8 and b = 8 , and from the relation
a 2 = b 2 + c 2 = 8 + 8 = 16 we find that a = 4 .
Let P(x, y) be any point on the ellipse then PF1 + PF2 = 2a
2 2 2 2
⇒ ( x − 2) + ( y − 2 ) + ( x + 2) + ( y + 2) =8
2 2 2 2
⇒ ( x − 2) + ( y − 2 ) = 8− ( x + 2) + ( y + 2)
Squaring both sides gives us
2 2 2 2 2 2
( x − 2 ) + ( y − 2) = 64 − 16 ( x + 2) + ( y + 2 ) + ( x + 2) + ( y + 2)
2 2
⇒ x2 − 4 x + 4 + y 2 − 4 y + 4 = 64 − 16 ( x + 2) + ( y + 2 ) + x2 + 4 x + 4 + y2 + 4 y + 4
2 2
⇒ −8 x − 8 y = 64 − 16 ( x + 2) + ( y + 2)
2 2
⇒ x + y +8 = 2 ( x + 2 ) + ( y + 2)
Squaring both sides, gives us:
⇒ x 2 + y 2 + 2 xy + 16 x + 16 y + 64 = 4 x2 + 16 x + 16 + 4 y 2 + 16 y + 16
⇒ 3x2 + 3 y 2 − 2 xy − 32 = 0
The equation of the ellipse is 3x2 + 3 y 2 − 2 xy − 32 = 0
Assessment
It is possible to use the questions in Exercise 3.5 for the purpose of assessing students
understanding. You can assess the students by giving home work and check their work.
You can also give them assignments. For example, the planets revolve around the sun
in an elliptical orbit. So you can ask the students to find one of the foci of the orbit and
other parts of the ellipse in which Mars revolve around by considering sun as the other
focus. You can also give Exercise 3.5 question 4 for this purpose.

x2 y2
1. a. + =1
36 16
b. Foci (–3, 0), (3, 0), a = 8
⇒ C (0, 0) and c = 3 ⇒ b2 = a2 – c2 = 64 – 9 = 55
x2 y 2
⇒ + = 1 is equation of an ellipse.
64 55
y2 x2 ( x − 5)2 y2
c. + = 1 d. + = 1
64 36 25 4
2. a. C (3, 4), a2 = 25, b2 = 16
⇒ c2 = 9 ⇒ c = 3
Hence F1(0, 4) and F2 (6, 4), V1 (−2, 4) and V2 ( 8, 4)
B1 and B2 (end points of the minor axis) are sometimes called co-vertices.
They are B1 (3, 0) and B2 (3, 8)
Figure 3.15
b. C (1, – 2)
a = 5, b = 2 ⇒ c = 25 − 4 = 21
Thus F1 (1, –2 – 21 ) and F2 (1 , –2 + 21 )

V1 (1, –7), V2 (1, 3), B1 (−1, −2), B2 (3, −2)
Figure 3.16
c. C (3, 2) a = 5, b = 5
⇒ c= 20 = 2 5 ⇒ F1 (3, 2 – 2 5 ) , F2 (3, 2 + 2 5)
V1 (3, –3), V2 (3, 7), B1 (3 – 5 , 2 ), B2 3 + 5, 2 ( )
y 2 2
8 ( y − 2) ( x − 3)
+ =1
7 25 5
6
5
4
3
2
1 x
−3 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2
−3
Figure 3.17
3. a. a = CV2 = 9, b = B1C = 2
2 2
( x −1) ( y − 4)
⇒ + = 1
81 4
y
C(1, 4)
• • V2 (10, 4)
• B1 (1, 2)
x
1 10
Figure 3.18
b. F1 = (−1, 0) , F2 (1, 0)
⇒ C (0, 0) and c = 1
a=3⇒ b= a2 − c2 = 2 2
x2 y2
⇒ + = 1
9 8
c. ⇒ c = 1, a = 6 ⇒ b2 = 36 – 1 = 35
x2 y2
+ = 1
36 35
 1  1
d. C  0, −  F2 is above C  0, − 
 2  2
2
 1
 y + 2 x2
⇒   + 2 = 1
a2 b
3 9
Now c = ⇒ a2 = b2 + c2 = b2 +
2 4
2
 1
y+  x2
⇒ 
2
+ 2 = 1
9 b
b2 +
4
Since it passes through (2, 2),
2
 1
2 + 
+ 
4 2
2
=1
b 9
b2 +
4
25
4 4 16b 2 + 36 + 25b 2
⇒ 2 + = 1 ⇒ = 1
b 4b 2 + 9 b2 (4b 2 + 9)
4
⇒ 41b + 36 = 4b4 + 9b2 ⇒ 4b4 – 32b2 – 36 = 0
2
⇒ b4 – 8b2 – 9 = 0 ⇒ (b2)2 – 8 (b2) – 9 = 0

9 45
⇒ b2 = 9 ⇒ 3b = 3 ⇒ a2 = 9 + =
4 4
2
 1
y+ 2 x2
Hence, 4   + = 1
45 9
y2 x2
e. C (0, 0) ; V1 (0, −5) ; b = 4 ⇒ a = 5 and + = 1
25 4
4. a. a = 288, b = 227
2 2
⇒ c= ( 228) − ( 227 ) = 455 ≈ 21.33
Since the sun is at one of the foci, the distance from the sun to the other focus is
the distance between the two foci, i.e. 2c.
Hence, the distance from the sun to the other foci is 42.66 million km.
b. The shortest distance between Mars and the sun is the distance between the
adjacent focus and vertex.
⇒ 228 – 21.33 = 206.67 million km
c. The longest distance is 2c + shortest distance (or equivalently length of
major axis – shortest distance)
i.e., 2 (21.33) + 206.67 (in millions) = 42.66 + 206.67 = 249.33 millions
or
2a – shortest distance (in millions) = 2 (228) – 206.67
= 456.00 – 206.67 = 249.33 millions
3.2.5 Hyperbolas
Since students have already discussed parabolas, you can brainstorm to begin discussing
hyperbolas by asking oral questions such as the following.
What will happen if two parabolas are put on one axis of symmetry
but opposite in direction?
Students need to relate, if they can, the foci of each part of the parabola, the distance
between the vertices of each parabola, etc. But there might not be definite solution.
Following their inquiry, you can give them the formal definition of hyperbola and
related terminologies as stated in the student textbook. Students may have problems
with the relationship between a, b and c, since these fixed numbers are used in both
equations of ellipses and hyperbolas. Help them to understand that
a2 = b2 + c2 for ellipses
while a2 + b2 = c2 for hyperbolas.
Besides, while a > b for ellipses, and a corresponds with the major axis, for hyperbolas,
a < b, a = b or a > b are possible.
In this case, a corresponds with the transverse axis which also lies on FF
1 2 .
Based on this definition you can derive the formula for a hyperbola. Try to guide the
students to take part in the derivation. When you finish the derivation, it will be
important to discuss some applications of a hyperbola.
Here are some applications of hyperbolas
1. Most comets that do not move in elliptical orbits around the sun move in
hyperbolic orbits.
2. If a sound is heard at three different locations, the sound source can be found
using hyperbolas.
k
3. Notice that the graph of y = is a hyperbola
x
⇒ i.e., xy = k is a hyperbola.
Thus, Boyle's law, PV = C, (V-volume, P- pressure) is a hyperbola.
Cognizant of the fact that the students have now got the ideas of a hyperbola and its
formula, they need to practice sketching hyperbolas and related asymptotes. To do so,
you can let them do activity 3.7.
This activity helps students to draw asymptotes of hyperbolas using squared papers.
Encourage them to find the equations of the asymptotes from the graph.
Figure 3.19
When they practice sketching and tried to relate hyperbolas with practical meaning, you may
ask students to consider Boyle’s Law (for natural science students) and supply and
demand curves (for social science students).
Assessment
To assess the understanding of students, you can use several approaches. One approach
could be giving them exercise 3.6 as homework. The other approach could be
collectively giving a test/quiz that represents all conic sections.
x2 y 2
1. a. − =1
64 25
b. a = 8 ; C ( 0, 0) ; transverse axis: horizontal and c = 10
⇒ b2 = c2 – a2 = 100 – 64 = 36
x2 y 2
⇒ − =1
64 36
c. C (–1, 4), a = 2, b = 3, vertical transverse axis
( y − 4) 2 ( x + 1) 2
⇒ − =1
4 9
d. V1 (–2, 1), V2 (2, 1) ; b = 2
⇒ C = (0, 1) and 2a = 4 ⇒ a = 2
x2 ( y − 1)2
⇒ − =1
4 4
x2 y 2
2. a. − =1
36 81
C (0, 0),
a = 6, b = 9 ⇒ c = 117
⇒ Foci ( ±3 13,0 ), V (± 6, 0), B (0, ± 9)
3
The asymptotes are y = ± x
2
b. C (–3, –6),
a = 3, b = 6 ⇒ c = 45
⇒ F1 = ( −3 − 3 5, −6), F2 = ( −3 + 3 5, −6)
V1 (−6, −6), V2 (0, −6)
B1 (–3, –12), B2 (–3, 0)
Asymptotes y = ± 2(x + 3) + –6
⇒ y = 2x and y = –2x – 12
Figure 3.20
2 2
y x
c. − =1
25 16
C (0, 0), a = 5, b = 4 ⇒ c = 41
⇒ F 0, ± 41 ( ) and V ( 0, ± 5 ) , B ( ± 4, 0)
5
Asymptotes: y = ± x
4
2 2
( y − 3) ( x − 2)
=1
d. −
25 25
C (2, 3), a = b = 5 ⇒ c = 5 2
⇒ F1 2, 3 − 5 2 , F2 2, 3 + 5 2
( ) ( )
V1 (2, −2), V2 (2, 8), B1 (−3, 3), B2 (7, 3)
Asymptotes: y = ± (x – 2) + 3
y = –x + 5 and y = x + 1
3. a. ⇒ a = 2, c = 3 ⇒ b2 = c2 – a2 = 9 – 4 = 5
( x − 4)2 ( y + 2)2
⇒ − =1
4 5
b. a = 3 and it is y-hyperbola (transverse axis: vertical)
( y − 2)2 ( x − 4) 2
⇒ − =1
9 16
3
Now 4y – 3x = – 4 ⇒ 4y = 3x – 4 ⇒ y = x − 1
4
a 3
⇒ = ⇒ b=4
b 4
( y − 2)2 ( x − 4) 2
⇒ − = 1 is the equation of the hyperbola.
9 16
c. V1 (0, −4), V2 (0, 4), F1 (0, –5) and F2 (0, 5)

 −4 + 4 
⇒ C =  0,  = ( 0, 0 )
 2 
It is a y-hyperbola with a = 4, c = 5 and b2 = c2 – a2 = 9
y 2 x2
⇒ − =1
16 9
d. V1 (−2, 3), V2 (6, 3), F1 (−4, 3)
 −2 + 6 
C , 3  = ( 2, 3)
 2 
a = 4, and c = 6 ⇒ b2 = 36 – 16 = 20
( x − 2)2 ( y − 3)2
⇒ − = 1
16 20
e. C (2, 0), a = 4 , b = 3
( x − 2)2 y 2
− =1
16 9
f. a = 4 , B1 ( 5, –5), B2 (5, 3) ⇒ C (5, –1) and b = 4
2 2
( x − 5) ( y + 1)
⇒ − =1
16 16
( x − h)2 ( y − k )2
4. Suppose − = 1 is equilateral
a2 b2
⇒ a=b
Now the asymptotes are
b b −b
y=± (x − h) + k ⇒ their slopes are and
a a a
2 2
b −b −b −b
Now . = 2 = 2 = −1 , because a = b
a a a b
−b b
⇒ y= (x − h) + k and y = (x − h) + k are perpendicular
a a
Conversely suppose
−b b
y= (x – h) + k and y = (x – h) + k
a a
are perpendicular. Then
−b b b2
. = −1 ⇒ 2 = 1 ⇒ a2 = b2
a a a
⇒ a=b
( y − k ) 2 ( x − h) 2
We could equally have used − = 1 and its asymptotes
a2 b2
a
y = ± (x − h) + k . Thus the proof is done
b
1. a. 0.x + 1. y + 3 = 0 b. 1.x + 0.y – 9 = 0 c. x – 2y + 8 = 0

d. x+y–7=0 e. 3x + 4y – 7 = 0
y −3
2. a. = − 1 ⇒ y – 3 = –x – 2 or y = –x + 1
x+2
y−7 −10 − 7 y−7 −17
b. = ⇒ =
x −3 6−3 x−3 3
−17 −17
⇒ y–7= ( x − 3) ⇒ y – 7 = x + 17
3 3
−17
⇒ y= x + 24
3
y+2
c. = 3 ⇒ y + 2 = 3 x − 9 ⇒ y = 3x − 11
x −3
d. 6x = 2y – 4 ⇒ 2y = 6x + 4 ⇒ y = 3x + 2
−1
Now a line perpendicular to y = 3x + 2, has slope .
3
−1
Thus, the required line is y = x+4
3
 y = −2 x + 2 −2 − ( −3) 1
3. a.  ⇒ tan α = =
 y = −3x − 1 1+ 6 7
1 5
b. x – 6y + 5 = 0 ⇒ 6y = x + 5 ⇒ y = x +
6 6
1 1
2y – x – 1 = 0 ⇒ 2y = x + 1 ⇒ y = x +
2 2
1 1 2
−
1 12 4
⇒ tan α = 2 6 = 6 = × =
1 1 1 3 13 13
1+ . 1+
2 6 12
−1 2
c. –x – 5y – 2 = 0 ⇒ y = x−
5 5
 −1 
4− 
y – 4x + 7 = 0 ⇒ y = 4x – 7 ⇒ tan α =  5  = 21
4
1−
5
1 5
d. x – 6y + 5 = 0 ⇒ 6y = x + 5 ⇒ y = x+
6 6
1 1
2y – x – 1 = 0 ⇒ 2y = x + 1 ⇒ y = x+
2 2
1 1
−
4
⇒ tan α = 2 6 =
1 1 13
1+ .
2 6
2 ( 4 ) − 3 ( 3) + 2 1 2 2
4. a. = b. =
4+9 13 4 +9 13
2 ( −1) + 2 3 ( −2 ) − 4 ( 4 ) − 1 23
c. =0 d. =
4+9 9 + 16 5
2−6 4
5. a. d= =
4+9 13
b. 4y = 3x – 1 ⇒ 3x – 4y – 1 = 0
7
8y = 6x – 7 ⇒ 6x – 8y – 7 = 0 ⇒ 3x – 4y – =0
2
 −7  5
−1 −  
 2 1
Hence d = = 2 =
9 + 16 5 2
6. a. (x – 3)2 + (y + 7)2 = 9
2 ( 3) + 3 ( −7 ) − 4 19
b. r= =
4+9 13
The circle is
361
(x – 3)2 + (y + 7)2 =
13
 3 + 4 −7 + 3   7 
c. C ,  =  , −2 
 2 2  2 
2 2
d= ( 4 − 3) + ( 3 − ( −7 ) ) = 1 + 100 = 101
d 101
⇒ r= =
2 2
2
 7 2 101
⇒ x−  + (y + 2) =
 2 4
7. (h, k) = (3, 4) ; (xo, yo) = (1, 0)

y − yo − ( xo − h )
The tangent line is =
x − xo ( yo − k )
y − (1 − 3) −1
⇒ = ⇒ y = ( x −1)
x −1 −4 2
8. a. y2 = –8x b. (x – 3)2 = 4 (y – 2)
c. C ( 0, 0)
x2 = 4py ⇒ 1 = 4p (1) ⇒ 4p = 1 ⇒ x2 = y
9. a. (x – 1)2 = y + 2
1
(x – 1)2 = 1 (y + 2) ⇒ 4p = 1 ⇒ p =
4
 1  7
and V (1, –2) ⇒ Focus F 1, − 2 +  = 1, − 
 4  4
Axis: x = 1
−9
Directrix: y =
4
b. x2 = –6y
V(0, 0)
6 3  3
4P = 6 ⇒ P = = and F  0, − 
4 2  2
3
Directrix: y= ; Axis : x = 0
2
c. 4 (x + 1) = 2 (y + 2)2 ⇒ 2 (x + 1) = (y + 2)2
1
V (–1, −2), 4p = 2 ⇒ p = .
2
Now, the parabola opens to the right
 1   1 
⇒ F  −1 + , − 2  =  − , −2 
 2   2 
Axis: y = –2
1 −3
Directrix: x = –1 − or x =
2 2
10. a. C (0, 0); c = 3; a = 5 ⇒ b2 = a2 – c2 = 25 – 9 = 16

x2 y2 x2 y2
⇒ + = 1 ⇒ + = 1
a2 b2 25 16
b. C (3, 0) ; a = 4 and c = 2
⇒ b2 = 16 – 4 = 12
2
y2 ( x − 3)
Now + = 1
16 12
9
c. b= ; C (0, 7) and c = 4
2
81 81 + 64 145
⇒ a2 = b2 + c2 = + 16 = =
4 4 4
2
4 x2 4 ( y − 7)
Hence + = 1
145 81
d. a = 4, c = 3
⇒ b2 = a2 – c2 = 16 – 9 = 7
2 2
( x − 6) (y + 2)
= 1
Thus +
16 7
11. a. 4x2 + y2 = 8
x2 y2
⇒ + = 1
2 8
C (0, 0) a=2 2 b= 2
⇒ F (0, ± 6 ), V (0, ± 2 2 ), B = ( ± 2 , 0)
2 2
( x −1) (y + 2)
= 1
b. +
4 9
C (1, −2) a = 3, b = 2
⇒ c2 = a2 – b2 = 9 – 4 = 5 ⇒ c = 5
Now F1(1, –2 – 5 ) , F2 (1, –2 + 5)

V1 (1, −5), V2 (1, 1), B1 (−1, −2), B2 (3, −2)
12. a. C (0, 0); c = 9, a = 4

x2 y 2
⇒ b2 = 81 – 16 = 65 ⇒ − =1
16 65
b. a = 3, c = 6 ⇒ b2 = c2 – a2 = 36 – 9 = 27
y 2 x2
C (0, 0) ⇒ − =1
9 27
c. c = 10 C(0, 0)
Asymptote of the hyperbola is
b
y − 10 = ± x
a
b
⇒ =3
a
b = 3a
Now a2 + b2 = 102
(3a)2 + a2 = 102 ⇒ 10a2 = 100
a2 = 10 ⇒ a = 10
2 2
⇒ b 2 = ( 3a ) = 3 10
( ) = 90
y 2 x2
∴ Equation of the hyperbola is − =1
90 10
13. a. 9x2 – 16y2 = 144
x2 y 2
⇒ − =1
16 9
⇒ C (0, 0) a = 4, b=3
⇒ c2 = 42 + 32 = 16 + 9 = 25 ⇒ c=5
⇒ F ( ± 5, 0), V ( ± 4, 0) , B ( 0, ± 3)
3
Asymptotes: y = ± x.
4
Figure 3.21
2 2
( x + 3) ( y + 1)
b. − =1
25 144
a = 5, b = 12 ⇒ c2 = 25 + 144 = 169 ⇒ c = 13
C (−3, −1);
F1 (−16, −1), F2(10, −1);
V1 (−8, −1), V2 (2, −1);
B1 (−3, −13), B2 (−3, 12).
12
Asymptotes: y = ± ( x + 3 ) + −1
5
12 31 −12 41
⇒y= x+ or y = x−
5 5 5 5
Figure 3.22
14. a = 25 and b = 20 with center (0, 0)
x2 y2
The equation of the ellipse is + =1
625 400
x 2 100
For x = 10, the equation becomes + =1
625 400
x2 1 3
⇒ = 1− =
625 4 4
25
⇒x= 3
2
Therefore, the width of the arc at a height of ten meter is 25 3 .
15.
Figure 3.23
From Figure 3.23, since the orbit is elliptical, we have b2 + c2 = a2
Where a – c = (6400 + 800)(radius of the earth + shortest distance)
a + c = (6400 + 5400)(radius of the earth + longest distance)
a − c = 7200
⇒
a + c = 11800
⇒ a = 9500 and c = 2300.
From b2 = a2 – c2
x2 y2
Therefore, the path of the astronaut vehicle is + =1
90250000 84,960000
In our discussion so far, we approached conic sections by using geometric approach

where we used string and pin (or nail) to construct each. However, it is possible to get in
some books information that conic sections are approached through the following
approach. This may not be directly applicable to all students. But, you can give this
option to clever students so that they can have another outlook to conic sections.
Optional Topic (Alternative characterization of a conic section)
Define a conic section as a locus of a point which moves so that the ratio of its distance
from a fixed point F (Focus) and its distance from a fixed line d (Directrix) is a constant
e (called eccentricity)
Figure 3.24
For the parabola, the above definition coincides with the definition given earlier
so that e = 1.
For the ellipse, we can find the range for e as follows:
Figure 3.25
a −c a
Let d be the distance from V to the directrix. Then = e and = e
d a + d
⇒ a – c = de and a = ae + de
⇒ a – c = a – ae
⇒ c = ae
c
⇒ e=
a
a2 − b2
⇒ e=
a
Now e = 0 ⇔ a – b2 = 0 ⇔ a = b i.e c = 0
2
⇔ the locus is a circle

c
On the other hand, 0 < e < 1⇔ 0 < c < a ⇔ the locus is an ellipse e =
a
happens to hold for a hyperbola as well.
But c = a 2 + b 2 in this case and c > a.
Thus e > 1 ⇔ the locus is a hyperbola.
2 b2 
a 1
 a2 
+
c a2 + b2   b2
Now e = = = = 1+ 2
a a a a
⇒ e infinite corresponds to b infinite
x2 y 2
⇔ 2 − 2 = 1 give lines
a b
Indeed, eccentricity is the extent to which a conic section deviates from being
circular.
i.e., e = 0 gives circle
0 < e < 1 gives ellipse
e=1 gives parabola
e>1 gives hyperbola
e infinity gives line
Figure 3.26
UNIT
4 MATHEMATICAL
REASONING
INTRODUCTION
The main task of this unit is to introduce mathematical reasoning. Mathematical
Reasoning helps the students devise strategies to solve a wide variety of mathematical
problems. Mathematical Logic is very important in that it enhances the power of
reasoning. Mathematical logic has a wide range of applications, particularly in judging
the correctness of a certain chain of reasoning as in mathematical proofs. So it is very
important to familiarize the students with propositional logic, logical connectives (or
logical operators) and make the students determine the truth values of compound
propositions given the truth values of component propositions. Finally this unit presents
a criterion for evaluating whether a certain argument form is valid or invalid.
Unit Outcomes
• know basic concepts about mathematical logic.
• know methods and procedures in combining and determining the validity of
statements.
• know basic facts about argument and validity.
109

You know that students learn in a variety of ways. Some are visually oriented and more
inclined to acquire information from photographs or videos. Other students do much
better when they hear instructions rather than read them. Teachers use teaching aids to
provide students with these different ways of learning. Therefore, it is recommended
that you may use charts presenting truth tables for this unit. You may also prepare charts
of proofs and let the students argue on the logical flow and validity.
4.1 LOGIC
Competencies
At the end of this sub-unit, students will be able to;
• explain the difference between “statement” and “open statement”
• determine the truth value of a statement.
• describe the rules for each of the five logical connectives.
• use the symbols ¬, ∧,∨, ⇒, and ⇔ to make compound statements.
• determine the truth values of compound statements connected by each of the
logical connectives.
• determine truth values of two or three statements connected by two or three
connectives.
• describe the properties and laws of logical connectives.
• determine the equivalence of two statements.
• Define the terms “contradiction” and “tautology”.
• determine that a given compound statement is either a contradiction or
tautology or neither of them.
• find the “converse” of a given compound statement.
• determine the truth value of the converse of a given compound statement.
• find the “contra-positive” of a given statement.
• determine the truth value of the contra-positive of a given statement.
• describe the two types of quantifiers.
• determine the truth value of statements involving quantifiers.
Vocabulary: Logic, Proposition, Open proposition, Logical connectives, Truth value,
Compound proposition, Contradiction, Tautology, Converse,
Contrapositive, Quantifiers
Unit 4 – Mathematical Reasoning 111
Introduction
Under this sub-unit about seven sub-topics are treated separately. Therefore, you can
start this topic by raising questions like what logic is. After that, discuss with students as
given in the introduction part of the students’ textbook and immediately pass to
propositional logic.
Teaching Notes
You may start this section by simply asking students the opening problem as given in
the students’ textbook. The purpose of this opening problem is not to let students
discuss it but to inspire their thinking. Hence, you just introduce the opening problem
for triggering their thinking. Don’t try to show whether the argument is valid or not at
this moment because this part will be discussed at the end of this unit. The purpose of
the opening problem here is just to show that logic has a power of reasoning.
You can use the opening problem to assess the students’ background. Engage them in
debate on the opening problem as to whether such a reasoning is accepted or rejected.
Only listen to their opinions. Do not go into the detail at this moment.
4.1.1 Statement and Open Statement

The main task of this sub-topic is to make students identify whether a given sentence is
a statement (proposition), open statement or neither a proposition nor an open
proposition. For this purpose, you may start the lesson by forming groups of students
and asking them what a sentence is as given in Group Work 4.1. Make all students
construct their own sentences and discuss with their peers in each group whether he/she
has constructed a correct sentence.
After discussing the issue of sentence with the students, you may ask them what is
meant by assertive or declarative sentence. Or you may proceed as in Group Work 4.1
in identifying a sentence which can be said is True, False or neither True or False. The
purpose of this group work is to guide the students identify an assertive or declarative
sentence by telling whether each sentence in the group work is true, false or neither.
Answers to Group work 4.1

1. Just give a precise definition of English sentence. Encourage students to construct
their own sentence.
2. a. It can be said true.
b. Cannot be said true or false.
c. It can be said false.
d. It can be said true.
e. Cannot be said true or false.

f. Cannot be said true or false.
g. Cannot be said true or false.
h. Cannot be said true or false.
i. It can be said true or false. However, at present, due to the absence of
records, we do not know whether it is true or false. But we are certain that it
can’t both be True and False.
j. Cannot be said True or False.
k. Cannot be said True or False.
l. Cannot be said True or False.
After discussing Group Work 4.1 with participation of students, you systematically
define a statement (proposition) and an open proposition. Then give examples of a
statement and an open statement and ask them to identify from among various sentences
those that are propositions, open propositions, and those that are neither propositions
nor open propositions. You can as well use example 1 on page 116 of the student
textbook.
Assessment
Engage students in:
- debate on Group Work 4.1 to assess the background of students through
discussion. Make the students individually or in group construct a sentence
and assess them.
- presentation of assignments and home-works individually or in groups. (For
this purpose, you can use Exercise 4.1.) The students might be asked to
hand in their home-works and assignments.

(a), (b), (c), (e), (f), (g), (k), (m) and (n) are all propositions; (i) and (j) are open
propositions; but (d), (h) and (l) are neither propositions nor open propositions.
4.1.2 Fundamental Logical Connectives (Or Logical

Operators)
The main purpose of this subtopic is to make students use logical connectives (or logical
operators) and know the rules that govern these connectives when communicating
through logic.
You may start the lesson with statements that are taken from real life situations and
connected by the words “and”, “or”, “if…, then…”, “if and only if”; and “not” which is
applied only to one or more statements as a whole. You may form groups of students
and let them do Activity 4.1. The purpose of this activity is to give chance for each
student to answer each of the questions and then discuss them in their group. All of the
sentences under Activity 4.1 are formed by using logical operators. First, ask the
students to determine (or guess) the truth value of each of the sentences. After collecting
information from the students, use the symbols for the logical operators and show the
students how to write and read as given in the table in the student textbook. You can
then proceed to the rule which is agreed upon systematically and give the rules with
examples as given in the truth table in the student textbook.
a. F b. T c. T d. T e. T
f. T g. T h. F i. T j. T
Assessment
Engage students in:
- debate on Activity 4.1 to assess the background of students through
discussion. Determining individually or in group the truth values for each
statement under Activity 4.1.
- presentation of assignments and home-works individually or in groups. For
this purpose, you can use Exercise 4.2.
Given that:
p: Man is mortal. (True)
q: Botany is the study of plants. (True)
r: 6 is a prime number. (False)
Thus, by using the rules for logical operators we have the following:
a. T b. F c. T d. T e. F
f. F g. F h. F i. T
4.1.3 Compound Propositions
So far, students know how to use logical connectives and determine the truth values of
statements which are connected by logical connectives. Now, the purpose of this sub-
topic is just to give a meaning to statements formed by joining two or more statements
by using logical connectives.
Actually, you have several options or possibilities to begin this section. You may use
the previous lesson which involves logical connectives. All such statements which
involve logical connectives are called compound statements. After having discussed the
issue, you can now give the definition of compound proposition as given in the
students’ textbook. Under this sub-topic, students may also discover compound
propositions having the same truth values for each component proposition. Such pairs
of compound propositions which have the same truth values are called equivalent
propositions.
Assessment
Engage students in:
- discussion on what the students know about compound sentence in the usual
English sentence to assess the background of students. Make the students
individually or in group to construct truth tables determine the truth values
of any given compound statements.
- presentation of assignments and home-works individually or in groups. For
this purpose, you can use Exercise 4.3.
1. The truth values of p, q and r are given in Example 9 of the student textbook as T,
F and T respectively. Then applying the rules for logical operators, we have the
truth values of each statement as follows:
a. F b. T c. T d. F e. F
2. Given that:
p: The sun rises due East. (T)
q: 5 is less than 2. (F)
r: Pigeons are birds. (T)
s: Laws and orders are dynamic. (T)
t: Lake Tana is found in Ethiopia. (T)
a. The sun rises due East and pigeons are birds. (T)
b. The sun rises due East or pigeons are birds. (T)
Alternatively one can write as:
Either the sun rises due East or pigeons are birds. (T)
c. If the sun rises due East and pigeons are birds, then 5 is less than 2. (F)
d. The sun rises due East and pigeons are not birds if and only if 5 is not less
than 2. (F)
e. If the sun rises due East, then either 5 is less than 2 or pigeons are birds. (T)
f. The sun rises due East if and only if 5 is less than 2 and pigeons are birds. (F)
g. If Laws and orders are dynamic, then Lake Tana is found in Ethiopia. (T)
h. Laws and orders are dynamic if and only if Lake Tana is found in Ethiopia. (T)
i. Laws and orders are dynamic and Lake Tana is found in Ethiopia. (T)
3. This problem requires constructing truth tables.
a.
p q p⇒q p ⇒ (p ⇒ q)
T T T T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
b.
P q r ¬(p∧
∧r) p ⇒ ¬(p∧
∧r)
T T T F F
T T F T T
T F T F F
T F F T T
F T T T T
F T F T T
F F T T T
F F F T T
c.
p q ¬p p⇒q ¬p∨
∨q (p ⇒ q) ⇔(¬
¬p∨
∨q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
d.
p q p∧q p∨
∨q (p ∧ q) ⇔(p∨
∨q)
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T F T F
F F F F T
4. Given that: p ⇒ q has truth value T; this is possible only in three cases as far as
the rule of implication is concerned.
These are: a. both p and q have truth value T
b. both p and q have truth value F
c. p has truth value F and q has truth value T
Therefore, in the first two cases (a) and (b) ( p ∧ q) ⇔ ( p ∨ q) has truth value T,
but it has truth value F in the third case (c).
5. p ⇔ q has truth value T whenever p and q have the same truth value, that is, if
both of them are true or both of them are false. From this one can see that p and
¬q have different truth values. Likewise, ¬p and q have different truth values.
Therefore, both problems in (a) and (b) have truth value F. But (c) is T.
4.1.4 Properties and Laws of Logical Connectives

The main task in this sub-topic is to make the students construct truth tables and tell some
properties just by looking at the table. It focuses on familiarizing students with
commutative property, associative property, distributive property and De Morgan’s laws.
You may start the section by engaging students in Activity 4.2 which requires
constructing truth tables. The purpose of this activity is to help the students practice
identifying the truth values of each component proposition and the compound
proposition. They will also see the properties of logical connectives (operators). Here,
the participation of the students is very important. The students need to compare the
truth values of each table and come to the conclusion of those properties such as
commutative, associative, distributive properties and De Morgan’s law as given in the
student textbook. Finally, you can let them write some of the properties in their own
words and, after a thorough discussion, guide the students to summarize the main
properties.

a. Equivalent (show by constructing truth table)
b. Equivalent (show by constructing truth table)
c. Equivalent (show by constructing truth table)
d. Not Equivalent (show by constructing truth table)
e. Not Equivalent (show by constructing truth table)
f. Equivalent (show by constructing truth table)
g. Equivalent (shown in the textbook)
h. Equivalent (shown in the textbook)
Assessment
You can ask the students to tell or write the properties of the logical connectives.
4.1.5 Contradiction and Tautology

This sub-topic focuses on determining whether a certain compound proposition has a
truth value T or F regardless of the truth values of the component propositions.
Therefore, you discuss Tautology and Contradiction.
You may start this section by forming groups of students and letting them do Group
Work 4.2 as given in the students textbook. The purpose of this group work is to let the
students complete the tables in the group work which would help them identify relations
between component propositions and their connections. Finally, they will find out
whether the compound proposition has truth values all T or all F. In this discussion, you
will come across compound propositions having truth values all T, all F or none
regardless of the truth values of each component proposition. You may discuss with
students those group works which are given at the beginning of the section and make
them observe the truth tables. Having done this, come to the definition or give a name
for such type of compound proposition. Following this discussion, give the definitions,
of Tautology and Contradiction as given in the students’ textbook.
Answers to group work 4.2

a.
p q ¬p p⇒q ¬ p∨ q (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (¬
¬ p ∨ q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
From the above truth table, observe that (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (¬ p ∨ q) always has truth
value T regardless of the truth values of the component propositions p and q.
b.
p q ¬q p⇒q p ∧¬ q (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (p ∧ ¬ q)
T T F T F F
T F T F T F
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
From the above truth table, observe that (p ⇒ q) ⇔ (p ∧ ¬ q) always has truth
value F regardless of the truth values of the component propositions p and q.
c.
p q ¬q p∨q p∨¬q (p ∨ q) ⇔ (p ∨ ¬ q)
T T F T T T
T F T T T T
F T F T F F
F F T F T F
From the above truth table, observe that (p ∨ q) ⇔ (p ∨ ¬ q) always has truth value T
and F depending on the truth values of p and q.
Now you are going to give a meaning for compound propositions of the type as in group
work 4.2 (a) a tautology and 4.2 (b) a contradiction as given in the student textbook.
Assessment
You can make students:
- debate on Group work 4.2 to assess their background through discussion.
- use Exercise 4.4 for home-works and assignments.

By constructing truth tables, one can reach at the following conclusions:
a. Tautology b. Tautology c. Tautology
d. Neither e. Neither f. Neither
g. Contradiction h. Tautology
4.1.6 Converse and Contrapositive

Under this sub-topic, you make clear to the students, the concepts converse and
contrapositive of a given conditional statements. To do this, you may follow the
approaches presented under teaching notes.
It is advisable to check at the outset whether the students have properly understood
equivalences of compound propositions that they have studied previously. When you
make sure that there is solid background, you may start this section by revising
conditional statements and trying to interchange the statements under if clause and
under the then clause. Use Activity 4.3 to motivate students and then give the
definitions of converse and contrapositive as given in the students textbook.
You may take the following examples to elaborate the relations.

Example: If he is an Ethiopian, then he knows the rules of the country.
(Given conditional sentences)
If he knows the rules of the country, then he is an Ethiopian.
(The converse of the given conditional sentences)
If he doesn’t know the rules of the country, then he is not an Ethiopian.
(The contrapositive of the given conditional sentences)
As already shown in previous exercises or by constructing truth tables, we can
conclude that:
The given conditional statement is not equivalent to its converse in general.
But the given conditional statement is equivalent to its contrapositive.

a. If a child has the right to be free of corporal punishment, then the sun rise
due North.
b. If the sun rise due North, then a child has the right to be free of corporal
punishment.
c. If the sun does not rise due North, then a child does not have the right to be
free of corporal punishment.
Assessment
Engage students in:
- Debate on Activity 4.3 to assess the background of students through
discussion.
- Make the students individually writing each compound sentence under this
activity in good English.
- Comparing their works and discussing them.
- Presentation of assignments and home-works individually or in groups.
- For this purpose, you can use Exercise 4.5.

1. By constructing truth tables of ¬ ( p ⇒ q ) , ¬p ⇒ ¬q and p ∧ ¬q , you can show
them ¬ ( p ⇒ q ) ≡ p ∧ ¬q and ¬ ( p ⇒ q ) ≡/ ¬p ⇒ ¬q
2. a. Converse: If 6 is prime, then 2 > 3.

Contrapositive: If 6 is not prime, then 2 ≤ 3.
b. Converse: If Sudan is in Africa, then Ethiopia is in Asia.
Contrapositive: If Sudan is not in Africa, then Ethiopia is not in Asia.
c. Converse: If life would have been simpler, then Ethiopia is in Europe.
Contrapositive: If life would not have been simpler, then Ethiopia is not in
Europe.
3. Use proof by contradiction as in the case of Example 12(c).
You can do as follows:
Assumption: k2 is odd.
We need to show k is odd.
Suppose that k is even,
From which k = 2n ⇒ k2 = 4n2=2(2n2) which is also even.
This contradicts, however, the assumption that k2 is odd. Therefore, our
supposition k is even was false. Hence, k is odd is true.
4.1.7 Quantifiers
In this section, you are required to make students aware of the fact that it is possible to
convert open statements into statements without explicitly replacing variable(s) by
individual entity. This can be done by using quantifiers.
You may start this section by revising open propositions and then showing how to
change open propositions to proposition by replacing the blank spaces or the variable(s)
by certain entities. Now, systematically, use the phrases “there is” or “for all” in
conjunction with the open proposition given and ask students whether the open
propositions are converted to propositions or not. You may use Activity 4.4 as given in
students’ textbook for the purpose of checking whether the open propositions (open
statement) become a proposition (statement) or not.

You can do this activity as follows:
Given: P( x) : x + 5 = 7, x is a natural number, and
Q ( x ) : x 2 ≥ 0, x is a natural number as open propositions, now form the

following sentences using the phrase “there is” and the phrase “for all” as follows:
a. There is a natural number x such that x + 5 = 7

b. For all natural number x, x + 5 = 7
c. There is a natural number x such that x 2 ≥ 0 .
d. For every natural number x, x 2 ≥ 0

First, make the students analyze each of the above sentences and come to the conclusion
that the above sentences (a)-(d) are no more open propositions, since we can determine
their truth values as; for example, x = 2 satisfies (a) and hence it is true, (b) is false
since for example x = 3 does not satisfy it. In a similar manner, you can give arguments
for (c) which is true and for (d) which is also true.
Therefore, you can generalize that we can convert open proposition to proposition using
the phrases “there is” and “for all” without explicitly substituting the variables by
entities.
After having done this, use the symbols as the notation instead of the phrases as given in
the students’ textbook just below Activity 4.4. Use alternative phrases such as “there is
at least one”, “there exists one x”, “for some x” for the phrase “there is an x” denoted by
∃x which is called existential quantifier; and “for every x”, “for each x” for the phrase
“for all” denoted by ∀x which is called universal quantifier.
Thus (∃x) P( x) , (∃x)Q( x) , (∀x) P( x) and (∀x)Q( x ) are all no more open propositions
and hence they are all propositions.
Assessment
Engage students in:
discussion.
- Determining individually and in group the truth values for each statement
under Activity 4.4.
- For this purpose you can use Exercise 4.6.

a. (∃x ) (4 x – 3= –2x + 1);its truth value is T
b. (∃x ) (x2 + x + 1=0);its truth value is F in ℝ.

c. (∃x ) ( x2 + x + 1 > 0);its truth value is T

d. (∃x ) ( x2 + x + 1 < 0);its truth value is F
e. (∀x ) (x2 > 0); its truth value is F
f. (∀x ) (x2 + x +1 ≠ 0); its truth value is T
g. (∀x ) (4x – 3 = –2x +1); its truth value is F
Relations Between Quantifiers

The main task of this sub-topic is to examine the relation between existential quantifier
and universal quantifier. Therefore, to make things clear about this issue, you may
follow the methods proposed under the teaching notes.
Having a proposition, it is obvious that the negation is also a proposition. Hence, one
can ask what is the form of the negation of (∃x) P( x) and the form of the negation of
(∀x) P( x) . To this effect, you may use Group Work 4.3.

1. If there is at least one value of x, that makes the statement true.
2. If the statement cannot be false for any value of x. Or the statement is always true
for any arbitrary selection of x.
3. If there is at least one value of x, that makes the statement false.
4. If the statement is always false.
Based on the results of Group Work 4.3, you can guide the students to summarize the
following.
The proposition (∀x) P( x) will be false only if we can find an individual “ a ” such that
P(a ) is false. If we succeed in getting such an individual “ a ”, then P(a ) is false, that
means, (∃x)¬P( x) is true and hence (∀x) P( x) is false. Therefore, the negation of
(∀x) P( x) is (∃x)¬P( x) . Thus, we can describe it as follows using symbols:
¬(∀x ) P( x ) ≡ (∃x)¬P( x)
To search the symbolic form of the negation of (∃x) P( x) , proceed as follows: (∃x) P( x)
is false if there is no an individual “ a ” for which P(a ) is true.
Thus, for every x, P (x ) is false means for every x, the negation of P (x ) is true.
Therefore, the negation of (∃x) P( x) is (∀x )¬P( x) . Thus, we can describe it as
follows using symbols:
¬(∃x ) P( x) ≡ (∀x )¬P( x)
Use examples to elaborate the concepts discussed here. You may use the examples that
are given in the students’ textbook.
Assessment
Engage students in:
- Debate on Group Work 4.3 to assess the background of students through
discussion.
- For this purpose, you can use Exercise 4.7.
1. a. (∀x)(4 x − 3 ≠ −2 x + 1) , its truth value is F.
b. (∀x )( x 2 + 1 ≠ 0) , its truth value is T.
c. (∃x )( x 2 + 1 ≤ 0) , its truth value is F.
d. (∃x )( x 2 ≥ 0) , its truth value is T.
e. (∀x)( x 2 + x + 1 ≠ 0) , its truth value is T.
2. a. T b. T c. T d. F
e. F f. T g. T
Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
This sub-topic is concerned with converting open statements involving two variables
into a statement. It involves the use of two quantifiers.
Since students are aware of quantifiers, you may begin this section by letting each
student do Activity 4.5. The purpose of this activity is to help students discuss the joint
consideration of two quantifiers and observe how quantifiers occur in combination.
While students do the activity you may round and assist them how to determine the
truth values in Activity 4.5.
1. Yes, given a natural it is possible to find a natural number greater than it.
2. No, because, if we take a natural number 1, there is no natural number less than 1.
3. Yes, given an integer n, it is always possible to have an integer n – 1 so that

n – 1 < n.
4. Yes, given x we can find y = –x such that x + y = 0
5. a. Yes, x = 0
b. No, since this is true only for y = 0 but not for other values of y.
Continue this part by introducing open proposition involving two variables like
P( x, y ) : x + y = 5, where x and y are natural numbers.
This open proposition can be changed to a proposition either by replacing both variables
by certain numbers explicitly or by using quantifiers. To use quantifiers, we have to use
either one of the quantifiers twice or both quantifiers in combinations. So, it is important
to make some vocabularies on how to read and write such quantifiers. You are expected
to make the students practice such writing systems. They can have the following
possibilities.
(∃x )(∃y ) P( x, y ) ≡ There is some x and some y so that property P is satisfied.
This statement is true if one can succeed in finding one individual x and one individual y
which satisfy property P.
(∃x )(∀y ) P( x, y ) ≡ There is some x for every y so that property P is satisfied.
≡ There is some x which stands for all y so that property P is satisfied.
This statement is true if one can succeed in finding one individual x which stands for
every y so that property P is satisfied.
(∀x )(∃y ) P( x, y ) ≡ For every x there is some y so that property P is satisfied.
≡ Given x we can find y so that property P is satisfied.
This statement is true if one can succeed in finding one individual y corresponding to a
given x so that property P is satisfied.
(∀x)(∀y ) P( x, y ) ≡ For every x and every y property P is satisfied.
This statement is false if one succeeds in finding an individual x and an individual y
which does not satisfy property P.
Thus, if we apply this for the open statement:
P( x, y ) : x + y = 5, where x and y are natural numbers,
(∃x )(∃y ) P( x, y ) has truth value T.
(∃x )(∀y ) P( x, y ) has truth value F
(∀x )(∃y ) P( x, y ) has truth value F, since, if x is given to be 6, we cannot find a
natural number y so that 6 + y = 5.
(∀x)(∀y ) P( x, y ) has truth value F.

But, if we change the universe from natural numbers to integers as:
P( x, y ) : x + y = 5 where x and y are integers, then
(∃x )(∃y ) P( x, y ) has truth value T.
(∃x )(∀y ) P( x, y ) has truth value F.
(∀x )(∃y ) P( x, y ) has truth value T, since, given x, we can take y = 5 – x which is
also an integer.
(∀x)(∀y ) P( x, y ) has truth value F.
You can also discuss those examples and exercises which are given in the students’
textbook in a similar way.
Assessment
Engage students in:
discussion.
- For this purpose you can use Exercise 4.8.
1. a. F b. F c. F d. F
e. F f. T g. T
2. a. T b. F c. F d. T e. F
f. F g. F h. F i. F j. T
4.2 ARGUMENTS AND VALIDITY

Competencies
At the end of this sub unit, students will be able to:
• describe what is meant by “argument”.
• check the validity of a given argument.
• use rules of inference to demonstrate the validity of a given argument.
Vocabulary: Argument, Validity, Premise, Conclusion
Introduction
This section is concerned with problems of decision making. We decide whether a
certain chain of reasoning is accepted to be correct or rejected to be incorrect on the
basis of its forms. It provides the rules of inferences which play a central role in the
principle of reasoning. The theory of inference may be applied to test the validity of an
argument in everyday life.
Teaching Notes
You may start this topic by considering simple examples from daily life like:
If I were a bird, I could fly.
I am not a bird.
Therefore, I can’t fly.
Then, ask the students whether the conclusion “I can’t fly” is the direct consequence of
the sentences given. Or you can begin by considering Activity 4.6 as given in the
students’ textbook. This activity is meant to help the students check the truth value of a
proposition by considering the truth values of other propositions. This will guide them
to be able to decide the validity of certain arguments.

1. q must be T.
2. q must be T.
3. q may be T or F. Since it is given that p is T and p or q is T, it is possible for q to
be either T or F.
After having discussed Activity 4.6 with students, define terms like premises,
conclusion, argument forms, the way we write an argument form, valid arguments and
invalid arguments as given in the students textbook. Then, by using tables and formal
proofs show clearly how to check the validity of argument forms as in Examples 1 and 2
of the students textbook.
Assessment
Use Activity 4.6 to assess the background of the students. In addition, give class works
and home-works in order to assess the performance of students. For this purpose you
can use Exercise 4.9.

1. You are required to help the students decide whether the given argument forms
are valid or invalid. Therefore, by using truth table method as illustrated in the
students’ textbook, help the students to evaluate the arguments given. But, for
illustration purpose, let’s do (a) here.
a.
p q ¬p ¬p ⇒ q (¬
¬p ⇒ q)∧
∧q (¬
¬p ⇒ q)∧
∧q ⇒ p
T T F T T T
T F F T F T
F T T T T F
F F T F F T
Since (¬p ⇒ q)∧q ⇒ p is not a tautology, the given argument form is not valid.
Or equivalently you can judge whether the argument form is valid or not, by
looking at columns 2, 4 and 6 of the table, there the truth values of the premises
are both true in the 3rd row but the truth value of the conclusion is false. Therefore
you can conclude that the argument form is invalid.
b. Valid c. Valid d. Invalid e. Invalid
2. (I) a. Premises:
If the rain does not come, then the crops will be ruined and as a result,
the people will starve.
The crops will not be ruined or the people will not starve.
Conclusion:
The rain comes.
b. You can use any appropriate symbol to designate each component
sentences
p: The rain comes.
q: The crops will be ruined.
r: The People will starve.
c. The argument forms can be written as follows using symbols:
¬p ⇒ (q ∧ r )
¬q ∨ ¬r
p
d. You are required to help the students decide whether the given
argument forms are valid or invalid. Therefore, by using both methods
as illustrated in the students’ textbook, you may guide the students to
evaluate the arguments given.
The workout for checking the validity of d(I) using formal proof is the following.
1. ¬p ⇒ (q ∧ r ) is true . . . . . .premise
2. ¬q ∨ ¬r is true . . . . . . . . . .premise
3. ¬(q∧r) is true . . . . . . . . . .. 2 and De Morgan’s law

4. q∧r is false . . . . . . . . . . . ... 3 and rule of negation
5. ¬p is false . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 and rule of implication
6. P is true . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 5 and rule of negation
Therefore the argument is valid. You can also use truth table.
The workout for checking the validity of d(II):
a. Using truth table
p q r ¬q ¬r p⇒
⇒¬q r⇒
⇒q (p⇒
⇒¬q)∧
∧(r⇒
⇒q) (p⇒
⇒¬q)∧
∧ (p⇒
⇒¬q)∧
∧(r⇒
⇒q)
(r⇒
⇒q) ∧p ∧p ⇒¬r
T T T F F F T F F T
T T F F T F T F F T
T F T T F T F F F T
T T T
T F F T T T T
T F T
F T T F F T T
T F T
F T F F T T T
F F T
F F T T F T F F
T T
F F F T T T T
Therefore, the argument is valid.

(II) a. Premises:
If the team is late, then it cannot play the game.
If the referee is here, then the team can play the game.
The team is late.
Conclusion:
The referee is not here.
b. You can use any appropriate symbol to designate each component

sentences
p: The team is late.
q: It can play the game.
r: The referee is here.
c. The argument forms can be written as follows using symbols:
p ⇒ ¬q
r⇒q
¬r
d. using formal proof:
1. p ⇒ ¬q is true . . . . . .premise
2. p is true . . . . . . . . . . . premise
3. r ⇒ q is true . . . . . . . premise
4. ¬q is true . . . . . . . . . 1 and rule of implication
5. r is false . . . . . . . . . . . 3 and rule of implication
6. ¬ r is true . . . . . . . . . . 5 and rule of negation
Hence, the argument is valid.
Rules of Inferences
The purpose of this section is to show students a method of proof called formal proof
which does not involve constructing truth table.
In this section, you are expected to make students be aware of the fact that as the
number of component sentences are increasing, using truth tables to decide whether a
given argument form is valid or invalid becomes very tedious. It may require 16 rows if
the number of component sentence is 4, or 32 rows, if the number of component
sentence is 5, and so on. Therefore, it is recommended to make students use the formal
proofs and use (as given) some of the rules of inferences listed in the students’
textbooks.
Assessment
Engage students in:
• presentation of assignments and home-works on Exercise 4.10 individually or in
groups.

1. a.
P⇒Q
R⇒P
R
Q
Proof: 1. R (True) ……………. Premise
2. R ⇒ P (True)………..Premise
3. P (True) …………..Modes Ponens
4. P ⇒ Q (True)………...Premise
5. Q (True)……...from step (3), (4) again we apply Modes Ponens.
Therefore, the argument form given is valid.
b.
Proof: 1. ¬Q (True) …………...Premise
2. P ⇒ Q (True)………...Premise
3. ¬P (True) ……....Modes Tollens
4. ¬P ⇒ ¬R (True)……..Premise
5. ¬ R (True)…………….from step (3), (4) Modes Ponens.
6. R (False) ……………...from step (5) and rule of negation.
Therefore, the argument form given is not valid.
P ⇒ ¬Q
c. R⇒Q
¬R
Proof: 1. P ⇒ ¬Q is True ……...Premise
2. P is True……………....Premise
3. ¬Q is True ……........Modes Tollens
4. Q is False……………...from steps1 and 2
5. R ⇒ Q is True………...Promise.
6. R is False ……………...from steps 24 and 5.
6. ¬R is True …………….from step 6 and rule of negation.
Therefore, the argument form is valid.
¬P ∧ ¬Q
d. (¬Q ⇒ R ) ⇒ P
¬R
Proof: 1. ¬P ∧ ¬Q is True …………Premise

2. ( ¬P ∨ Q ) is True…………..from 1 and De’Morgans law
3. P ∨ Q is False …….............from 2 and rule of negation
4. Both P and Q are False ……from step 3.
5. ( ¬Q ⇒ R ) ⇒ P is True …..Premise.
6. ¬Q ⇒ R is False ………….from 4 and 5.
7. R is False …………………from 4 and 6.
8. ¬R is True…………………from 7 and rule of negation.
Therefore, the argument form is valid.
2. a. The premise is “if a person stays up late tonight, then he/she will be dull
tomorrow and if he/she does not stay up late tonight, then he/she will feel
that life is not worth living”.
The conclusion is “either the person will be dull tomorrow or will feel that life is
not worth living”.
b. Let P: a person stays up late to night
Q: a person will be dull tomorrow
R: a person feels that life is worth living
c. p ⇒ q, ¬p ⇒ ¬r ¬q ∨ ¬ r
d. The argument is not valid.
1. a. Neither b. Neither c. Tautology d. Contradiction
2. a. T b. T c. T d. F e. F
f. T g. F h. T i. F
3. a. 1. ¬ p ∧ q is true . . . . . . . . premise
2. ( q ∨ r ) ⇒ p is true . . . . premise
3. ¬ p and q are true . . . . . (1) and rule of “ ∧ ”
4. p is false . . . . . . . . . . . . (3) and rule of “ ¬ ”
5. q ∨ r is false . . . . . . . . . (4) and rule of “ ⇒ ”
6. ¬r is true . . . . . . . . . . . (3), (5) and rule of “ ∨ ”
b. 1. p ⇒ (q ∨ r ) is true . . . .premise
2. ¬r is true . . . . ……….premise
3. p is true . . . . . ………..premises
4. r is false . . . . . . . . . . . . (2) and rule of “ ¬ ”

5. q ∨ r is true . . . . . . . . . (1), (3) and rule of “ ⇒ ”
6. q is true . . . . . . . . . . . (5) and rule of “ ∨ ”

c. Let: P: Mathematics is a good subject.
q: It is worth learning.
r: The grading system is fair
The argument form is:
p⇒q
¬r ∨ ¬ p
r
¬p
Proof: 1. p ⇒ q is true . . . . . . ..premise.

2. ¬ r ∨ ¬ q is true . . . . . . .premise.
3. r is true . . . . . . . . ……premise.
4. ¬ r is false ……………from (3) and rule of ¬ .
5. ¬q is true……………...from (2) and rule of ∨ .
6. q is false……………….from (5) and rule of ¬.
7. p is false……………….from (1) and rule of ⇒.
8. ¬ p is true……………..from (7) and rule of ¬.
UNIT
5 STATISTICS AND
PROBABILITY
INTRODUCTION
The word statistics has different senses. When we use it in the plural sense it has a
meaning equivalent to refilling numerical facts, figures or data. When it is used in
singular form, statistics is concerned with the development and application of methods
and techniques for the collection, organization, analysis and interpretation of
quantitative data. In this unit, we will confine the concepts of statistics to the second
meaning. However, the teaching-learning need to be organized with the anticipation that
students will have the chance to practice the statistical concepts in real life problems.
Unit Outcomes
• know specific facts about types of data.
• know basic concepts about grouped data.
• know principles of counting.
• apply facts and principle in computation of probability.
133

Since statistics is one of the fields that is practically applied in our day-to-day
experience, there might be a lot to apply depending on where the discussion is held. Yet,
because of supply and access, some of the teaching aids that can be used for teaching
statistics and particularly this unit are: Coloured chalks (white board markers), chalk
board, different coloured objects (marbles), playing cards, dice, coins, paper for drawing
graphs, colour pencils, and straight edged ruler for drawing charts, graphs and various
data from different sources.
5.1 STATISTICS
Competencies
• identify qualitative and quantitative data.
• describe the difference between discrete and continuous variables (data).
• identify ungrouped and grouped data.
• determine class interval (class size) as required to form grouped data from
a given ungrouped data.
• make cumulative frequency table for grouped data (for both discrete and
continuous).
• describe terms related to grouped continuous data, i.e, class limit, class
boundary, class interval and class midpoint.
• determine class limit, class boundary, class interval and class midpoint for
grouped continuous data.
• find the mean of a given grouped data.
• find median for grouped discrete data.
• find median for grouped data (continuous variable).
• determine the mode of a given grouped data.
• identify data that are unimodal, bimodal and multimodal.
• determine the quartiles for a given grouped data.
• determine the required deciles of a given frequency distribution.
• determine the required percentile of a given frequency distribution.
• describe the dispersion of data values.
• find the range of a given data.
• compute variance for ungrouped data.
• calculate variance for grouped data.
• solve problems on variance.
Unit 5 – Statistics and Probability 135
Vocabulary: Statistics, Data, Qualitative data, Quantitative data, Variable, Continuous

variable, Frequency distribution, Discrete frequency distribution,
Grouped frequency distribution, Class interval, Class limit, Class
boundary, Mean, Median, Mode, Quartiles, Deciles, Percentiles, Range,
Standard deviation, Variance, Discrete
Introduction
In this unit the students will continue studying methods of statistics that they started in
grade 9. The students will learn about types of data, and techniques for presentation of
results from any statistical investigation. Measures of location and measures of
dispersion for grouped data will be given treatment.
Teaching Notes
So far as students are expected to have some background from grade 9, you can
introduce the sub-unit by asking students to define the basic statistical terms and check
if they can state the meaning of statistics. After this, it may be good to rehearse the
students’ understanding about grouped data. For this purpose, you may group the
students and ask them to do the opening problem given in the student textbook on page
146. To enrich the students understanding, organize students in different groups and
assign them to do tasks like:
a. Collecting data of ages, heights, weights of the students in their class.
b. Group the data into classes.
c. Present the data in any form of a diagram.
d. Compute some measures of central tendency.
e. Calculate the variation of the data they collected.
5.1.1 Types of Data
You may start this lesson by revising the major concepts of statistics that students had
studied in their grade 9. Through the use of sufficient and appropriate examples, discuss
with students the types of data, i.e qualitative and quantitative data and let the students
explain the differences between these types of data. At this juncture, you may also discuss
what is meant by “variable” in statistics i.e. the characteristic which can be measured and
expressed in quantitative or numerical terms. You may as well introduce the ideas of
discrete and continuous variables and lead the students to come up to the conclusion that
discrete variable can only have observed values at isolated points along a scale of values.
Similarly, let the students conclude that a continuous variable assumes a value at any
fractional point along a specified interval of values and generated by the process of
measuring. To strengthen the discussion, you can group the students and let them do
Activity 5.1. In order to do so, let the students answer the two questions by discussing in
pairs and ask some of them to orally give their answers loudly and also write them on the
board. Next guide the whole class to discuss the answers which may help them reach the
meanings of the statistical terms outlined above. Give corrections whenever necessary.
Answer to Activity 5.1
1. a. qualitative b. quantitative c. qualitative
d. quantitative e. qualitative f. qualitative
2. a. continuous (if we refer the tag on a shirt it can be discrete)
b. discrete c. continuous d. discrete
e. continuous f. continuous
To help you assess the understanding of the students, ask them to give their own
examples of qualitative and quantitative data. Let them also give examples of
continuous and discrete data. To help them organize their understanding, let them do
Group Work 5.1 in groups and discuss their answers.
Answer to Group Work 5.1
1. a. qualitative b. qualitative c. qualitative
d. discrete quantitative e. continuous quantitative
f. continuous quantitative g. continuous quantitative
h. continuous quantitative i. qualitative
2. a. the suitable scale to measure height is centimetre or meter.
b. the suitable scale to measure speed of a car is km/hour.
c. the suitable scale to measure monthly income can be in Birr or Dollars or
any other unit.
5.1.2 Introduction to Grouped Data
You may start this lesson with a brief description of frequency distribution, which is a
table in which possible values for a variable are grouped into classes and the number of
observed values which fall into each class is recorded. Following this, introduce grouped
data as those data which are organized in a frequency distribution, and explain to the
students that we use grouped frequency distribution for the purpose of summarizing a
large sample of data. With this brief introduction, you can state the definition in the
student text and, by forming groups, give chance for the students to do Example 3. During
the discussion, encourage some of the students to give explanations to the whole class and
jointly examine the correct results. Help the students to have a clear understanding of the
way that is useful in determining class size for a grouped frequency distribution. To check
whether the students are able to identify classes and their respective frequencies, let them
do Activity 5.2.

1. 66 2. 4
Pursuant to the discussion on grouped frequency distribution, ask the students to
determine a frequency of less than some value so that they will be directed to the use of
cumulative frequency.
Example: From the following grouped frequency distribution representing scores of
students in an exam that counts out of 30%.
Class Frequency
1–6 2
7 – 12 4
13 – 18 7
19 – 24 5
25 – 30 2
20
Ask the students the following questions:

a. How many students have scored less than 19?
b. How many students have scored less than 15?
Solution:
a. 13 students have scored less than 19 which is represented by the first three
classes.
b. With this representation, it is not possible to determine the number of
students who scored less than 15. This is so because we cannot determine
how many of the 7 students in the third class have scored 13 and 14.
After they see this, guide them to note the idea of cumulative frequency distribution
which they will see in subsequent section.
At the end of this subsection, explain terms like the lower and upper class limits, lower
and upper class boundaries or exact limits, and class interval and class midpoint. You
can give exercise 5.1 as homework.
Assessment
You can assess students through different ways that may include giving them revision
exercises from grade 9 or giving them raw data and asking them to form groups. You
can also give them variates and ask them to identify whether they represent quantitative
or qualitative, and whether they are discrete or continuous.

1. (a) and (d) are qualitative, and (b) and (c) are quantitative.
2. (a) and (c) are continuous and (b) and (d) are discrete.
3. Maximum value = 76; Minimum value = 22; Number of Classes = 7
76 − 22
Class interval = ≈ 7.714 ≈ 8
7
Score (x) Number of Students (x)

22 – 29 1
30 – 37 8
38 – 45 8
46 – 53 12
54 – 61 6
62 – 69 3
70 – 77 2
a. 8 b. 30 c. 37 d. 1
4.
Score (x) Number of Students (x)

12 – 17 2
18 – 23 3
24 – 29 7
30 – 35 2
36 – 41 5
42 – 47 6
48 – 53 5
54 – 59 9
60 – 65 8
66 – 71 1
72 – 78 2
a. 11
b.
Score (x) Number of Students (x) Cumulative Frequency
12 – 17 2 2
18 – 23 3 5
24 – 29 7 12
30 – 35 2 14
36 – 41 5 19
42 – 47 6 25
48 – 53 5 30
54 – 59 9 39
60 – 65 8 47
66 – 71 1 48
72 – 78 2 50
c. 25 d. 2 e. 30
In the previous session, students discussed statistical terms and some ideas about
frequency distribution. Here, you need to consolidate the discussion and enrich the use
of cumulative frequency. For this purpose, group your students and let them discuss
Group Work 5.2. By rounding, assist the groups and identify the group that did better
and encourage some of these groups to present their work to the whole class.
Summarize their discussion and finally make sure that the students have understood the
steps for constructing a frequency distribution stated on pages 153 and 154 of the
student textbook. You can give Exercise 5.2 as an assignment so that students can
practice it.
1.
Score (class limit) Number of Class Class Cumulative
students boundaries midpoint frequency
1 – 25 5 0.5 – 25 .5 13 5
26 – 50 10 25. 5 – 50 . 5 38 15
51 – 75 30 50. 5 – 75. 5 63 45
76 – 100 15 75.5 – 100.5 88 60
2.
Mathematics test scores

30
Number of students
25
20
15
10
0
1–5 6 – 10 11 – 15 16 – 20 21 - 25 26 - 30 31 - 35 36 - 40 41 - 45 46 - 50
score of students
You can ask clever students to justify why we use class boundaries (true limits) to draw
histograms. You can also ask them what will it be if they redraw by using class limits.
(this will lead them to think of bar charts).
You can as well ask them the following: Why is the use odd class interval (class width)
recommended when constructing grouped frequency distribution? Let them know that it
is useful to have odd class width in order to have integer class marks which will make
calculations easier.
Assessment
You can assess the understanding of the students by checking their activity in the group
work and by keeping records. You can also give them an assignment to collect some
data (say number of students by sex and section in grade 11, their age and their weight)
and draw a histogram.

1. a. 20 b. 21 c. 40
d. Tree type A = 5
Tree type B = 4
e.
Circumference (cm) Class boundaries Class midpoint Tree type A (f)

1 – 20 0.5 – 20 .5 10.5 5
21 – 40 20. 5 – 40 . 5 30.5 15
41 – 60 40. 5 – 60. 5 50.5 25
61 – 80 60.5 – 80.5 70.5 19
81 – 100 80.5 – 100.5 90.5 22
101 – 120 100.5 – 120.5 110.5 7
121 – 140 120.5 – 140.5 130.5 5
141 – 160 140.5 – 160. 5 150.5 2
f.
Circumference (cm) Class boundaries Class midpoint Tree type B (f)

1 – 20 0.5 – 20.5 10.5 4
21 – 40 20. 5 – 40.5 30.5 4
41 – 60 40. 5 – 60.5 50.5 12
61 – 80 60.5 – 80.5 70.5 8
81 – 100 80.5 – 100.5 90.5 22
101 – 120 100.5 – 120.5 110.5 26
121 – 140 120.5 – 140.5 130.5 18
141 – 160 140.5 – 160.5 150.5 6
g.
Tree type A (f)

30
frequency
20
10
0
1 – 20 21 – 40 41 – 60 61 – 80 81 – 100 101 – 120 121 – 140 141 – 160
circumference
Tree type B (f)

30
Frequency
20
10
0
1 – 20 21 – 40 41 – 60 61 – 80 81 – 100 101 – 120 121 – 140 141 – 160
Circumference
2.
Score (x) Number of Students (x) Cumulative Frequency

12 – 17 5 2
18 – 23 4 5
24 – 29 6 12
30 – 35 5 14
36 – 41 3 19
42 – 47 1 25
48 – 53 2 30
54 – 59 2 39
60 – 65 1 47
66 – 71 0 48
72 – 78 1 50
a. 24 b. 47.5 c. 0.5 d. 20.5 e. 6
Assessment
To evaluate students’ understanding of the concepts discussed so far and to also involve
them in the learning actively, give them projects to collect and classify quantitative data
based on issues taken from real life. Here are some possible projects which you can
assign to your students:
1. Using clinical thermometers (sterilized after each person) take temperatures of the
students in the class. Take the readings to the nearest 0.1oc. Ask questions like:
- Does everybody in the class have the same body temperature?

- Are females warmer than males? Or is it the other way round?
- Are males’ temperatures more variable?
- Construct grouped frequency distribution.
- Draw histogram for the frequency distribution.
2. Go to the nearest post office and get the data for the number of letters that arrived
each day for, say, a month. Which days have more letters? Which days of the
week have fewer letters? Construct grouped frequency distribution and Draw
histogram for the frequency distribution.
3. You can also consider the distance your students travel from home to school.
4. You can also consider some other examples.
5.1.3. Measure of Location for Grouped Data

a. Mean
You may start this lesson by asking the students to state the definition of the mean.
Based on their answers, help them to revise, in brief, the measures of location for
ungrouped data and define the concepts of mean or arithmetic mean and clarify it with
the help of several examples, and discuss with students how to find mean for ungrouped
data. To help them realize how to compute the mean and application for ungrouped data
you can give them Activity 5.3. In this activity students will revise what they have
learned in grade 9 concerning the mean. Let each student answer the questions and
check what they have done. Based on their answers, give them additional problems if
necessary.

1. 4.402 meters
2. 76.52
3. To calculate the mean for two graphs of data, first we need to calculate the
number of values of each group and also the total number of values.
Generally, to find the mean of two groups of data,

Mean1× Number of values of 1st group + Mean2 × Number of values of the 2nd group
Mean =
Total Number of values obtained from the two groups
Following this, encourage the students to discuss calculating mean for grouped data.
Pursuant to their discussion, let the students clearly understand that, when data have
been grouped in a frequency distribution, the midpoint of each class is used as an
approximation of all values contained in the class. In addition to this, based on the
formal definition of “mean” you already stated and with the help of examples,
encourage students to come to the formula for mean of a grouped data is given by:
x=
∑ ( fx ) or x = ∑ ( fx )
c c
where xc is the class mark (midpoint) of a class. You can
∑f n
then give exercise 5.3 as a class work or homework to assess the students’
understanding. Ask high achievers to calculate the class marks by using
lower class boundary + upper class boundary
and compare the results with the class
2
mark they calculated by using class limits. Let them conclude that both are always
possible and are always equal.
Assessment
You can assess the students by giving them raw data and then asking them (a) to find
the mean, (b) to group the data, (c) to find the mean of the grouped data, and finally
asking them to compare the results. You can do these either as homework or
assignment.
1. a.
Marks of Class Mid-point (xc) Number of Students (f) fxc

Students
10 – 12 11 4 44
13 – 15 14 7 98
16 – 18 17 10 170
19 – 21 20 13 260
23 – 25 24 16 384
∑f = 50 ∑ fx c = 956
Then, x =
∑ fx
c
=
956
= 19.12
∑f 50
b.
Age Class mid-point (xc) Number of students (f) fxc
13 – 15 14 6 84
16 – 18 17 6 102
19 – 21 20 3 60
22 – 23 22.5 2 45
∑f = 17 ∑ fx c = 291
Hence, x =
∑ fx c
=
291
= 17.12
∑f 17
2.
Age Class mid-point (xc) Number of students (f) fxc
54 – 58 56 2 112
59 – 63 61 5 305
64 – 68 66 10 660
69 – 73 71 14 994
74 – 78 76 10 760
79 – 83 81 5 405
∑f = 46 ∑ fx
c = 3236
Hence, x =
∑ fxc
=
3236
= 70.35
∑f 46
3. a. 24.44
b. The mean depends on the frequency distribution you make.
4. You can let the students form frequency distributions. You can consider the
following classes.
With 6 classes With 9 classes
6 – 11 2
6–9 2
12 –17` 6
10 –13` 2
18 – 23 12
14 – 17 4
24– 29 16
18– 21 8
30 – 35 11
22 – 25 12
36 – 42 3
26 – 29 8
50 30– 33 8
34– 37 4
Mean = 24.97
38– 42 2
50
Mean = 24.64
By doing so, let them calculate the means.
ii. All the four means are not exactly equal but are close to one another.
iii. The generalization is that the mean depends on the constructed frequency
distribution. However, each mean will be closer to one another.
b. Median
After stating the way students can use to determine median of ungrouped data, give a few
examples and the questions in exercise 5.4 so that students can discuss and revise their
previous discussions from grade 9. Then guide the students to actively participate and
discuss the methods and procedures that are used to find the median of a grouped data.
During the discussion, guide the students to use the following procedures and find the
median for grouped data.
a. The data should be given in a cumulative frequency distribution.
b. The class which contains the median value has to be determined first.
c. Once this class is identified, the specific value of median is determined by
the formula
n 
 2 − cf B 
Median = BL +  i
 f c 
 
Where: BL = lower boundary of the class containing the median.
n = total number of observations in the frequency distribution

cf B = the cumulative frequency in the class preceding the class containing
the median.
fc = the number of observations in the class containing the median.
i = the size of the class interval.

You can then give some more examples, such as the questions in Exercise 5.5.
Assessment
You can assess the students by giving them raw data and then asking them (a) to find
the median, (b) to group the data, (c) to find the median of the grouped data, and finally
asking them to compare the results. You can also use Exercise 5.4 and Exercise 5.5. For
the purpose of assessment. You can do these either as homework or assignment.

1. a. First, we have to arrange in an increasing order and arranging gives:
4, 4, 5, 5, 5, 5, 5, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 10, 10, 10
Since the number of observations is 30, which is an even number,
th th th
n n   30   30 
  +  + 1   item +  + 1  item
md =   2  item =    2 
2 2
2 2
15th item + 16th item 7+7

= = =7
2 2
b.
x 4 5 6 7 8 10
f 2 5 7 6 7 3
2. From the distribution table we have n = 25 number of observations, which is an

odd number.
th
 n +1
 2  item 26
Thus, md =   = = 13th
2 2
The 13th item = 7
3. a. The median bill is 65. b. The mean bill is 66.
The mean is greater than the median which means that the data is skewed to the
right.
4. a. The median is 15. b. The median is 15.

a. md = 16
b.
Age Number of students
12 – 13 6
14 – 15 9
16 – 17 15
18 – 19 8
20 – 21 2
c. md = 16.17
2. a.
Daily income Number of Students Commutative frequency

(in Birr) (frequency) (cf)
10 – 14 4 4
15 – 19 11 15 = 4 + 11
20 – 24 17 32 = 15 + 17
25 – 29 16 48 = 32 + 16
30 – 34 8 56 = 48 + 8
35 – 39 4 60 = 56 + 4
th
 60 
The median class is the class containing   item = 30th item and found in the
 2 
third class.
The median class is 20 – 24
n
Thus, BL = 19.5, = 30, fc = 17, cfb = 15, i = 5
2
n 
 2 − cf b   30 − 15 
M d = BL +   i = 19.5 +   5 = 19.5 + 4.41 = 23.91
 cf   17 
 
Therefore, the median daily income is 23.91. Birr
b.
Marks Class boundaries Frequency Cumulative frequency
20 – 29 19.5 – 29.5 2 2
30 – 39 29.5 – 39.5 12 14 = 2 + 12
40 – 49 39.5 – 49.5 15 29 = 14 + 15
50 – 59 49.5 – 59.5 10 39 = 29 + 10
60 – 69 59.5 – 69.5 4 43 = 39 + 4
70 – 79 69.5 – 79.5 4 47 = 43 + 4
80 – 89 79.5 – 89.5 3 50 = 47 + 3
th
 50 
The median class is the class containing   item = 25th item which is found in
 2 
the third class and its class is 39.5 – 49.5.
Thus, M d = 39.5 + 
25 − 14 
10 = 395 + 7.33 = 46.83
 15 
Therefore, the median mark is 46.83
3. a. Median = 89.5
b.
Amount of drops Number of samples
63 – 68 8
69 – 74 2
75 – 80 14
81 – 86 8
87 – 92 13
93 – 98 12
99 – 104 14
105 – 110 3
111 – 116 5
117 – 122 1
n 
 2 − cf B   40 − 32 
Median = BL +   i = 86.5 +  6 = 90.19
 fc   13 
 
4. a. Mean = 25 and Median = 25 b. They are equal.
As you did for mean and median, start the lesson by giving the formal definition of
mode and then give examples that explain how to determine the mode of a given
ungrouped data. In addition to these, by using sufficient examples, introduce the
unimodal, bimodal and multimodal distributions. At this time, you can use exercise 5.6
to assess students understanding.
Assessment
In order to assess whether students understand the concept mode or not, you can use
different approaches. You can ask them to list the ages of students in their section and
identify the modal age. You can also give them exercise problems such as those given in
Exercise 5.6 and ask them to find the mode(s).

1. a. 7 b. 7 and 12 c. no mode d. 7, 10 and 12
2. a. Mode is 27 b. At 27th
3. a. 8 b. Mahder, because she is the one with mode vote.
4. a. 39 b. Variety of models have shoe size of 39
In the discussion, emphasize that, for a data grouped in frequency distribution with
equal class interval, the class containing the mode is determined first by identifying the
class with the greatest number of observations known as the modal class. Then, with the
modal class, the mode can be determined by using the formula,
 d1 
Mode = BL +  i
 d1 + d 2 
Where; BL = lower boundary of the modal class
d1 = the difference between the frequency in the modal class and the frequency
in the preceding class.
d 2 = the difference between the frequency in the modal class and the frequency
in the next class.
Let the students discuss the concepts in groups and give them exercise 5.7 as class work
or homework to help you assess their understanding. You can also give them as many
problems as possible.
Assessment
You can assess the students by giving them raw data and then asking them (a) to group
the data, (b) to find the mode(s) of the grouped data, and finally asking them to interpret
what it means. You can also use Exercise 5.7 for this purpose. You can do these either
as homework or assignment. You can also give them a test/quiz that encompasses mean,
median and mode.
1. a. 8 b. No mode c. 8 and 9 d. 8 and 10 e. 25.125
2. Mode = 256.75
3. Mode = 45.21
4. a. Mode = 87
b. This has two modes where, mode 1 = 78.5 and mode 2 = 99.42
5. The mode prize is Medal.
You can give high achievers the following questions which will help them think deeper
and refer more.
1. Compare and contrast mean, median and mode. This will guide them into the
issue of symmetry and skewness.
2. When is it better to use mean as a representative measure of data? This will be
better when the effect of extreme value is very small which will lead them into use
of standard deviation that they are going to discuss later for selecting either mean,
median or mode.
c. Quartiles, Deciles and Percentiles
From the previous discussions, encourage students to explain the measures of central
tendency. Let them also explain what makes median different from mean and mode.
One simple explanation could be that median is simply measure of location which tells
the value at which the distribution is divided into two equal parts. This time, you may
give them a clue by asking, say, the question “If we need to classify a distribution into
four equal parts, into ten equal parts and into hundred equal parts, then what will the
measures be?” After some inquiry, relating with median (which divides a given
distribution into two halves) introduce the other measures of locations, i.e. quartiles
which divide the data into four quarters, the deciles which divides the data in to 10
tenths and the percentiles which divides the data into 100 parts and guide students to
come to the formulas for ungrouped. The formulas for quartiles, deciles and percentiles
of ungrouped data are given as follows.
th th
 kn   k (n + 1) 
Qk =   item, or Qk =   for quartiles
 4   4 
th th
 in   i (n + 1) 
D j =   item, or D j =   for deciles
 10   10 
th th
 tn   t (n + 1) 
Pt =   item, or Pt =   for percentiles
 100   100 
Each formula for grouped data is also given as follows.
 kn 
 4 − cf 
Qk = BL +   i, for quartiles
 fk 
 
 in 
D j = BL +  − cf  i, for deciles
10 
 tn 
 100 − cf 
Pt = BL +   i, for percentiles
 f 
 
Here you need to take note that percentiles are different from percentages. Some
explanations and illustrative examples are given in the student textbook from pages 166
to 168. After they realize quartiles, deciles and percentiles for ungrouped data, you can
group the students and guide them to formulate the formulas for determining quartiles,
deciles and percentiles of grouped data. Here, make a note that these measures are more
or less derivatives of the formula for median except for determining the class that
consists of the specific measure. The formulas and some examples are given in the
textbook from pages 168 to 173. You can use some of the questions in Exercise 5.8 for
the purpose of enriching students understanding of the way quartiles are calculated and
how Q2 is related with the median.
From the above discussion, you may raise a question on how different formulas can
work for the same thing. It is because quartiles have different understanding and
representations. The approach given in the student textbook is only one of the different
representations and understandings of quartiles. Because of this, quartiles seem to be
simple in concept but can be complicated in execution.
Here's where it starts to get confusing. The terms 'quartile', 'upper quartile' and 'lower
quartile' each has two meanings. One definition refers to the subset of all data values in
each of those parts. For example, if I say "my score was in the upper quartile on a math
test", I mean that my score was one of the values in the upper quartile subset (i.e. the top
25% of all scores on that test).
But the terms can also refer to cut-off values between the subsets. The 'upper quartile'
(labelled Q3) can refer to a cut-off value between the upper quartile subset and the upper
middle quartile subset. Similarly, the 'lower quartile' (labelled Q1) can refer to a cut-off
value between the lower quartile subset and the lower middle quartile subset.
The term 'quartiles' is sometimes used to collectively refer to these values plus the
median (which is the cut-off value between the upper middle quartile subset and the
lower middle quartile subset). John Tukey, the statistician who invented the box-and-
whisker plot, referred to these cut-off values as 'hinges' to avoid confusion.
Unfortunately, not everyone followed his lead on that.
It gets worse. Statisticians don't agree on whether the quartile values ('hinges') should be
points from the data set itself, or whether they can fall between the points (as the
median can when there are an even number of data points). Furthermore, if the quartile
value is not required to be a point in the data set itself, most data sets don't have a
unique set of values {Q1, Q2, Q3} that divides the data into four "roughly equal"
portions. The SAS statistical software package, for example, allows you to choose from
among five different methods for calculating the quartile values. How then do we
choose the "best" value for the quartiles?
The answer to that question depends in part on the statisticians' objective in finding
quartile values. Tukey wanted a method that was simple to use, "without the aid of
calculating machinery." Others seek to minimize the bias in selecting the quartile
values. Thus, different methods have been developed for calculating the quartile values.
Tukey's method for finding the quartile values is to find the median of the data set, then
find the median of the upper and lower halves of the data set. If there are an odd number
of values in the data set, include the median value in both halves when finding the
quartile values. For example, if we have the data set: {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81}
we first find the median value, which is 25. Since there are an odd number of values in
the data set (9), we include the median in both halves. To find the quartile values, we
must find the medians of: {1, 4, 9, 16, 25} and {25, 36, 49, 64, 81}.
Since each of these subsets has an odd number of elements (5), we use the middle value.
Thus the lower quartile value is 9 and the upper quartile value is 49.
The TI-83 uses a method described by Moore and McCabe (sometimes referred to as
"M-and-M") to find quartile values. Their method is similar to Tukey's, but you do not
include the median in either half when finding the quartile values. Using M-and-M on
the data set above: {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81} we first find that the median value is
25. This time we will exclude the median from each half. To find the quartile values, we
must find the medians of: {1, 4, 9, 16} and {36, 49, 64, 81}.
Since each of these data sets has an even number of elements (4), we average the middle
(4 + 9)
two values. Thus the lower quartile value is = 6.5 and the upper quartile value is
2
(49 + 64)
= 56.5 .
2
With each of the above methods, the quartile values are always either one of the data
points, or exactly half way between two data points.
Those methods involve only simple arithmetic and are easily extendable to octiles
(eighths), hexadeciles (sixteenths), etc. They are not, however, extendable to quintiles
(fifths) or percentiles (hundredths), etc. Furthermore, they tend to have a high bias.
(That is, the quartile values calculated on subsets of the data set tend to vary more, and
are not good predictors of the quartile values of the entire data set.)
Mendenhall and Sincich, in their text-Statistics for Engineering and the Sciences, define
a different method of finding quartile values. To apply their method on a data set with n
1(n + 1)
elements, first calculate: Q1 = and round to the nearest integer. If Q1 falls
4
halfway between two integers, round up. The Q1th element is the lower quartile value.
3(n + 1)
Next calculate: Q3 = and round to the nearest integer. If Q3 falls halfway
4
between two integers, round down. The Q3th element is the upper quartile value. So for
our example data set: {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81}.
1(n + 1) 1(9 + 1)
n = 9, so Q1 = = = 2.5 which becomes 3 after rounding up. The lower
4 4
3(n + 1) 3(9 + 1)
quartile value is the 3rd data point, 9. Similarly: Q3 = = = 7.5 which
4 4
becomes 7 after rounding down. The upper quartile value is the 7th data point, 49.
Using this method, the upper and lower quartile values are always two of the data
points.
Minitab uses the same method, except it doesn't round the values of Q1 and Q3. Instead,
it uses linear interpolation between the two closest data points. For our example above,
instead of rounding Q1 to 3, Minitab would let Q1 = 2.5 and find the value half way
(4 + 9)
between the 2nd and 3rd data points. In our example, that would be = 6.5 .
2
Similarly, the upper quartile value would be half way between the 7th and 8th data
(49 + 64)
points, which would be = 56.5 . If Q1 were 2.25, Minitab would find the value
2
one fourth of the way between the 2nd and 3rd data points and if Q1 were 2.75, Minitab
would find the value three fourths of the way between the 2nd and 3rd data points.
Excel uses a method described by Freund and Perles, which almost no one else uses. To
1(n + 3)
apply this method on a data set with n elements, Excel first calculates Q1 = . The
4
Q1th element is the lower quartile value. If Q1 is not an integer, Excel uses linear
1(3n + 1)
interpolation. Next it calculates Q3 = . The Q3th element is the upper quartile
4
value. If Q3 is not an integer, Excel again uses linear interpolation. So for our example
data set:{1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81},
1(n + 3) 1(9 + 3)
n = 9, so Q1 = = =3
4 4
The lower quartile value is the 3rd data point, 9.
1(3n + 1) 1(3 × 9 + 1)
Q3 = = =7
4 4
The upper quartile value is the 7th data point, 49.
As we can see, these methods sometimes (but not always) produce the same results. To
further illustrate, consider the following data sets:
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
D = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
Here are the upper and lower quartile values, as calculated by each method described
above:
Tukey M and amp M M and amp;S Excel
Set A Q1: 2.5 2.5 2 2.25 2.75
Q3: 6.5 6.5 7 6.75 6.25
Set B Q1: 3.0 2.5 3 2.50 3.00
Q3: 7.0 7.5 7 7.50 7.00
Set C Q1: 3.0 3.0 3 2.75 3.25
Q3: 8.0 8.0 8 8.25 7.75
Set D Q1: 3.5 3.0 3 3.00 3.50
Q3: 8.5 9.0 9 9.00 8.50
After making sure that the students have captured what is required of them, you can use
Exercise 5.8 for the purpose of assessment of calculating quartiles.
Assessment
You can assess students’ learning by giving them raw and grouped data and asking them
to find the quartiles and interpret their meaning. You can use Exercise 5.8 for this
purpose.

1. a. Q1 = 28.75 Q2 = 35 Q3 = 55.5
b. Q1 = 2.75 Q2 = 5 Q3 = 8
c. Q1 = 14 Q2 = 15 Q3 = 15
2. a. Q1 = 18 Q2 = 24 Q3 = 31
b. Q2 - Q1 = 6 Q3 - Q2 = 7 Q3 - Q1 = 13
Therefore, Q3 - Q1 = Q3 – Q2 + Q2 - Q1
3. By forming the following frequency distribution
Fertilizer Quintals cf
6–9 2 2
10 – 13 2 4
14 – 17 4 8
18 – 21 8 16
22 – 25 12 28
26 – 29 8 36
30 – 33 8 44
34 – 37 4 48
38 – 41 1 49
42 – 45 1 50
a. Q1 = 19.75; Q2 = 24.5; Q3 = 30.25

b. Median = 24.5 and Median = Q2
4.
Marks F Cf
9.5 – 14.5 7 7
14.5 – 19.5 12 19
19.5 – 29.5 8 27
29.5 – 39.5 9 36
th
 36 
Q1 is found   item = 9th item, 2nd class
 4
Q1 = 14.5 + 
9−7 2×5 10
 5 = 14.5 + = 14.5 + = 15.333
 12  12 12
th
 36 
Q2 is  2    item = 18 th item, 2 nd class
  4 
5
 18 − 7 
Q2 = 14.5 +   = 14.5 + 4.583 = 19.083
 12 
  36  th 
Q3 = 3    item = 27 th item, 3rd class
  4  
 27 − 19 
Q3 = 19.5 +   5 = 19.5 + 5 = 24.5
 8 
a. 24.5 = Q3 b. 15.333 = Q1
In the discussion conducted so far, the students were able to determine quartiles. Now,
it is possible to continue the discussion on deciles and percentiles. You can let your
students realize the similarity of the approaches except the partitioning references of the
respective deciles and percentiles.
After they discuss deciles and percentiles, they need to generalize the relationship
between Q2 = D5 = P50. For this purpose, you can give them Activity 5.4 and guide them
to come to the conclude that Q2 = D5 = P50.
Median = 61.17, Q2 = 61.17, D5 = 61.17, and P50 = 61.17
They need to identify that median = Q2 = D5 = P50
You can ask high achievers, the following additional question.
1. Given a data set, when will it be convenient to use only the data between Q1 and
Q3, instead of considering all the data? The answer to this question is when the
data is clustered around the centre.
Assessment
To assess students’ understanding, you can use Exercise 5.9 which will give students
the chance to practice calculating deciles and percentiles. Here you can give them an
assignment to ask, compile answers and report how the percentiles in grade eight are
calculated, and what makes percentile different from percentages.

1. a. arranging the data,
10, 19, 28, 31, 35, 35, 35, 46, 48, 58, 68, 78
Q2 = 35; P12 = 18.46
Q3 = 55.5; P24 = 29.14
D4 = 35 ; P87 = 67.4
D8 = 59
b. Q2 = 15; P12 = 10
Q3 = 15; P24 = 14
D4 = 14; P87 = 19
D8 = 15
c. Q2 = 26; P12 = 14.67
Q3 = 35.214; P24 = 18.17
D4 = 22.83; P87 = 40.85
D8 = 37.35
2.
Profit Frequency Commulative frequency
1 – 100 12 12
101 – 200 18 30
201 – 300 27 57
301 – 400 20 77
401– 500 17 94
501 – 600 6 700
n = 100
th
 100  th nd
Q1 is   item i.e 25 item which is in the 2 class.
 4 
Cf = 12, f1 = 18, i = 100, BL = 100.5
 1× 100 
 4 − 12   13 
Q1 = 100.5 +   100 = 100.5 +  100 = 172.72.
 18   18 
 
th
 3 × 100  th
Q3 is   item, i.e 75 item which is in the fourth class.
 4 
Cf = 27, f1 = 20, i = 100, BL = 300.5
 3 × 100 
 4 − 27 
Q3 = 300.5 +   100 = 540.5
 20 
 
th
 3 × 100  th nd
D 4 is   item = 30 item. It is found in the 2 class.
 10 
 3 × 100 
 10 − 12 
So, D3 = 100.5 +  100
 18  = 100.5 + 100 = 200.5
 
th
 70 × 100  th
P70   item = 70 item, which is found in the fourth class.
 100 
 70 × 100 
 100 − 27 
So, P70 = 300.5 +   100 = 343.5
 100 
 
3. a. D2 = 18; D7 = 28.5; P20 = 18; P60 = 26
b. P50 – P25 = 6; P75 – P50 = 7; P75 – P25 = 13
4. a. Q1 = 19.75 D3 = 21; P70 = 29
b. 68%
c. 31 Quintals of fertilizer
Assessment
Give to the students a frequency distribution table and ask them to:
a. find lower and upper class limits and class boundaries
b. find class interval, class midpoint
c. give the mean
d. give the median
e. give the mode
f. give the quartiles, deciles and percentiles
Let your questions be on both discrete and continuous variables. You can give them
these types of questions as homework or assignment. You can also give them test/quiz.
5.1.4 Measures of Dispersion
Before starting this session, it will be helpful to give students data sets of different type
that have equal mean but different values. From this, help the students to enquire what
difference might be addressed on each data set. With this beginning, you may start this
topic with introductory discussion on what is meant by dispersion among values of a
given data. Right after that, you may group the students, let them do Activity 5.5 and
discuss each question. The purpose of this activity is to remind the students that they
should not rely only on the mean to arrive to a conclusion. A very large or a very small
value in the items might make the mean biased. They also understand the need for
measuring variation of data from some reference point, usually the average (mean,
median or mode).

a. x = 11.35
b. No
c. determine the range between the highest and the lowest value.
Once the students realize the need for measures of dispersion, you can continue the
discussion by defining range, variance for ungrouped and grouped data, and standard
deviation for ungrouped and grouped data, and illustrate each measure with several
examples.
In addition, discuss with the students calculations of standard deviation for grouped data
and let them practice using the formula;
sd = σ =
∑  f ( x − x)
i i
2


∑f i
Where; xi = the value of the ith item

x = the mean of the data
f i = the frequency of the ith class interval.
The steps to calculate the variance and standard deviation of grouped frequency
distribution are outlined in the student textbook. They also need to understand why
standard deviation is the one measure of dispersion that is most commonly used.
You can give additional questions to high achievers to lead them into other measures of
dispersion such as quartile deviation and mean deviation. For this purpose, you can ask
them the following questions:
Q − Q1
1. Find 3 for some data. This is called quartile deviation.
2
n
n ∑ x −x i
2. Giving them as a hint that ∑ ( xi − x ) = 0 , ask them to find
i =1
i =1
n
for the
same data, and check out what it means. This is called mean deviation.
Assessment
For the purpose of assessing the students’ understanding, you can give some of the
questions from exercise 5.10 as a home work and some others as an assignment and
record the scores of the students.

1. a. R = 18 – 2 = 16
Variance = 21.23
Standard deviation = 4.61
b. R=7–3=4
Variance = 2
c. R = 50 – 31 = 19
Variance = 26.25
d. R = 89 – 30 = 59, variance = 251.92, standard deviation = 15.87
2. To study how the data are dispersed from each other.
3. 6
4. Constant temperature
5. a. SA = 2.58, SB = 2.61
b. Player A is more consistent because he/she has less standard deviation.
6. a.
Range Variance Standard Deviation
Farmer 1 7 5.58 2.36
Farmer 2 2 0.67 0.82
Farmer 3 14 21.73 4.66
b. Farmer 3; amount of yield largely varies from year to year.

c. Farmer 2 d. Farmer 2
After the students have proved successful in capturing the concepts of measures of central
tendency and dispersion, they need to relate and apply the concepts in real life problems.
For this purpose, you may group the students and encourage them to do Group Work 5.3.
When you give them such a group work, you can give similar but different questions to
different groups so that they can have wider applications problems.
Assessment
Give the students sample data and ask them to find the following:
a. Range of the grouped data
b. What information the range gives about the data
c. Variance and what information it gives
d. Standard deviation and what information it gives
Let your questions be on both discrete and continuous data.
5.2 PROBABILITY
Competencies
• determine the number of different types of possible selection from a given set
of objects (by using the multiplication principle).
• determine the factorial of a given non-negative integer.
• find the possible ways of arranging objects by using the principles of
permutation.
• compute the possible arrangement of objects around the circle (using the
principle of circular permutation).
• describe the difference between arrangement of objects and selection of

objects.
• describe what is meant by “combination of objects”.
• determine the number of different combinations of n objects taken r at a time.
• explain the computational relationship between permutation and combination
of objects.
• prove simple facts about combination.
• solve practical problems on combination of objects.
• write up to 6th power of a binomial expression (x + y)n (i.e. when n = 0, 1, 2,
3, 4, 5) in its expanded form by using direct multiplication.
• describe what they observe in the expansion of (x + y)n where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
• describe “Pascal’s triangle” and its use.
• apply the “binomial theorem” in expanding the nth power of binomial terms
i.e. ((x + y)n , where n∈ ℤ +).
• determine any term in the expanded form of (x + y)n where n ∈ ℤ +.
• solve problems on binomial expansion.
• describe what is meant by “random experiment”.
• explain what is meant by an outcome of a random experiment.
• describe what is meant by sample space of a given random experiment.
• list some of the sample points of sample space for a given experiment.
• define “equally likely outcomes” of a given trial in his/her own words.
• define “favourable outcomes/cases”.
• determine events of a given random experiment.
• identify sample (elementary) events and compound events.
• determine the number of events of a given sample space.
• describe the occurrence or non-occurrence of an event.
• explain an event denoted by “not E” where “E” is a given event.
• explain events connected by “or” and “and”.
• describe the simplified forms of events by using the properties of operations
on sets.
• identify exhaustive events.
• identify mutually exclusive events.
• describe events that are both exhaustive and mutually exclusive.
• identify independent events.
• identify dependent events.
• describe the axiomatic approach of probability.
• interpret basic facts in the theory of probability.
• find probabilities of events based on axiomatic approach.
• describe the odds in favour of an event or the odds against an event.
• find the probability of E1 ∪ E2 where E1 and E2 are events in a random

experiment.
• determine the probability of mutually exclusive events.
• find probability of the joint occurrence of independent events (by using rule of
multiplication).
• describe the outcomes of events using a tree diagram.
• determine the probability of the joint occurrence of dependent events (using
multiplication rule).
• describe the outcomes of events using tree diagram to determine their
probability.
• identify whether given events are independent or dependent (by comparing
the equation for probability of joint occurrence of independent event).
Introduction
Probability theory, as the students may recall, is a mathematical model to describe the
likelihood of an event’s occurrence. The likelihood of an event’s occurrence is assigned
a number between 0 and 1, in which 0 is assigned to an impossible event, and 1 is
assigned to an event whose occurrence is certain (a must).
The students were introduced to some important ideas about probability in grade 9.
Issues like experimental and theoretical approaches of probability and determining
probability of sample events were considered there. In this subunit, the students first
consider permutation and combination. The study of permutation and combination is
concerned with finding the number of logical or acceptable possibilities of an event
without necessarily considering every individual case. They are very basic in probability
considerations. They will also study the basic assumptions and rules for calculating
probabilities.
Teaching Notes
To begin this subunit, you may start by asking the students to give explanations on the
meaning/definition of the terms such as experiment, outcome, sample space, event, and
equally likely.
After their deliberation, you can direct them to practice these terminologies with
examples of calculating probabilities. You may also group the students in pairs and let
them do Activity 5.6. The purpose of this activity is on the one hand to let the students
calculate probability of different events and on the other, to practically guide to the
terminologies of certain event and impossible event by way of revising what the
students have learned in Grade 9. You may also guide the students through questions
and answers to recall the concepts they covered in grade 9.

1 1 5
a. b. c. 0 d. 1 e.
6 2 6
5.2.1 Permutation and Combination
With the help of simple day-to-day activities, introduce the idea of fundamental
principle of counting which is used to find the number of ways of occurrence of events
in a given order. For clarity and simplicity, you can use simple examples that represent
places in the surrounding of students and look like the one given as example 4 on page
187 of the student textbook. Here, it will be essential to help the students to differentiate
between addition principle and multiplication principle. They also need to note that the
counting principle works for any number of events. You can group the students and give
them exercise 5.11 as a class work so that they can have a better understanding of the
counting principle.
Assessment
You can assess students’ understanding during class instruction by using oral questions.
You can also give them some exercises of counting, let them discuss with their peers,
and assess their understanding by letting them present report.

1. All are events. (d is also an event as empty set)
2. a. S = {HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, THH, THT, TTH, TTT}
3
b.
8
3. a. S = {R1R2, R1B1, R1B2, R1B3, R2B1, R2B2, R2B3, B1B2, B1B3, B2B3}
1
b.
10
6
c.
10
4. The first book has 6 choices, the 2nd book has 5 choices, and the third, fourth, fifth
and the sixth book has 4, 3, 2, 1, choices respectively. Thus, the total number of
arrangement is 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720 ways
5. 2×3=6
Following the discussion on counting principle, discuss with the students the idea of
factorial and present them with several examples. By defining the concept factorial,
encourage the students to develop a meaning to permutation. Right after their trial give
them the definition of permutation, explain its usefulness for finding number of
arrangements of objects and introduce its notation, P(n, r). To make things easier and
give the students the chance to apply permutation, you can group the students and let
them do Group work 5.4. After they finish their group work, select some of the groups
and let them present their work to the whole class. Make corrections when necessary.

6! 8! 1000!
1. a. = 30 b. = 6720 c. = 1000!
4! 3! 1!
2. 5!
3. 5 P3 = 60
4. CALL, ACLL, CLAL, ALCL, CLLA, ALLC, LLAC, LACL, LALC, LLCA,
LCAL, LCLA
When the students finish the group work, you can give them a question of type 4 in the
group work 5.4 where the two Ls in the word CALL are identical, and let them discuss
it for a few minutes. This will lead them into permutation of duplicate terms which is
presented on page 191 of the student textbook. You can also explain to them the
circular permutation.
For the purpose of assessing your students, you can give them the questions in exercise
5.12 as a home work.
Assessment
You can assess your students by giving them questions on permutation and asking them
to calculate. You can also ask them to derive the formula for permutation whenever you
find it convenient. You can use Exercise 5.12 for assessment purpose.
1. a. 6! = 720 b. 8! = 40,320 c. 12! = 479,001,600
2. a.
6 6 6 1
6 × 6 × 6 × 1 = 216 (if repetition is allowed)

b.
1 6 6 6
1 × 6 × 6 × 6 = 216 (if repetition is allowed)

3. a.
W M M
1 2 1
1 × 2 × 1 = 2 ways
That is WM1 M2 or WM2 M1 are favourable cases.
b.
M W M
2 1 1
2 × 1 × 1 = 2 ways, that is M1 WM2 or M2WM1
10! 4! 7! 9!
4. a. b. c.
2!2!2! 2! 2!2! 2!2!2!
10!
5. = 4,200
3!4!3!
n! n! n ! n!
6. n Pn−1 = = = = = n Pn
[n − (n − 1)]! 1! 0! (n − n)!
The next point of discussion will be combination. Before defining combination of
objects, it will be better to start from permutation which they have discussed previously,
by giving the following as a guide;
If we have three volunteer students to serve as members of a committee of two, how
many such combinations are there?
Let the students discuss and see how combination differs from permutation. Following
this enquiry question, you can state the formal definition of combination and its notation
 n
C(n, r) or n C r or   for combination of n objects taken r at a time, 0 < r ≤ n .
r
You can then let the students do as many examples as possible to understand the idea of
combination. For further developing and understanding of the properties of
combination, you can group the students in pairs and let them do Activity 5.7. In
addition you can assist students to do practical problems on combination and give them
some exercises.
n! n!
a. C (n , 0) = = =1
( n − 0)! . 0! n !.1
n! n!
b. C (n , n – r ) = =
( n − ( n − r ))! ( n − r )! ( n − n + r ) ! . ( n − r )!
n! n!
= = = C(n, r )
r !. (n − r )! ( n − r )! . r !
n  n  n! n! n! n!
c.  + = + = +
 r   r −1 ( n− r ) ! r ! ( n− r +1) !( r −1) ! ( n− r )!r ! ( n+1− r ) !( r −1)!
n! rn ! n! rn !
= + = +
( n−r )!r ! ( n+1−r )!r ! ( n−r )!r ! ( n+1−r )( n−r )!r !
n !( n + 1− r ) + rn ! n !n + n !− rn!+ rn!
= =
( n + 1−r )!r ! ( n + 1−r )!r !
n !( n + 1) ( n + 1)! =  n + 1
( n + 1−r )!r !  r 
= =
( n + 1−r )!r !
Assessment
So as to assess students’ understanding of combinations, you can ask them to do several
exercises on permutations and combinations. You can also ask them to derive the formula
for combination and some properties of combinations similar to the questions in Activity
5.7. You can also use the questions in Exercise 5.13 for the purpose of assessment.

8! 8!
1. a. C(8, 0) = = =1
( 8 − 0 )! 0! 8! 0!
n! n!
b. C(n, n ) = = =1
( n − n )! n ! 0! n !
8! 8! 8 × 7 × 6!
c. C (8, 6) = = = = 4 × 7 = 28
(8 − 6 )! 6! 2! 6! 2! × 6!
2. C(n, 6) = C(n , 4)
n! n! n! n!
= ⇒ =
( n − 6)! 6! ( n − 4)! 4! ( n − 6)! 6! ( n − 4) ( n − 5) ( n − 6)! 4!
n! n!
⇒ =
( n − 6)! 6 × 5 × 4! ( n − 4) ( n − 5) ( n − 6)! 4!
1 1
⇒ =
30 ( n − 4) (n − 5)
⇒ n2 – 9n + 20 – 30 = 0
⇒ n2 – 9n – 10 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation gives n = 10.
3. (10, 5) = 252
4. a. C (9, 2) . C (9, 3) = 36 × 42 = 1512 ways
b. C (9, 0) . C (9, 5) = 1 × 126 = 126 ways
c. C (9, 5). C (9, 0) = 126 × 1 = 126 ways
d. C (9, 3).C(9, 2) + C(9, 4).C(9, 1) + C(9, 5).C(9, 0)
= 42 × 36 + 126 × 9 + 126 × 1 = 2772 ways.
e. C (9, 0) . C(9, 5) + C(9, 1) . C(9, 4) + C(9, 2) C(9, 3) + C(9, 3). C (9, 2)
= 1 × 126 + 9 × 126 + 36 × 42 + 42 × 36 = 4284 ways.
5. a. 190 games
b. 120 games
6. a. 112 b. 10 c. 219
5.2.2 Binomial Theorem
You may start the lesson by revising how to expand the square and cube of a given
binomial expression using the distributive property of multiplication over addition.
Example:
(x + y)(x + y) = x2 + 2xy + y2
After this, in order to give students the chance to practice by themselves and reach some
generalization on Binomial theorem, you can group them and let them do Group Work
5.5. In this group work, students will use inductive approach to see the relationship
between the coefficients of the terms of the binomial theorem and the elements of the
Pascal Triangle.

1. For n = 1, (a + b)1 = (a + b)
For n = 2, (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
For n = 3, (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
For n = 4, (a + b)4 = a4 + 4a3b +6a2b2+ 4ab3 + b4
For n = 5, (a + b)5 = a5 + 5a4b +10 a3b2+10a2b3 +5ab4+ b5
2. (a + b)n = C(n, 0)an + C(n, 1)an-1b + C(n, 2) an-2b2+ . . . + C(n, n-2)a2bn-2
+ C(n, n- 1)abn-1+ bn
3. a. In (a + b)n there are (n + 1) terms
b. The exponent of “a” decreases while the exponent of “b” increases.
c. The sum of exponents of a and b is always n.
d. The coefficient of the first and the last terms is always 1.
e. Yes. The coefficients are as given in 2.
f. The completed PASCAL Triangle is given below.
g. It is their sum.
h. The coefficients given by C(n, r) = C(n, n-r)
To help them use Pascal’s Triangle in expanding binomial powers, you can group them
in pairs and let them do Activity 5.8.
1........................ (a + b)0
1 1 .................... (a + b)1
1 2 1.................. (a + b)2
1 3 3 1 .............. (a + b)3
1 4 6 4 1............ (a + b)4
1 5 10 10 5 1.......... (a + b)5
1 6 15 20 15 6 1 . . . . . . . . . (a + b)6
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1..... (a + b)7
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1 . . . (a + b)8
From the above Pascal’s triangle we have;
(a + b)6 = a6 + 6a5b + 15a4b2 + 20a3b3 + 15a2b4 + 6ab5 + b6.
(a + b)7 = a7 + 7a6b + 21a5b2 + 35a4b3 + 35a3b4 + 2la2b5 + 7ab6 + b7 and
(a + b)8 = a8 + 8a7b + 28a6b2 + 56a5b3 + 70a4b4 + 56a3b5 + 28a2b6 + 8ab7 + b8.
Assessment
As binomial expansion and Binomial theorem are useful in calculating probability,
students would benefit from understanding these. To assess students learning, you can
give them questions as given in Exercise 5.14 and ask them to do each question. You
can do these as class work and homework.

1. a. (a + b)5 = C(5, 0) a5 + C(5, 1) a4 b + C(5, 2) a3 b2 + C(5, 3) a2b3
+ C(5, 4) ab4 + C(5, 5)b5
= a5 + 5a4b + 10a3b2 + 10a2 b3 + 5ab4 + b5
b. (a + b)7 = C(7, 0)a7 + C(7, 1) a6 b + C(7, 2) a5 b2 + C(7, 3) a4 b3
+ C(7, 4)a3 b4 + C(7, 5)a2b5 + C(7, 6) ab6 + C(7, 7)b7.
= a7 + 7a6 b + 21a5b2 + 35a4b3 + 35a3 b4 + 21a2b5 + 7ab6 + b7.
c. (3x – 4y)6 = 729x6 – 5832x5y + 19440x4y2 – 34560x3y3 + 34560x2y4
− 18432xy5 + 4096y6
2. a. C(8, 5) = 56 b. C(6, 2) = 15 c. C(6, 4) = 15
3. The terms that have equal coefficients are x and y ; and x y and xy2.
3 3 2
4. a. 11 b. a8b2 and a2b8.

5. a. 5000 b. x4y
6. 12
5.2.3 Random Experiments and its Outcomes

This topic has been discussed in grade 9. You can start the session by asking the
students to tell what a random experiment and outcomes are. Following their responses,
you can introduce a “Random experiment” as an experiment, which when repeated
under identical conditions does not produce the same result or outcomes. You may also
explain it as a trial whose outcome cannot be determined in advance. To help them have
a better understanding, you can let them try some experiments such as tossing a coin,
throwing a die, etc. From the experiments they try, you can also let them write down the
set of possible outcomes. Some examples are given in the student textbook.
5.2.4 Events
You may start the lesson by revising the concept of sample space of a given random
experiment. And then using simple examples consider situations which ensure the
happening of a particular condition among the members of the sample space of an
experiment. Based on this, define an event that is any subset of a sample space and
usually denoted by “E”. For the purpose of practice in identifying events from some
sample space, you can let the student individually do Activity 5.9.
As each of the following are sample spaces, any subset of each will be an event.
a. S = { HHH, HHT, HTH, HTT, TTT, TTH, THT, THH}
b. S = { Defective, non-defective}
c. S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12}
d. S = {Red, white}
e. S = { Boy, Girl}
When the students understand determining events, you can guide them through
examples how they can identify the types of events as simple or compound. You can
also guide them to see the occurrence and non-occurrence of an event. Following this,
they need to understand a complement of an event and practice how they determine it.
After they understand this, you can let the students discuss in pairs the questions in
Activity 5.10. The purpose of this activity is to ensure that the students have understood
the basic definitions on algebra of events and to state the results.

a. E1 ∪ E 2 is either E1 or E2 or both and E1 ∩ E 2 is both E1 and E2
b. See student textbook.

c. If E1, E2, E3, . . ., En are random experiments in a sample space
S = E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En, then the collection of the events
E1, E2, . . . , En forms a mutually exclusive events if Ei ∩ E j = ∅, i ≠ j

and an exhaustive set of events where
S = E1 ∪ E2 ∪ ... ∪ En.
d. Two events are said to be independent if the occurrence or non- occurrence
of one event doesn’t affect the occurrence or non-occurrence of the other
event.
Following the activity, it will be essential for the students to discuss and understand
some of the terminologies in the study of probability namely: exhaustive events,
mutually exclusive events, and dependent and independent events which are explained
through examples in the student textbook.
5.2.5 Probability of an Event

Once the students are capable of identifying the counting principles and determining
permutations and combinations, it will be essential to discuss probability. You may start
the lesson by introducing the common experiences students had in determining
probability of an event through classical approach or empirical approach. You may
need to give them some examples of determining probability of some events. The
students might realize how they determine probability of an event. At this point it may
be possible to ask them if they can determine the probability of an event without using
the counting principles or the relative frequency approach. This will lead them into the
modern theory of probability known as Axiomatic approach of probability. You need to
explain to the students that the Axiomatic approach includes both the empirical and
classical definitions of probability that they have learned in grade 9. In addition to these,
you can discuss the probability of mutually exclusive events and probability of
independent and dependent events.
After the discussion outlined above, it will be essential to let the students realize the
rules of probability which is one of the useful ways of computing probability of an
event mathematically. For this purpose, you can give Activity 5.11 to the students to do
it in group.

a. P(E1 ∪ E2) = P(E1) + P(E2) – P(E1 ∩ E2)
The condition applied here is when the two events E1 and E2 are not
mutually exclusive.
b. P(E1 ∪ E2) = P(E1) + P(E2), the condition is
E1 and E2 are mutually exclusive events.
i.e., E1 ∩ E2 = ∅
c. i. For (b) ii. For (a)
E1 E2 E1 E2
Pursuant to the activity, guide the students to identify the addition and multiplication
rules of probability. Illustrate each with the help of examples. Some guiding examples
are given in the student textbook. Although it may seem easier to apply the rules stated
earlier, there may be time where occurrence of one event may affect the occurrence of
another event. In this case, there will be a need to discuss the concept of conditional
probability. Guide the students to understand the issues of conditional probability with
the help of the examples given in the student textbook.
Assessment
Here you can assess students by giving them a test/quiz focusing on the terminologies in
probability and giving example for each. You can also ask questions on rules and
properties of probability. It is also possible to ask them questions to find probability of
some events. You can also give them the questions in exercise 5.15 as an assignment or
as a home work.

1 1
1. a. b.
6 3
1 5 5
2. a. {5} b. 1 c. 0 d. e. f.
6 6 6
8 28
3. a. b.
52 52
1
4.
36
1 3
5. a. b.
5 5
16 1 16 4
6. a. = b. =
2704 169 2652 663
7. n (S) = 24, n (Red) = 10
n (S) = n (not Red) + n (Red)
n (not Red) = 14
14 7
Thus, P(not Red) = =
24 12
8. a. a, c, d and e are invalid assignments because in (a), the sum of the
probabilities is less than 1, in (c), the sum is greater than 1, in (d), some of
the probabilities are negative and in (e), the sum is greater than 1.
b. (b) is valid for two reasons. Each probability is between 0 and 1 and their
sum is 1.
5
9.
6
22
10.
49
When the students attempt to do the exercises, you can help them use tree diagram to
determine the possible outcomes with which they can determine probability of an event.
Such a tree diagram is also useful for determining probability of joint events. Some
examples are outlined in the student text and you can also give them some more other
examples. Finally, you can give them exercise 5.16 as a class work or home work with
which they can practice applying tree diagrams.
For high achievers, you can give them questions of the following type that are useful in
calculating probabilities.
1. Justify that; if a box contains n1 white and n2 red balls, and if someone picked up r
balls at random, then the probability that k of them will be white is
 n1  n2 
  
P( x = k ) =  k  r − k 
 n1 + n2 
 
 r 
Assessment
You can assess students learning by giving them questions similar to those listed in
Exercise 5.16 and ask them to find the probability. You can also let them determine
sample spaces and events by using tree diagrams, and calculate probabilities.
As this is the end of the unit, you can also give them test encompassing all the subtopics
in this unit.

5 6 11 5 6 0
1. a. + = =1 b. 1− = c. =0
11 11 11 11 11 11
4 4 4 64 1
2. a. × × = =
52 52 52 140608 2197
4 3 2 24 1
b. × × = =
52 51 50 132600 5525
1 3 1
3. a. b. 0 c. =
36 36 12
1 5 4
4. a. b. c.
30 6 15
1 16 10
5. a. b. c.
11 33 11
1
6. a.
30
1.
Classes Frequencies
1–3 7
4–6 6
7–9 3
10 – 12 5
13 – 15 8
16 – 18 7
19 – 21 2
22 – 24 2
2. a. 4 b. 5 and 7 c. 110.4
3. a. 15 b. 3.5 c. 340.23
4. a. 9.1 b. 4.7 c. 15 d. 74.5
5. Q2 = 12.5 D3 = 12.5 P20 = 7.5
6. a. σ = 2.85 b. σ s = 1.12 c. σ = 3.7229
σ2 = 8.1225 b. σ2 = 1.2544 c. σ2 = 13.86
1 15
7. a. b.
64 64
8.
( n + 1)! =5⇒
( n + 1) n ! =5
n! n!
⇒ n=4
9. a.
4 3 2
4 × 3 × 2 = 24 ways
b.
4 4 4
4 × 4 × 4 = 64 ways
10. a. 15 b. 28 c. 3
3  9  9   3
       
11. a.  2 = 3 b.  2  = 36 c. 1   1  = 27
 12  66  12  66  12  66
2  2  2 
     
12. 7! = 5040
13. a. 120 b. 120
8  7
14. a.     = 28 × 35 = 980
 2 3 
 7  8  7 8   7 8 7  8 
b.     +     +     +     = 2457
 2 3 3   2  4  1  5   0
 8   7   8  7   8   7  8   7  8   7 
c.   +  +  +  +  
 0   5   1   4   2   3   3   2   4  1 
21 + 280 + 980 + 588 + 490 2359
= =
3003 3003
3
15.
11
4 4 4 64 8
16. × × = =
52 51 50 132600 16575
4 1
17. =
36 9
UNI T
6 MATRICES AND
DETERMINANTS
INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with matrices and determinants. Matrices and determinants deal with an
array of numbers with their own rules for addition and multiplication. It is expected that
the students have some idea of systems of linear equations and how to solve them by
using substitution and elimination methods.
In this unit, they will learn how to solve systems of linear equations by systematically
using Gauss’ method. Expressing linear systems of equations using matrices makes
them easier to solve, using programmable calculating machines.
Unit Outcomes
• know basic concepts about matrices.
• know specific ideas, methods and principles concerning matrices.
• perform operations on matrices.
• apply principles of matrices to solve problems.
179

Although teaching aids may not be excessively exploited for this unit, you can present
different charts that represent different types of matrices. Apart from use of the student
textbook, you need to elaborate more application problems from your surrounding so
that students can best appreciate and see how useful matrices are.
You can group students, give them hints on a problem and let them assess such a
problem from the perspective of their daily life and develop their matrix form. The
following materials, if available, are very helpful:
Calculators or computers.
Colored chalks
6.1 MATRICES
Competencies
• define matrix.
• determine the sum and difference of two given matrices of the same order.
• multiply a matrix by a scalar.
• describe the properties of multiplication of matrices by scalars.
• determine the product of two matrices.
• describe the properties of the product of two matrices.
• determine the transpose of a matrix.
Vocabulary: Matrix, Column, Row, Vector, Square matrix, Zero matrix, Diagonal
matrix, Unit matrix, Scalar matrix, Principal diagonal, Lower triangular
matrix, Upper triangular matrix, Symmetric matrix, Skew-symmetric
matrix.
Introduction
In this sub-unit, the definition of a matrix is presented. Operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication of a matrix by a scalar, product of matrices, transposition of
matrix and properties of these operations are addressed. To deal with these, active
participation of students is a requirement.
Matrices have many scientific applications. They are useful to organize a vast amount of
data. One can represent a system of linear equations by using matrices. Matrix
Unit 6 – Matrices and Determinants 181
representation is better suited for solving systems of linear equations by using

computing devices.
For instance, to solve the opening problem, you can formulate the problem as a system
of linear equations. You can write the system of linear equations by letting:
x be the number of eggs.
y be the number of cups of milk.
z be the number of cups of juice.
Then the system of linear equations becomes:
80 x + 160 y + 110 z = 540

6 x + 9 y + 2 z = 25
The system is equivalent to:
8 x + 16 y + 11z = 54

6 x + 9 y + 2 z = 25
Using matrix notation, this system of linear equations can be written as:
 8 16 11 54 
  .
 6 9 2 25 
After discussing 6.3, students will be able to solve this system, using matrices. But for
now, guide them to solve the system by elimination method which they studied in
grade 9.
The system has infinite solution with:
67t − 86 
x= 
24

124 − 50t 
y= , t ∈ Z ≥ 0
24 
z =t 


Teaching Notes
Start the discussion of the subunit by considering tables containing rows and columns of
items so that the students will easily grasp the concept of a matrix. Examples are given
in the student textbook. Here are additional examples. You may also construct examples
of your own.
Example1: Suppose the age(in years), weight(in kg) and height (in cm) of a student in
your class is given by (16, 55, 169). (16, 55, 169) is called a 1 by 3 (1 × 3)
matrix (or a row vector). Notice that the order is important.
Similarly, for any real numbers a1, a2,…, an, (a1, a2,…, an) is called a 1 × n matrix
or a row vector.
If you write them in columns, as
 a1 
 16   
   a2 
 55  and ⋮ 
169 
   
 an  ,
you will call them column vectors (or a 3 × 1 and n × 1 matrices respectively).
Remark: Sometimes you will see the elements of a row vector separated by commas.
Commas are not necessary unless confusion from not using them.
Example 2: Suppose there are four soccer clubs A, B, C and D. Suppose in a competition,
A won seven, lost six, and tied one, B won five, lost eight, and tied one, C won
two, lost twelve, and had no ties, D won nine, lost five, and had no ties. We
can represent this data using the four vectors (7 6 1), (5 8 1), (2 12 0), and
(9 5 0). You can combine this information in a matrix as follows:
7 6 1
 
 5 8 1
 2 12 0 
 
9 5 0
 
Example 3: The information in the following table is made up of names of students
against their marks in three tests.
Name Test 1 Test 2 Test 3

Siraj 9 10 7
Bizunesh 9 10 6
Welela 8 10 8
Ojulu 9 10 8
This now can be written in a matrix form like
9 10 7
 
9 10 6
8 10 8
 
9 10 8
In general, a matrix is an arrangement of numbers into rows and columns.
To help students practice, you can give them Activity 6.1. The purpose of this Activity
is to prepare students to define some important types of matrices. Ask voluntary
students to give the sizes of the matrices in the activity.

- For matrix A, the number of rows is 2 and the number of columns is 2.
- For matrix B, the number of rows is 3 and the number of column is 1.
- For matrix C, the number of rows is 3 and the number of columns is 2.
- For matrix D, the number of rows is 1 and the number of columns is 3.
Using active learning methods like drill partners, please make sure that
- students do not confuse row and column
- size(order) is given as number of rows × number of columns. Thus, a matrix
with, say, 5 rows and 8 columns has size 5 × 8.
- for the entry aij, i represents the row and j represents the column in which
aij is found in the matrix.
- students identify the various kinds of matrices listed in their textbook and
give examples of each.
To assess their understanding of the definition and terms give students exercise
problems that ask the size of matrices, identifying entries, and types of matrices. Also
ask students to construct various matrices (include real life examples).
The next lesson deals on addition and subtraction of matrices. But, before starting to
discuss these, it will be helpful to discuss equality of matrices. Right after identifying
equality of matrices, the students can discuss addition and subtraction of matrices. To
begin this discussion, you can let the students do Activity 6.2 which is supposed to
prepare them for the definition of addition of matrices.
Let the students do the activity in small groups. Let the students add the number of
books component wise (Biology books with Biology books and so on). Then, let them
represent the number of books in stock and the newly arrived books in matrix form
101 89 72 75   60 65 54 45 
 62   
 58 70 43   27 35 50 27 
and  respectively.
 57 65 71 94  55 66 65 44 
   
 51 
 81 87 91 93   75 68 70
Let the students give the sum table they have found in matrix form. You then explain to
them that the sum table is defined to be equal to:
101 89 72 75   60 65 54 45 
 62   
 58 70 43   27 35 50 27 
+
 57 65 71 94  55 66 65 44 
   
 51 
 81 87 91 93   75 68 70

Grade Level
Subject 7 8 9 10
Biology 101 + 60 = 161 89 + 65 = 154 72 + 54 = 126 75 + 45 = 120
Physics 62+27 = 89 58 + 35 = 93 70 + 50 = 120 43 + 27 = 70
Chemistry 57+55 = 112 65 + 66 = 131 71 + 65 = 136 94 + 44 = 138
Mathematics 81 + 75 = 156 87 + 68 = 155 91 + 70 = 161 93 + 51 = 144
 
101 89 72 75   60 45  
120 
65 54
 62    161 154 126
58 70 43   27 35 50 27  
Therefore,  +  =  89 93 120 70 
 57 65 71 94  55 66 65 44   
    112 131 136 138 
 81 87 91 93   75
 68 70 51  
 156 155 161 144 
Matrices of the same dimensions are added by adding corresponding elements. For
instance, aij corresponds to bij because they both lie in the ith row and jth column of their
respective matrices. Therefore, you would add, aij + bij to obtain the (i, j)th element of
A + B. Similarly, matrices of the same dimensions (sizes) are subtracted by subtracting
corresponding elements. Therefore, if
7 6 1
 4 − 6    23 − 6 
   5 8 1  
A=  0 12  , B =  2 12 0  and C =  11 17 
 − 53 27     5 28 
  9 5 0  
 
A and B cannot be added or subtracted, because their sizes are not the same. But A and
C can be added, and the sum equals to
 27 − 12   −19 0
   
A + C =  11 29  and A – C =  −11 −5  .
 − 48 55   −18 −1 
  
Once the students can add matrices, the next important point is identifying and
verifying properties of matrix addition and subtraction. To this end, you can let them
do Activity 6.3.

 14 − 4  14 − 4 
a. ( A + B) + C =  , b. ( A + B) + C =  
 3 10   3 10 
Hence, (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 2
c. A− A =   = 0, d. A + 0= + = = A
0 0 3 4 0 0 3 4
 7 − 1  7 − 1
e. A + B= , f. B + A= 
1 5  1 5 
Hence, A + B = B + A
The purpose of this Activity is to verify some properties of matrix addition. They are:
1. A+B=B+A
2. A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
3. A−A=0
4. A+0=A
Note:- 0 denotes the zero matrix having the same size as A.
Let the students verify these properties by using the matrices given in the activity. Give
them additional group activities, if necessary. But, explain to them that they can prove
that, say, A + B = B + A in general by looking at the general (i,j)th element of each side
of the equation. The (i,j)th element of A + B is aij + bij and the (i,j)th element of B + A is
bij + aij. Therefore, using the commutative law of addition for real numbers,
A + B = B + A.
You can also guide the students to see if these properties also hold true for subtraction
where the commutative property fails to hold. That is, A − B ≠ B − A.
To assess their understanding of addition and its properties, give to the students matrices
of different sizes and ask them to check if they can be added or subtracted together.
Let them add or subtract those that can be added or subtracted.
Following their practices on adding and subtracting matrices, you can proceed to
multiplying a matrix by a scalar by letting the students do Activity 6.4. The purpose of
this activity is to prepare students for the definition of scalar multiplication of matrices.
To multiply a matrix by a scalar r, the students must know that they have to multiply
each entry or element of the matrix by r.
 2 5
Thus, if A =   , and r = −5,
 − 2 0
 − 5 × 2 − 5 × 5   − 10 − 25 
−5A =   =  .
 − 5 × −2 − 5 × 0   10 0 
In the activity, guide the students to write the matrix of the marks. Let them denote it
by M. Let them give the resulting matrix after the marks are converted. Explain to them
that the resulting matrix is denoted by 2M.
The marks of Nigist and Hagos (out of 100) in their examinations are given below.
Nigist Hagos
English 37 × 2 = 74 31 × 2 = 62
Mathematics 46 × 2 = 92 44 × 2 = 88
Biology 28 × 2 = 56 25 × 2 = 50
 74 62 
 
The resulting matrix is 2M =  92 88 
 56 50 
 
After discussing the definition and doing examples given in the student textbook, let the
students work Activity 6.5 in groups. This activity will help the students to verify the
properties of scalar multiplication, i.e. distributive properties, associative property and
multiplication by 0 and 1.
The properties the students are expected to verify and learn are the following:
If A and B are matrices of the same order (size) and r and s are any scalars (i.e.
real numbers), then:
a. r(A + B ) = rA + rB b. (r + s) A = rA + sA
c. (rs)A = r(sA) d. 1·A = A and 0·A = 0

 0 −7 0 
a. −7( A + B) =  
 −56 21 −14 
 0 −7 0
b. (−7 A) + (−7 B) =  
 −56 21 − 14 
Hence, −7 ( A + B) = (−7 A) + (−7 B).
 28 − 28 28 
c. (−7 × 4) A = −28 A =  ,
 −168 56 28 
 28 −28 28 
d. ( −7 ) × ( 4 A) =  
 −168 56 28 
Therefore, (−7 × 4) A = −7(4 A) .
 3 −3 3 
e. (−7 + 4) A = −3 A =  ,
 −18 6 3 
 3 −3 3
f. − 7 A + 4 A =  
 −18 6 3 
Therefore, (−7 + 4) A = (−7 A) + 4 A.
 −1 1 −1 
g. 1A =   = A,
 6 − 2 − 1
 0 0 0
h. 0A =  =0
 0 0 0
Assessment
You can assess the understanding of the students by giving them Exercise 6.1 as
homework. You can assign problem 7 in Exercise 6.1 to high achievers. The rest of the
questions can be given to all the students. Let the students complete the exercise and
check their solutions. At this stage, you can give students a test or a quiz on the concepts
covered so far. The questions should focus on definition of a matrix, size or order of a
matrix, equality of matrices, and addition and subtraction of matrices and their properties.

1. a. 9 b. 2 c. 9 d. 51
2. a. 2×2 b. 2×3 c. 3×2 d. 1×3 e. 1×1
3. a. 1, –4, 1 b. 0, 1, 71, 4
 a11 a12 a13 a14 

   1 − 1 − 3 − 5 
4.  a 21 a 22 a 23 a 2 4  =  4 2 0 − 2
a a 32 a 33 a 3 4   7 5 3 1 
 31
 − 3 2 − 2  5 − 2 − 2   −10 6 − 4 
   2 0 
5. a. b. c.  
 0 3 6   1  −1 7 15 
 −3 2 − 2   −10 6 −4 
d.  0 3 6 
e.  
  −1 7 15 
 −5 9 
4 2 2 
2 −3 5   
C =  −1 2 3  7 
13
6. a. b. 3
2 2 
 −1 1 2   
 
 3 1
4 
2 2 
 295 371  797.5 1002.5 
7. a.  398 331  b. The matrix of sell is  
  1094.5 918 
Thus, from the boys they raised 1800 Birr. From the girls they raised 2012.50 Birr. In
Kebele 1, they raised 1892 Birr. And the total amount raised is 3812.50 Birr.
When you make sure that students have well understood addition and subtraction of
matrices, the next point of interest will be multiplying matrices.
Start matrix multiplication by considering column vectors and row vectors. Thus,
1 
 
a. (3 5 1)  2  = (17) or 17, while
 4
 
1   3 5 11 
   
b.  2  (3 5 11) =  6 10 22 
 4 12 20 44 
   
In a) a 1 × 3 is multiplied by 3 × 1 matrix resulting in a 1 × 1 matrix ( a number).
In b) a 3 × 1 matrix is multiplied by a 1 × 3 matrix. The result is a 3 × 3 matrix.
Students can decide whether two matrices can be multiplied with each other by
observing their sizes and then can find the product when possible.
Students might find matrix multiplication difficult to understand. The definition is not
easy to grasp. So, give the students as many examples as needed. They also easily make
arithmetic mistakes. Since the purpose is not to develop the calculating power of the
students, it is not necessary to give them large matrices to multiply; rather drill them by
giving them many examples of small sized matrices.
When you multiply a 1 by 3 matrix by a 3 by 4 matrix, you get a 1 by 4 matrix. This
pattern will always hold when you multiply. When we multiply matrices, the middle
numbers must be the same. The following picture expresses the requirements on the
dimensions:
To make sure that they have understood the definition, give them matrices such that
 4 
 2 − 1  
1. Multiplication is impossible, like,   with  − 2 
3 0   23 
 
2. Multiplication is possible like:
 4   4 
   
a.  − 2  with (7 − 8) b. (2 11 − 5) with  − 2 
 23   23 
   
 4  4 7 
    4 3 − 5 7
c.  − 2  with (2 11 − 5) d.  1 − 2  with  
 23  1 3  3 2 8 9
   
Ask the whole class questions like:
- Tell which of the given pairs can be multiplied with each other by seeing
their size.
- If a pair can be multiplied, what will be the size of a product?
- Give the product of each pair, if possible.
Let the students think by themselves and then do group discussion and finally share
what they did to the whole class. When they share, let a group representative go to the
board and do it. You can use their performance as a formative assessment and give
them some more problems to work on, if necessary. To help you do so, you can give
them Activity 6.6. The purpose of this activity is to prepare the students for the
definition of multiplication of matrices.

a. A1 B1 = 3 × 5 + 2 × 2 + 0 × 2 = 15 + 4 + 0 = 19
b. A1 B 2 = 3 × 3 + 2 × 4 + 0 × 1 = 9 + 8 + 0 = 17
c. A1 B 3 = 3 × 3 + 2 × 2 + 0 × 2 = 9 + 4 + 0 = 13
d. A2 B1 = 2 × 5 + 1× 2 + 1 × 2 = 10 + 2 + 2 = 14
e. A2 B 2 = 2 × 3 + 1 × 4 + 1 × 1 = 6 + 4 + 1 = 11
f. A2B3 = 2×3+1×2+1×2 = 6 + 2 + 2 = 10
 19 17 13 
Therefore, AB =  .
 14 11 10 
Right after they perform Activity 6.6, you can form groups of students and let them do
Activity 6.7. This is designed to help the students realize the properties of matrix
multiplication. Multiplication of matrices is associative, left as well as right distributive
over addition of matrices. In this activity, these properties are illustrated.
Guide the students to check that AB may not be the same as BA, in general, by taking
examples like:
 1 2  − 2 0  6 10   − 2 − 4
A =   and B =   . Notice that AB =   and BA =   .
 − 1 3   4 5   14 15   − 1 23 
Thus, AB ≠ BA.
 1 2   −2 0   3 − 4    1 2   −6 8   18 − 14 
a. A ( BC ) =      =    = 
 −1 3   4 5   0 1    −1 3   12 − 11   42 − 41
 1 2  −2 0    3 −4   6 10  3 −4   18 −14 
b. ( AB ) C =     =  = 
 1 3  4 5    0 1   14 15  0 1   42 −41 
Therefore, A( BC ) = ( AB)C.
 1 2    −2 0   3 −4    1 2  1 −4   9 8 
c. A( B + C ) =   +  =   = 
 −1 3    4 5   0 1    −1 3  4 6   11 22 
9 8 
d. AB + AC =  
 11 22 
Therefore, A( B + C ) = AB + AC.
 1 − 4   1 2   5 − 10 
e. (B + C ) A =   = 
 4 6   −1 3   −2 26 
 5 − 10 
f. BA + CA =  
 −2 26 
Therefore, ( B + C ) A = BA + CA.
Another important idea in the study of matrices is transposition. The transpose of a
matrix can be simply considered as a change of roles of row and column. But, to let
students practice by themselves, you can give them Activity 6.8. The purpose of this
activity is to verify some properties of transpose of a matrix. Before reading the
properties, guide the students to work the activity in groups.

1 0 
( AT ) =  0 1 4  = A
T   T 1 2 3
a. A = 2 1 b.
3 4  
 
1 0   3 0  T 3 0 
T     T 3 6 9   
c. 3A = 3 2 1  =  6 3  d. (3 A) =   = 6 3 
 3 4   9 12   0 3 12   
     9 12 
Therefore, 3 AT = (3 A)T .
9 9 9 9
e. ( AB)T =   f. BT AT =  
 6 3  6 3
Hence ( AB)T = BT AT
To help the students practice more, you can give them the following questions as an
assignment.
Question 1 Based on the given matrices, perform (when they are possible) the
operations listed below.
5 5 2  7 1 − 6 8
     
A =  1 0 − 6  , B =  9 4 4  , C = (3 1 2) , and D =  1 
3 3 8   2 10 9   5
     
a. 4C b. AD c. DA d. BC
e. 3CB f. C (A + B) g. AB h. BA
T
i. CAD j. DBC k. AD + (CB) l. DC
m. CD
Solution:
a. 4C = 4 (3 1 2) = (12 4 8)
5 5 2  8   55 
b. AD = 1 0 −6  1 =  −22 
   
 3 3 8  5  67 
c. DA is impossible to compute.
d. BC is impossible to compute.
 7 1 −6 
e. 3CB = 3 (3 1 2)  9 4 4  = 3 (34 27 4) = (102 81 12)
 2 10 9 
 5 5 2 7 1 −6  
 
f. C(AB) = (3 1 2)  1 0 −6  + 9 4 4  

  3 3 8   2 10 9  
12 6 −4 
= (3 1 2) 10 4 −2  = (56 48 20)

 5 13 17 
5 5 2 7 1 −6   84 45 8 
g. AB = 1 0 −6

9

4 4 =  −5

 
−59 −60 

3 3 8   2 10 9   64 95 66 
7 1 −6  5 5 2 18
17 −40 
h. BA =  9 4 4 

1

0 −6 =  61

 
57 26 

 210 9  3 3 8   47
37 16 
i. CAD = (CA) . D = 277. But it is impossible that CAD = C.(AD).
j. It is impossible to compute.
 55   34  89 
k. AD + (CB) =  −22  +  27  =  5 
T
 67   4   71
8   24 8 16 
l. DC = 1  (3 1 2) =  3 1 2 
 
5  15 5 10 
8 
m. CD = (3 1 2) 1  = (35).
5 
Question 2 The matrix below expresses the approximate distance, in miles, between any
two of the following four cities: A, B, C, and D.
a. What a special kind of matrix is this (other than square and 4 by 4)?
b. If we want to know the same information in kilometers, what should we do?
Take one mile is equal to 1.6 kilometers.
c. What is the resulting matrix when you perform the operation that you
suggested in part (b)?
You may give high achievers problems of the following type (as an extra work, not for
summative assessment purpose.)
Question 3 Does r(AB) = A(rB) where r is a scalar, A is a 2 by 2 matrix, and B is a 1 by
2 column vector? Explain your answer.
Question 4 Where would you place a parenthesis to minimize the number of
multiplications performed to do this problem? How many simple
multiplications did it take to find T? What is T?
 4  9 
   
T =  5 (8 6 − 1) 6 (1 − 7 8)
 2  − 4
   
Assessment
After the students go through the previous activities and assignments, assess the
students’ understanding of matrix multiplication and transpose, by asking them to do
additional problems. You can also give the students a test or a quiz as a summative
assessment.

9 4 − 3
1. a. AB =   , BA does not exist.
 3 2 − 15 
b. Both AB and BA do not exist
 5 10 5   29 
  12 − 6   
c. AB =  13 14 − 5  , BA =   d.  −10 
 −3 6 15  1 22   −15 
   
 12 − 11
2. a. 3×2 b. C =  −1 − 7  Thus, C32 = 0; C11 = 12; C21 = –1
 12 0 

 −48 44  3
− 1 15   61 − 15 
     
3. –4AB=  4 28  ; AA = 10 3  ; A(AB) =  13 − 4 
 −48 0  00 9   36 0 
  
5 2 2  12 17 
   2 3  12 15 
3 6 0  
4. a. TP =  1 1 =  
 4 4 1    12 16 
   0 0   
 6 0 3   12 18 
The new system is better to rank the teams
b. D stood first, while B stood last
 3 − 1  3 0   6 − 1 
5. A+A = 
T + = 
 0 4   −1 4   −1 8 
 3  3  3
3 2 2   3 2 − 1  6 4 1 
B + B =  2 4 − 2  +  2 4 0  =  4 8 − 2 
T 
 −1 0 1   2 − 2 1   1 − 2 2 
     
T T
Therefore, both A + A and B + B are symmetric.
 cos θ − sin θ  cos θ sin θ 
6. AAT =   
 sin θ cos θ  − sin θ cos θ 
 cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ cos θ sin θ − sin θ cos θ   1 0 
= =  
 sin θ cos θ − sin θ cos θ sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ   0 1
1 0 
Similarly ATA =  
 0 1
7. Suppose A is a square matrix of order n.
Then (A + AT) T = AT + (AT)T=AT + A = A + AT
Hence, A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
 0 −1 4   0 1 −4   0 0 0 
T      
8. a. A+A =  1 0 7  +  −1 0 −7  =  0 0 0 
 −4 − 7 0   4 7 0   0 0 0 
     
⇒ A is skew – symmetric
 0 a −b  0 − a b  0 0 0 
T      
b. B + B =  −a 0 − c  +  a 0 c  = 0 0 0 
 b c 0   −b −c 0   0 0 0 

⇒ B is skew-symmetric
9. Let A be a square matrix. Then,
(A–AT) + (A – AT)T = A – AT + AT–A
= A – A + AT – AT
=0
10. The diagonal elements of A and AT are the same.
If A is a skew – symmetric then
A + AT = 0
⇒ 2aii = 0, for each diagonal element aii, i = 1, 2, …, n
⇒ aii = 0
Thus, the diagonal elements are zero.
6.2 DETERMINANTS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Competencies
• determine the determinant of a square matrix of order two.
• determine the minor and cofactor of a given element of a matrix.
• calculate the determinant of square matrix of order 3.
• describe the properties of determinants.
Vocabulary: Determinant, Minor, Cofactor
Introduction
Determinant is defined for a square matrix. The determinant of a square matrix is a real
number that is assigned to the matrix according to certain rules. The determinant gives
you valuable information about the matrix. In this sub-unit, determinants of only 1 by 1,
2 by 2 and 3 by 3 matrices are treated.
Teaching Notes
The symbols det(A) and |A| represent the determinant of A. Remind the students that the
straight bars do NOT mean absolute value; they represent the determinant of the matrix.
The determinant of a 1 by 1 matrix is simply the element of the matrix. When the size of
the matrix is more than 3 or 4, the calculation of the determinant can be involved. In
such cases, it is better to use the properties of determinants rather than the definition, as
much as possible.
a c
While defining determinants of 2 by 2 matrices, remind students that   and
b d
a c
are different. The first one is a matrix (not a number) and the second one is a
b d
determinant (which is a real number).
Guide students to note that every 2 by 2 matrix has a determinant (This is also true for
any square matrix). First, let the students try to calculate the determinant of some
square matrices (2 by 2) and understand the definition. Then guide the students to work
Activity 6.9. The purpose of this activity is to let the students identify and verify some
of the properties of determinants. Some of the properties of determinants are:
- determinant of a matrix and its transpose are equal.
- determinant of a product is equal to product of the determinants.
A more complete list of properties of determinants is given after Group Work 6.1.
1. a. A = 3 − 2 = 1, b. B = 10 − 3 = 7, c. AT = 1.
 −9 1
2. AB =  .
 2 −1
Then AB = 7 and also A B = 1× 7 = 7
Hence, AB = A B
 2 3
3. A+ B =  .
4 1
Then A + B = −10 and A + B = 1 + 7 = 8
⇒ A+ B ≠ A + B
Once the students become capable of calculating determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix and

verify its properties, you can as well proceed to discuss the determinant of a 3 by 3
matrix. To define determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix, first define minor and cofactor. Then
give them some 3 by 3 matrices and ask them to find the minors and cofactors of their
entries. Then define the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix. Give them sufficient examples
to work through. In the students’ textbook, the determinant of a 3 by 3 matrix is
calculated by use of minors and cofactors which is a general rule for calculating
determinants of any squared order. But, for only 3 by 3 matrix, the following approach
can also be used to calculate determinants.
Example: Calculate the determinant of the matrix
 2 1 0
 
A= 1 1 4
 −3 2 5 
 
To calculate such a determinant:
1. Write the first two columns beside the third column.
2. Multiply and add the triple numbers presented left to right.
3. Multiply and add triple numbers presented right to left.
4. Subtract result of (2) from result of (3).
5. The resulting number is the determinant.
Solution:
 2 1 0 2 1
 
1. A= 1 1 4 1 1
 −3 2 5 − 3 2 
 
 2 1 0 2 1
2. A =  1 1 4 1 1  Multiply these and add
 −3 2 5 − 3 2 
 
(−3)(1)(0) + (2)(4)(2) + (5)(1)(1) = 21
 2 1 0 2 1
 
3. A =  1 1 4 1 1  Multiply and add.
 −3 2 5 − 3 2 
 
(2)(1)(5) + (1)(4)(-3) + (0)(1)(2) = −2
4. A = −2 − 21 = −23
Example2: The figures below give two ways of finding determinants of 3 by 3
matrices. Encourage your students to explain how they work.
You can give various exercises for the students to practice calculating determinant of a
matrix. Pursuant to their ability of calculating matrices, it will be essential to study
properties of determinants. Before telling them anything, guide the students to work
Group Work 6.1 by forming groups. The group work will help them to study properties
of determinants. Once they go through the group work, give them some examples on the
properties.

1. a. A= 17, AT= 17 b. A=AT
2. a. B= −17 b. B= −A
3. a. C= 85 b. C=5A
4. a. D= 17 b. D= A
The Group Work activity verifies further properties of determinants. You need to give
students some more similar examples so that they can become comfortable in using the
properties. You can give them examples of the following kind.
Example1. Let a, b, c, d∈ ℝ and

a b
= 4 . Determine the value of each of the
c d
following.
3a b 3a 3b
a. b.
3c d 3c 3d
2. Let A be a 3×3 matrix. If │A│ = 21, what is │5A│?
3. Evaluate each of the following.
a d a a b e
a. b e b b. c d f
c f c a b e
4. Show that
1 1 1
a b c = (b − a )(c − a )(c − b)
a b2 c2
2
1 −2 3 1 1 1
5. Find t if a. t 3 2 =0 b. t 1 t =0
6 1 t 1+ t 2 3
6. Find the following determinant using both methods:
5 7 3
−2 8 5
7 9 2
Solution:
3a b
1. a. = 3(ad − bc) = 3(4) = 12
3c d
3a 3b
b. = 9(ad − bc) = 9(4) = 36
3c 3d
2. 5A = 5 A = 5(21) = 105
a d a
e b b b b e
3. a. b e b =a −d +a
f c c c c f
c f c
= a (ec − bf) −d(bc − bc) + a(bf − ce) = 0
a b e
d f c f b d
b. c d f =a −b +e
b e a e a b
a b e
= a (de − bf) −b(ce − af) + e(bc − ad) = 0.
1 1 1
b c a c a b
4. a b c =1 2 2
−1 2 2
+ 2
2 2 b c a c a b2
a b c2
= bc2 − b2c − ac2 + a2c + ab2 − ba2
= (a2c + bc2 − abc − ac 2 − a2b + b2c − b2a + abc)
= c (a2 + bc − ab − ac) − b(a2 − ab + bc − ac)
= (c −b) (a2 + bc − ab − ac)
=(c −b) (b − a) (c − a).
1 −2 3
3 2 t 2 t 3
5. a. t 3 2 = 1 + 2 + 3 =0
1 t 6 t 6 1
b 1 t
= 3t − 2 + 2 (t2 − 12) + 3 (t − 18) = 0
⇒ t2 + 3t − 40 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation yields t = −8 or t = 5.
1 1 1
1 t t t t 1
b. t 1 t =1 −1 + 1 =0
2 3 1+ t 3 1+ t 2
1+ t 2 3
= 3 − 2t − (3t − t(1 + t)) + 2t − (1 + t) = 0

⇒ t2 − 3t + 2 = 0
Solving the quadratic equation gives
t = 1 or t = 2.
Now the students are ready to do Exercise 6.3. You can give them the Exercise as
homework or as a group work and they can present their work in class.
Here are some additional examples
1. Evaluate the determinant of A.
 3 1 4
 
A =  −6 −2 −8 
1 5 −7 

2. Give the minors and cofactors of the entries −2, 5 and −7 of A.
3. Use the properties to find the following determinants.
1 −2 3 1 −5 2
a. 2 3 −2 b. −4 −1 5
3 1 −1 3 −4 3
Solution:
3 1 4
−2 −8 −6 −8 −6 −2
1. −6 −2 −8 = 3 − 1 + 4
5 −7 1 −7 1 5
1 5 −7
= 3(14 + 40) − (42 + 8) + 4 (−30 + 2)
= 162 − 50 + 112 = 0.
3 4
2. Minor of (−2) = = − 21 − 4 = − 25
1 −7
Cofactor of (−2) = (−1)2+2 (−25) = −25
3 4
Minor of (5) = = −32 + 24 = −8
−6 −8
Cofactor of (5) = (−1)3+2 (−8) = 8
3 1
Minor of (−7) = = −6 + 6 = 0
−6 −2
Cofactor of (−7) = (−1)3+3 (0) = 0.
1 −2 3
3 −2 2 −2 2 3
3. a. 2 3 −2 = 1 +2 +3
1 −1 3 −1 3 1
3 1 −1
= −3 + 2 + 2 (−2 + 6) + 3(2 − 9) = 14
1 −5 2
−1 5 −4 5 −4 −1
b. −4 −1 5 = 1 +5 +2
−4 3 3 3 3 −4
3 −4 3
= −3 + 20 + 5 (−12 − 15) + 2(16 + 3) = − 80

You can challenge the high achievers by giving them matrices with orders 4 by 4 and
ask them to find their determinants by using the properties, like:
Example
a. Show that each of the following holds:
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1
3 1 4 5 r 1 1 1
1. = 60 2. = (1 − r ) 3 .
7 6 1 2 r r 1 1
1 1 3 4 r r r 1
1+ a a a a
b 1+ b b b
3. = 1+ a + b + c + d
c c 1+ c c
d d d 1+ d
log 100 2
b. Evaluate
log 10 3
c. Show that in the xy plane an equation of the line that contains the two points (a, b)
x y 1
and (c, d) is given by a b 1 = 0
c d 1
Solution:
1 1 2 1
1 4 5 3 4 5 3 1 5 3 1 4
3 1 4 5
a. 1. =1 6 1 2 − 1 7 1 2 + 2 7 6 2 − 7 6 1
7 6 1 2
1 3 4 1 3 4 1 1 4 1 1 3
1 1 3 4
= 1(−5) − (−10) + 2 (45) − 35 = 60
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 r 1 1 r 1 1 r 1 1
r 1 1 1
2. =1 r 1 1 − 1 r 1 1 + 1 r r 1 − 1 r r 1 .
r r 1 1
r r 1 r r 1 r r 1 r r r
r r r 1
= (1 −2r + r2) − (0) + 0 − (r3 − 2r2 + r)
= 1 −2r + r2 − r3 + 2r2 + r
= −r3 + 3r2 − 3r + 1
= (r2 − 2r + 1) (1 − r) = (1 − r)3.
1+ a a a a
1+ b b b
b 1+ b b b
3. = (1 + a ) c 1 + c c
c c 1+ c c
d d 1+ d
d d d 1+ d
b b b b 1+ b b b 1+ b b
− a c 1+ c c +a c c c −a c c 1+ c
d d 1+ d d d 1+ d d d d
= (1 + a) (1 + d + c + b) − a(b) + a(−c) −a(d)
= 1 + a + b + c +d
log100 2
b. = 3log100 − 2log10 = 4
log10 3
c. Given the points (a, b) and (c, d)
To find equation of the line,
y −b d −b
= .
x−a c−a
⇒ (y − b) (c − a) − (x − a) (d − b) = 0.
⇒x(b − d) − y(a − c) + ad − bc = 0
x y 1
Thus, the equation of the line is given by a b 1 = 0.
c d 1
Assessment
You can assess their understanding of the definition and properties of determinants, by
giving them 2 by 2 and 3 by 3 matrices and asking them to calculate their determinants
individually or in groups. You can also let them give the minors and cofactors of
matrices. Give students matrices, in which they are asked to apply properties of
determinants, as given in Exercise 6.3.

1. a. –32
b. –13
a −b a
c. = a2 – b2 – a2 = –b2
a a+b
2x x
2. a. = 0 ⇔ 2x2 – 4x = 0
4 x
⇒2x (x –2) = 0 ⇒ x = 0 or x = 2
2 − 2 1
b. x 1 0 = 1 ⇔ 2 (2) – x (–4 – 1) +3 (–1) = 1
3 1 2
⇔ 4 + 5x – 3 = 1 ⇔ 5x + 1 = 1 ⇒ x = 0
x +1 2 1
1 2 1 2 1 1
c. 1 1 2 = 0 ⇔ ( x + 1) −2 + =0
1 x x − 1 x x −1 1
x −1 1 x
⇔ (x + 1) (x –2) –2 (x – 2x +2) + (1 – x+1) = 0

⇔ x2 – x – 2 + 2x – 4 +2 – x = 0
⇔ x2 – 4 = 0 ⇒ x = 2 or x = –2
1 3
3. a. C32 = (–1)3+2 = –(3 – 27) = 24
9 3
1 3
b. C22 = (–1)2+2 = –1
0 − 1
1 2
c. C23 = (–1)2+3 = = –3
0 3
1 x y 1 x y
a− x b− y
4. a. 1 a b = 0 a− x b− y =
c −x d −y
1 c d 0 c− x d − y
= (a –x) (d–y) – (c–x) (b–y)
= ad – ay – dx + xy – (bc – cy –bx + xy)
= ad – ay –dx +xy – bc +cy +bx − xy
= (ad – bc) – dx + cy +bx – ay
b. Let the straight line pass through (a, b) and (c, d)

y −b d −b
= ⇒ (y–b) (c–a) – (d – b) (x–a) =0
x −a c−a
⇒ yc – ya – bc + ab + ad – dx + bx − ab=0
⇒ (ad – bc) – (dx – cy) + ( bx – ay) =0
a b x y x y
⇒1 −1 +1 =0
c d c d a b
1 x y
⇒ 1 a b = 0
1 c d
x t +w x t x w
5. a. = xs+xu – (yt +yw) = (xs – yt) + (xu – yw) = +
y s+u y s y u
a + rb b a b
b. = (a + rb)d – b(c+rd) = ad + rbd – bc – brd = ad – bc =
c + rd d c d
1 a b +c 1 a b+c
c. 1 b c +a = 0 b - c c + a - b - c
1 c a +b 0 c-a a +b-b-c
b − a a − b
= (b –a) (a – c) – (c–a) (a – b)
c − a a − c
= (ab – bc – a2 + ac – (ac – cb – a2 + ab)
= (ab – bc – ac – a2 – ac + bc + a2 – ab) = 0
6.3 INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX

Competency
• determine inverse of a square matrix.
Vocabulary: Inverse, Invertible, Singular, Non-singular, Adjoint
Introduction
In this subunit, the students will learn how to find inverses of some square matrices.
Finding inverses of square matrices, whenever they exist, is important in solving
systems of linear equations. When students work to find inverses of non – singular
matrices, they do lots of arithmetic. In the process, they may make arithmetic
mistakes. Guide them to check whether or not they have found the correct inverse
matrix by multiplying the given matrix and the matrix they have found. If they have
found the correct matrix, the product will be the identity.
Teaching Notes
In this sub-unit, students will learn how to find inverses of non-singular matrices.
The important facts you need to stress here are that non - square matrices have no
inverses. This means, if a matrix is not a square, students should conclude that it has
no inverse. Moreover, A is non-singular ⇔ │A│ ≠ 0. Thus, if A  = 0, then since A
is singular, they need not try to find the inverse.
To practice these and reach a conclusion (generalization), you can let the students
form pairing and do Activity 6.10. When they do the activity, you may go round the
groups and assist them to reach some generalization. Remind them to check their
answers.
In the activity, if they have calculated B to be the inverse of A, then they need to
check that AB = BA = I. If this is not the case, then they have to recheck their
calculations.
As the students do Activity 6.10.d, ask them to find the determinant of the given
matrix B. They will getB = 0. Give them some more 2 by 2 matrices whose
determinant is zero and ask them to check if they were invertible. Let them generalize.

a. AI2 =A b. I 2A = A
a b  − 3 2  a b   1 0
c. Let C =   . Then,    =  
c d   1 − 1 c d   0 1 
 − 3a + 2c − 3b + 2d   1 0 
⇒   =  
 a − c b − d   0 1 
 − 1 − 2 
Solving this gives you, C =  
 −1 − 3 
e f 
d. If there is a D =   such that BD = I 2 , then
g h 
 6 2   e f   6e + 2 g 6 f + 2h  1 0 
  = = 
 3 1   g h   3e + g 3 f + h   0 1
6e + 2 g = 1  6 f + 2h = 0
⇒  and 
3e + g = 0 3 f + h = 1
But, the system has no solution. Hence, there is no such a matrix D.

In previous lessons, students have known about cofactors and transpose. Here they will
discuss adjoint which is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors. Class Activity 6.11 helps
to impress these points and use each in determining inverse of a matrix. The purpose of
this activity is to prepare the students for the definition of inverse of a square matrix. The
definition gives meaning to inverse of a matrix and a student can use it for checking
whether or not a matrix, he or she has found by using adjoint and determinant, is indeed
the inverse. However, you need to be cautious that usually students tend to take the matrix
of cofactors to represent the adjoint instead of the transpose of the matrix of cofactors.
The activity also helps to show that the inverse of a matrix, if it exists, can be found
using the adjoint and determinant of the matrix. Showing that this is always the case for
any non-singular matrix is beyond the scope. But, in the activity, the students will do it
for the case of 2 by 2 matrix.
 a b   d − b
Once students find that adj   =   , then
c d  − c a 
 a b   d − b   ad − bc −ab + ab   ad − bc 0 
    =   = 
 c d   − c a   cd − cd ad − bc   0 ad − bc 
1 0 a b 1 0
= ad − bc  =  
 0 1 c d  0 1
 a b   d − b a b  1 0
⇒     =
c d  − c a  c d  0 1 
 a b  1  d −b   1 0 
⇒   = 
 c d  a b  −c a   0 1 
c d
Therefore, ‫ିܣ‬ଵ =
1  d −b 
.
a b  −c a 
c d

a b  1+1 1+ 2
1. For A =   , we have c11 = (−1) d = d , c12 = (−1) c = −c,
c d 
c21 = (−1)2+1 b = −b and c22 = (−1)2+ 2 a = a .
T
 d −c  d −b 
Therefore, adj A =   = .
 −b a   −c a 
 ad − bc 0   1 0  a b 1 0 
2. ( A) ( adj A) =   = (ad − bc )  =  
0 − bc + ad   0 1 c d  0 1
a b 
3. a. Let A−1 =  −1
 . Then AA = I 2
 c d 
 5a − 3c 5b − 3d   1 0  5a − 3c = 1 5b − 3d = 0
⇒ = ⇒ and 
 4a + 2c 4b + 2d   0 1  4a + 2c = 0 4b + 2d = 1
1 3 
 11 22 
Solving this gives you: A−1 =  
 −2 5 
 
 11 22 
2 3  1
b. adj A =   c. A = 22 d. ( adj A) = A−1
 −4 5  det A
After the students have performed the activity and have done some more examples, it
will be useful to see one strong property of inverse presented as theorem 6.2 in the
student textbook. To help you assess the students’ understanding, you can let them work
on Exercise 6.4. Encourage them to do it in groups and check their answers.
You may give high achievers the following kinds of problems:
1 2 k 
a. Find k such that  3 −1 1  is singular.
 5 3 −5 
 
b. Show that if A is non-singular then AT is also non-singular. They might
answer it by comparing Aand AT.
a b  e g
c. Verify that (AB)T =BT AT, for A =   and B =  .
c d  f h
d. Using c) above show that if A is invertible then ( AT ) −1 = ( A−1 )T .
Assessment
In addition to what has been mentioned above, assessment of the students’ understanding
of the concept discussed in this sub-unit should be done on the following points:
- Given a square matrix, is it invertible or not? (They can check this by
calculating the determinant. If the determinant is 0, then it is not invertible.)
- Given two matrices, can they check if they are inverses of each other or not?
- Can they state and prove properties of inverses?
- Can they find inverse of a matrix by finding minor and cofactor?

 1 0 2  − 11 2 2  1 0 0
    
1.  2 − 3 3  − 4 0 1  = 0 1 0 = I
 4 1 8  6 − 1 − 1  0 0 1 
    
Hence the two matrices are inverses of each other.
 4 9   3 −1 5 
 −2 5 5   14 14 14 
3 −5     
2. a.  2 2  b.  3
−4 −14 
c.  5 3 −1 
   5 5   14 14 14 
 −1 2    
 −1 1 6   −1 5 3 

 
 5 5   14 14 14 
3− k 6 
3. A=  
 2 4−k 
A is singular if │A│ = 0.
3−k 6
Now = 0 ⇒ (3 – k) (4–k) – 12 = 0
2 4−k
⇒ 12 – 3k – 4k + k2 – 12 = 0 ⇒ k2 – 7k = 0
⇒ k = 7 or k =0
When k = 1,
 −1 
 1 
 2 6  2
A=   ⇒ A–1 =  
2 3   1 −1 
 
 3 3 
cosθ 0 −sinθ 0
4. c11 = (–1) 1+1 = cos θ , c12 = (–1)3 = sinθ
0 1 0 1
−sinθ cosθ sinθ 0
c13 = (–1) = 0, c21 = (–1)3 = −sinθ
0 0 0 1
cosθ 0 cosθ sinθ
c22 = = cosθ , c23 = (–1)-5 =0
0 1 0 0
2 2
c31 = 0, c32 = 0, c33 = cos θ + sin θ = 1
cos θ 0 − sin 0
│A│= cos θ − +1
0 1 0 1
= cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1
 cosθ − sinθ 0 
 
Hence adj (A) =  sinθ cosθ 0 
 0 0 1 

1
–1  
⇒ A = adj (A) =  sinθ cosθ 0 
A 0
 0 1 
Also, A =  sinθ
T
cosθ 0 

0 0 1 

–1 T
∴ A =A
 −1 7  1 6 7
5. (AB) =   ⇒ (AB)–1 =  3 − 1
 −3 6  −6+21  
2 −7 
5 15 
⇒ (AB)–1 =  
1 −1 
 
5 15 
 4 −3 
1  4 − 3  5 5 
A–1 =   =  
5  −1 2   −1 2 
 
 5 15 
 1 −2 
1 1 − 2   3 3 
B–1 =  = 
3 1 1   1 1 
 
3 3 
 4 −3  1 −2  6 −7  2 −7 
1  5 5  3 3  1  15 15  5 15 
⇒ B–1A–1 =    =   
15  −1 2  1 1  15  3 −1  1 −1 
     
 5 15  3 3   15 15  5 15 
∴ (AB)–1 = B–1A–1
6. AB = AC ⇒ A–1 (AB) = A–1 (AC)
⇒ (A–1A) B = (A–1A) C
⇒ B=C
2 3  1 2
If A is singular, this may fail. Take B =   and C =  
1 4  −1 1 
0 0 
An obvious choice is A =  
0 0 
⇒ AB = AC, but B ≠ C
6.4 SYSTEMS OF EQUATIONS WITH TWO OR

THREE VARIABLES
Competencies
• find associated augmented matrix of equations.
• perform elementary operations on matrices.
• solve systems of equations in two or three variables using the elementary
operations.
Vocabulary: Linear equation, System of linear equation, Homogeneous, Non-
homogeneous, Coefficient matrix, Constant vector, Variable vector,
Augmented matrix, Elementary row operations
Introduction
Systems of linear equations have many applications. For instance, they are used to give
mathematical models of traffic flows and electrical networks. In grade 9, students have
discussed solving systems of linear equations in two variables. The students already
know how to find solutions of linear systems with two equations and two variables,
using substitution or elimination methods. Gauss’ method is a systematic application of
the elimination method. In this subunit, the students will learn how to find solutions of
systems of linear equations by using elementary row operations (Gauss method).
What is important here is that they have to use matrix representation of coefficients and
the constants (the augmented matrix), and also use the properties of operations on
matrices to apply the row operations.
Teaching Notes
Start the section by revising the substitution and elimination methods. Gauss’ method
which will be discussed in this section is the elimination method which is done by using
matrices. Gauss’ method, as we discuss it here, is just changing the augmented matrix of
a linear system to an upper triangular matrix and then solving the system using back-
substitution.
Changing the system to upper triangular matrix is done by expressing the system into
echelon form (This is Gauss’ method). On the other hand, if we change the system into
reduced echelon form (a modification by Jordan and hence Gauss – Jordan method), we
do not need to use back substitution.
The basic rules for the students to follow are:

1. Change the augmented matrix (A: B) into echelon form. To change the system
into echelon form, you use elementary row operations. There are three of them:
swapping, rescaling, and pivoting. We use them to transform the system into an
upper triangular matrix and, starting from the bottom, we substitute back into the
variables and find the solution, if they exist.
2. In echelon form or reduced echelon form, if a row of the form (0, 0,…0, b,) with
b ≠ 0 appears, then the system does not have a solution.
3. If there is a row (or rows) of all zeros at the bottom and there are more variables
than non-zero rows, the system has infinite solutions.
4. Otherwise, the system has a unique solution.
As an entry to the discussion, you can let each student individually do Activity 6.12. In
solving a system of linear equations, we may need to transform the system to another
system of linear equations that have the same solution with the original system of linear
equations. The purpose of this activity is to illustrate this idea and help the students
revise what they studied in grade 9.
a. S.S = {(3, 2)} b. S.S = {(3, 2)} c. S.S = {(0,1)}
When the students revise these ways of solving systems of equations, help them to
systematically understand forming equivalent systems that are helpful in getting
solutions. Application of raw operations is the way used to form equivalent systems of
equations. They also need to know how useful it is to present a system of equations in a
form of augmented matrix. Let the students do more examples similar to the ones
presented in the student textbook to help them practice augmented matrix representation
and use of elementary raw operations. By doing so, they will also gain more experience
in solving systems of equations.
You can give high achievers problems of the following kind.
1 4 3
a. Solve the following systems of linear equations
‫ۓ‬ + − =4
ۖ ‫ݏ‬ ‫ݑ ݐ‬
2 3 1
− + =1
‫ݑ ݐ ݏ ۔‬
ۖ−3 2 2
‫ ݏ ە‬+ ‫ ݐ‬+ ‫ = ݑ‬−3
b. Give the restrictions on the real numbers a and b such that the following
system has
i. no solutions ii. a unique solution
‫ ݔ‬− 2‫ ݕ‬+ 3‫ = ݖ‬4

iii. infinitely many solutions
൝2‫ ݔ‬− 3‫ ݕ‬+ ܽ‫ = ݖ‬5

3‫ ݔ‬− 4‫ ݕ‬+ 5‫ܾ = ݖ‬
c. Find the value of a for which the following system is consistent and solve
‫ݔ‬+‫=ݕ‬1
the system for this particular a:
൝ ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ܽ = ݕ‬
ሺ1 + ܽሻ‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ = ݕ‬3
‫ ݔ‬+ ሺܽ − 3ሻ‫ = ݕ‬0
For which a does the homogeneous system ൜
ሺܽ − 3ሻ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬0
has a non-zero solution?
Assessment
To assess students’ progress and ability of solving systems of linear equations, give
them systems of linear equations and guide them to
a. determine the augmented matrix of the system of linear equations.
b. find solutions of the system using the method they have now learned.
c. identify the type of solutions they have found.
Let students do the problems in groups, check their answers and give them feedback.
Answers to Exercises 6.5

1. a. R1 → –3R2 + R1 or R1 → –3R3 + R1
1
b. R1 → R2 + R1
8
 −1 
 5 0 −1 R → 1 R 1 0 5 
2. a.   1 51  
 −1 1 0     →  −1 1 0 
0 1 4 0 1 4 
   
 
 −1   −1 
1 0
5  1 0 5 
R →R +R    
R 3 =R 3 −R 2  −1 
→  0  
2 1 2 −1
      1 → 0 1
 5   5 
   
0 1 4   0 0 21 
  
   5 
 1
1 0 − 
5  5
R → R 1
→  0 1 − 
3 3
  21 
 5
0 0 1 
 
 
 1 − 1 1 5  R 2 → − 4R 1 + R 2 1 − 1 1 5
b.          →  
 4 8 1 6 0 12 − 3 − 14 
 1 − 1 3 − 6  R 2 → −5R1 + R 2  1 − 1 3 − 6
         →  
c.  5 3 − 2 4        0 8 − 17 34 
→ 
 1 3 4 11 
 
R → −R 1 + R 3 0 4 1 17 
3
1 1 − 1 3 − 6 
R → R  
2 8 2  −17 17 
   → 0 1
 8 4
0 4 1 17 

 
1 −1 3 − 6
R → −4 R + R  
3   
2  3→  −17 17 
 0 1
 8 4 
 19 
0 0 0
 2 
 5 −1 −4 
1
 3 5 −1 −4  R →1 R  3 3 3 
  3 → 
1 1
3. a.  2 5 4 9    2 5 4 9 
 −1 1 −2 11   −1 1 −2 11 
   
 
 5 −1 −4   
1 3 3 3  1 0 −5 5 
   
R 2 →−2R1 +R 2  5 14 −19  R1→R1− R 2  5 14 −19 

R 3→R 3 +R1 → 0  → 0
3 3 3   3 3 3 
  
 0 8 7 29  0 8 −7 29 
− 
 3 3 3   3 3 3 
   
1 0 5 
−5  1 0 −5 5 
−8  R 3→ −5R 3 
R 3→ R 2+ R 3  
5 14 −19  14 −19 
3
 →0 49
→ 0 1 
 3 3 3   3 3 
 −49 99   −99 
0 0   0 0 1 
 5 5   49 
 −250 
1 0 0 49 
 
R 1→5R 3+ R1
 
→ 0 1 0
13 
 7 
R 3→ −14 R 3+R 2  
5  0 0 1 99 

 49 
 1 2 1 R →R +R
2 → 1 2 1
  2   1 
  
b.  −1 0 2  0 2 3
      →  
 2 1 − 3  R → −2R + R
  3 1 3 0 − 3 −5 
 
R →R −R  
1  
1 
2→
 R3 → 3 R2 + R3  1 0 − 2  R → −2R
2 →  0 1 3  3   
3→
   →
1  2 
R → R
2  1
2 2 0 0 − 
 2
 1 0 − 2  R → 2R + R
1  3  1 → 1 0 0
 3   
0 1        →  0 1 0
 2  3 0
0 0 1 
 R →− R +R  0 1 
2 2 3 2
a b   x e 
4. a. AX = B ⇔    = f
c d   y  
b. Suppose A is non singular. Then A–1 exists
⇒ A–1(AX) = A–1B ⇒ (A–1A)X = A–1 B
⇒ X = A–1 B
 4 3 
  7 7 
−
2 3 4  1  4 − 3
 17  ⇒ A =
–1
c. A= 
4 
and B =  = 
5   −7  −5 2   5

2
− 
 7 7
 −4 3 
 7 7  4   5
⇒ X = A–1B =     =  
 5 −2   17   −2 
 
 7 7 
 2 − 2 12  R →R +R
2→ 
2 − 2 12 
 −2 2   1 
3 10  0 1 22 
5. a. 
 
Thus, y = 22,
2x – 2 (22) = 12 ⇒ 2x = 12 +44 = 56
⇒x = 28
Therefore, x = 28, y=12
 2 − 5 8  R 2 → −3R1 + R 2  2 −5 8
b.  6 15 18         →  
  0 30 − 6
−1 −1 7
Thus, 30y = –6 ⇒ y = ⇒2x – 5 ( ) = 8 = x =
5 5 2
 x 3y
 3 + 5 = 4
c. 
 x − y = −3
 6 2
1 3   9 
4  9  1 12 
3 5 R1 → 3R1 1 12  R2 → –R1+R2 5
  5  
R2 → 6R2   0
− 3 − 18  − 30 
1 −24
− 3 
−1
 1 
6 2   5 
−24 −30 × 5 25 25 9  25 
y = 30 = y = = ⇒y= ⇒x+   =12
5 −24 4 4 5  4 
45 48 − 45 3 3 3
⇒ x = 12 − = = ⇒ ⇒x=
4 4 4 4 4
1 − 3 1 − 1 1 − 3 1 − 1
   
d. 2 1 − 4 − 1 R3 → –6R1 + R3  0 7 − 6 1
6 − 7 8 7   0 11 2 13 
 
 −11 −4 
1 1 − 3 1 −1  1 0
7 7 
R2 →
7  −6 1
 R1 → 3R2 + R1  
0 1  −6 1 
 7 7 R3 → –11R2 + R3  0 1
7 7 
 0 11  
 2 13   0 80 80 
0 
 7 7 
 −11 −4 
7 1 0
R3 → R3  7 7  1 0 0 1
80    
0 1
−6 1
0 1 0 1
 11
7  R1 → 0

7
 7
R3 + R1
 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 
 
 
Hence, x = 1, y = 1 and z = 1
 4 2 3 6 
 
e. Using  2 7 − 3 0  we get
 −3 − 9 2 − 13 

−91 68 98
x= , y = ,z =
11 11 11
6. Construct the augmented matrix
2 −4 6  3
  (Use R2 → R1 + R2)
0 0 9 + c 2
Now, for the system to have infinite solution
9 + c = 0 ⇒ c = –9
There will be only one equation 2x –4y = 6
Solving for x = 3+2y, the solution set will be
{(3 + 2y, y): y∈ ℝ }
This is an infinite set.
1 2 −3 5
7. The augmented matrix is  2 − 1 − 1 8 

k 1 2 14 

R2 → –2R 1+ R2  1 2 −3 5 
 
0 −5 5 −2 
R3 → kR1 + R3  0 1 − 2k 2+3k 14 − 5k 

R2 →
−1
R2 1 2 −3 
5
5  
0 2 
1 −1
 5 
0 1 − 2k 2+3k 14 − 5k 

 
1 2 −3 5 
 
R3 → (2k–1)R2+R3 0 2 
1 −1
 5 
 68 − 21k 
0 0 3+k
 5 
Hence, the system has a unique solution if k + 3 ≠ 0.
An alternative way is to use the fact that the system has a unique solution, if │A│≠ 0
1 2 −3
−1 − 1 2 −1 2 −1
2 −1 −1 = 1 −2 + −3
1 2 k 2 k 1
k 1 2
= (−2 + 1) − 2(4 + k ) − 3(2 + k )
= –1 – 8 – 2k – 6 – 3k
= –5k – 15
Now │A│≠ 0 = –5k –15 ≠ 0
⇒ k ≠ –3
8. Inserting the points (0, 4) and (2, 16) into the equation cx + dy = 2,
4d = 2

2c + 16d = 2
1
Gives d = = 2c = 2 – 16d = 2 – 8 = –6
2
⇒ c = –3
Hence, the straight line is
y
–3x + =2
2
9. At the point (1, 9) we get a + b +c =9
At the point (4, 6), we get 16a + 4b +c =6
At the point (6, 14), we get 36a+ 6b + c = 14
a + b + c = 9

Thus, we get a liner system 16a + 4b + c = 6
36a + 6b + c = 14

a = 1, b= –6 and c =14
Hence, the function is y = x2– 6x +14
6.5 CRAMER’S RULE

Competency
• apply Cramer’s rule to solve systems of linear equations.
Vocabulary: Cramer’s rule
Introduction
In this sub-unit, another alternative way of solving system of linear equations, called
Cramer’s rule will be discussed.
Teaching Notes
When the coefficient matrix of a system of linear equations A is such that │A│ ≠ 0, and
A is a 2×2 or a 3 × 3 matrix, Cramer’s Rule can effectively be used. To solve AX= B
where matrix A is of order more than 3 use of Cramer’s rule is impractical due to the
large number of calculations that are required. Gauss’ method is preferable in these
cases. Besides, Cramer’s Rule does not work when │A│ = 0.
For 2 by 2 case the rule can also be derived as follows:
 ax + by = e a b
Suppose you want to solve  , and A = ≠ 0.
cx + dy = f c d
a b  x e
Then the system is AX = B, where A =   , X =   and B =   .
c d   y f
a b
In this system A-1 exists since ≠ 0.
c d
By multiplying both sides by A-1, we get X = A−1B, but,
 de − bf 
1  
x 1  d − b  
e 1  de − bf   ad − bc 
A–1= adj(A)⇒   = A−1B =    =   =  
A  
y ad − bc  − c a  
f ad − bc  af − ce    af − ce 

 ad − bc 
e b a e
de − bf f d af − ce c f
⇒x= = and y = =
ad − bc a c ad − bc a c
c d c d
which gives a solution to the system of linear equations. This rule is called Cramer’s rule.
This rule is valid for any system of linear equations in so far as the coefficient matrix is
square. But, the repeated calculation of determinants may be tiresome.
Let the students do more examples as homework or assignment.
Before winding up of the unit, it is advisable to let the students know that there is an
alternative way to find inverses of non-singular matrices. We will show it by an
example. But, before that, let us state two facts:
1. If matrix A is non-singular then, when we change it to reduced echelon form,
we get the identity matrix.
2. If A is non-singular and A is augmented with an identity matrix of the same
order i.e., (A : I), then when the augmented matrix is changed into reduced
row echelon form we get (I : A-1) i.e.
 a11 a12 a13 

If A =  a21 a22

a23  is non-singular, and when the matrix
a a32 a33 
 31
 a11 a12 a13 . 1 0 0 
 
 a21 a22 23 . 0 1 0  is transformed into reduced echelon form to find
a a32 a33 . 0 0 1 
 31
 1 0 0 . b11 b12 b13   b11 b12 b13 
  −1  
 0 1 0 . b21 b22 b23  then, A =  b21 b22 b23  .
0 0 1 . b b32 b33  b b33 
 31  31 b32
You may give exercises on these methods, like the following ones:
 3 2 1
 
1. Check if the matrix  6 − 4 0  is non-singular.
0 1 1
 
2. Find the inverse of the following matrix by using elementary row
operations.
 1 2 − 1
 
2 4 0 
 0 1 − 3
 
so that the students can use X = A−1B as solution to a system of linear equations. This
way of finding inverse follows the application of raw operations.
Assessment
Guide students to discuss the rule in groups and give them problems to solve using
Cramer’s rules. The review exercises below provide some problems to do. You can
assess their understanding of the rule by giving them home works and tests as well.

4 5 −3 4
6 2 8 − 30 22 7 6 −18 − 28 46
1. a. x= = = , y= = =
−3 5 −6 − 35 41 −3 5 −6 − 35 41
7 2 7 2
0 1 4 0
7 −6 7 1 7 28
b. x= = , y= =−
4 1 25 4 1 25
1 −6 1 −6
5 2 −1 3 5 −1 3 2 5
−15 − 1 3 1 − 15 3 1 − 1 − 15
−28 1 7 2 − 28 7 2 1 − 28
c. x= = −1 , y = = 2, z = = −4
3 2 −1 3 2 −1 3 2 −1
1 −1 3 1 −1 3 1 −1 3
2 1 7 2 1 7 2 1 7
5 3 0 2 5 0 2 3 5
6 0 3 1 6 3 1 0 6
11 5 −1 −14 0 11 − 1 73 0 5 11 68
d. x= = , y= = , z= =
2 3 0 9 2 3 0 27 2 3 0 27
1 0 3 1 0 3 1 0 3
0 5 −1 0 5 −1 0 5 −1
= –6 – 35 = –41 ≠ 0.
−3 5
2. a.
7 2
Hence, the system has a solution
0 5 −3 0
0 2 0 7 0 0
x= = = 0 and y= = =0
−3 5 −41 −3 5 −41
7 2 7 2
3 2 −1
b. 2 1 1 = 26 ≠ 0
1 −2 −1
0 2 −1 3 0 −1 3 2 0
0 1 1 2 0 1 2 1 0
0 −2 −1 5 0 −1 5 −2 0
x= = 0, y= = 0, z = =0
26 26 26
1. a = 2, d = –1 , e = 3
 10 15 20   6 0 10   4 15 10 
2. 5A – 2B =  0 20 30  −  10 6 4  =  −10 14 26 
    
 25 40 45   0 8 14   25 32 31 
     
 15 16 
 
3. a. AB =  − 2 7  b. Does not exist because B3×2 and A3×3.
 16 32 
 
 2 15 
 
c. BC = 14 10  d. CB does not exist.
 −4 0 
 
 68 
e.   f. XT CCT = ( 223 –24)
 −14 
g. Since BTA is 2×3 and –2B is 3×2, they do not have the same order.
Hence, BTA – 2B does not exist.
 29 29 
h. XTX = (113) i. BTB + 4C =  
 1 38 
1
4. a. 25% = . To find the answer, multiply the matrix
4
 300 400 500 600 
 
 500 400 700 750  by 1.25. Thus, we get
 400 400 600 500 
 
A B C D
Beef meat 375 500 625 750
Tomato 625 500 875 937.5
Soya Beans 500 500 750 625
 300 400 500 600   45 60 75 90 
   
b. 0.15  500 400 700 750  =  75 60 105 112.5 
 400 400 600 500   60 60 90 75 
   
Thus, the new order is 85% of the original. Thus, she ordered
A B C D
Beef meat 255 340 425 510
Tomato 425 340 595 637.5
Soya beans 340 340 510 425
Kelecha Alemu
1 1 
 Hammer 1 1  
5. a.  Saw 1 2 
Hence, I = 1 2 
 2 3 
 Nails 2 3   

 30 35 7 
b. P=  
 28 37 6 
1 1 
 30 35 7     79 121 
c. PI =    1 2 =  
 28 37 6 
2 3   77 120 
 
This means
Kelecha Alemu
Shop 1 79 121
Shop 2 77 120
d. Kelecha’s cost at shop 1 is 79 Birr, while Alemu’s cost at shop 2 is 120 Birr
e. They should buy from shop 2.
 0 −3 −4   0 m 4   0 −3 + m 0   0 0 0 
       
6. A + A =  m 0 8  +  −3 0 −8  =  m − 3
T
0 0 = 0 0 0
 4 −8 0   −4 −8 0   8
     0 0   0 0 0 
Now, A + AT = 0 = m – 3 = 0 ⇒ m = 3
T
 A + AT  1 T T T 1 T A + AT
7. a.   = ( A + ( A ) ) = ( A + A) = is symmetric.
 2  2 2 2
T
A − AT  A − AT  A − AT AT − ( AT )T
+  = +
2  2  2 2
A − AT AT − A
= + =0
2 2
A + AT A − AT
⇒ is symmetric, while is skew– symmetric.
2 2
4 3.5
8. a. = −55.5 b. –94
−7 −20
a b  ra rb 
9. A=  ⇒ rA =  
c d  rc rd 
ra rb a rb a b
Thus rA = =r = r2 = r2 A
rc rd c rd c d
b+c a c c c c
10. (a + b) −a +b
b c+ a b c+ a b+c a
= (a + b) bc + ba + c 2 + ca − ab  –ac (a + c − b) + bc(a − b − c)
= (a+b)(bc+ ac+c2 ) − a2 c − ac 2 + abc+ abc −b 2c − bc 2
= abc+a 2c+ac 2 +b 2c+abc+bc 2 − a 2 c − ac 2 + abc +abc–b2c–bc2

= 4abc
3x − 1 3 3
11. a. = ⇒ −9 x + x =
x −3 2 2
3
⇒ −8x =
2
−3
⇒ x=
16
−3 −x
b. = 15 ⇒ –12 + 3x2 = 15
3x 4
⇒ 3x2 = 27 ⇒ x2 = 9
⇒ x= ±3
 1 1 1
− 8 2
−
4
 
12. 1 0 −
1
4 2
 
1 − 1 5 
8 4 
 2
 0 −1 5  1 3 −2 
   
13. 1 3 −2 R1 ↔ R2 0 −1 5 
2 1 4  2 1 4 
 
1 3 −2  R2 → –R2 1 3 −2 
R3 → –2R1 +R3    
 0 −1 5  0 1 −5 
0 −5 8  0 − 5 8 
 
R3 → 5R2 +R3  1 0 13 
1 1 0 13 
  R3 → – R3  
0 1 −5  17 0 1 −5 
R1 → –3R2 +R1  0 0 − 17  0 0 1 
 
1 0 0 
R1 →−13R3 + R1  
0 1 0 
R2 → 5R3 +R2 0 0 1 

1  a 1
3 − a 1 R1 → R1 1 − 3
14.   3 3
 
b 6 
4 6
b 4
 a 1  a 1 
1 −
3 3   1 −
3 3 
R2 → –bR1+R2  = 
0 ab b  12 + ab 18 − b 
 4+ 6−  0 
 3 3  3 3 
12 + ab
a. The system has only one solution if ≠ 0 ⇒ ab ≠ –12
3
12 + ab 18 − b
b. The system has no solution if = 0 and ≠0
3 3
2
⇒ ab ≠ –12 and b = 18 ⇒ a ≠ −
3
c. The system has infinite solution if ab = –12 and b = 18
2
⇒ a= −
3
 
3 −2 1 b 
3 −2 1 b −5  
  R2 → R1 +R2 0 14 22 9 − 5b 
15. 5 −8 9 3  3 −
2  3 3 3 
a − 1  −2
 −2b − 3 
 1 R3 → R1 +R3 7 −2
3 0 a 
 3 3 3 
 
3 −2 1 b 
R2 →
−3
R2  
14 0 − 11 5b − 9 
1
 7 14 
 7 3a − 2 −2b − 3 
0 
 3 3 3 
 
3 −2 1 b 
−7  
R3 → R2+R3 − 11 5b − 9 
3 0 1
 7 14 
 1 − 3b 
0 0 a+3 
 2 
1 1
a. a ≠ –3 b. a = –3, b= c. a = –3, b ≠
3 3
 1 2 − 1 12  R2 → –2R1 +R2 1 2 −1 12 
   
16.  2 −1 − 2 2  0 −5 0 − 22 
 1 − 3 k 11  R3 → –R1 +R3 0 − 5 k +1 − 1 
  
1 2 −1 12 
R3 → −R2+R3  0 − 5 0

− 22 

0 0 k +1 21 

When k = –1, 1 + k = 0 and the system has no solution.
17. a. x =1, y = 1, z = 1
 2+ β −β 5
R2 → R1+R2  2+ β −β 5
b.    
−β 1+ β 0 2 1 5
1
R2 → R2  2 + β −β 5 R1 ↔ R2  1 5 
2   1 2 2 
 1 1 5   

 2 2   2+β − β 5 
 1 5 
1 2 2 
R2 → –(2 + β ) R1+R2  
0 −2 − 3β 5 
 − β
 2 2 
5β 5β 5
⇒ y= and x+ =
2 + 3β 4 + 6β 2
5 5β 10 + 15β − 5β
⇒ x= − = =x
2 4 + 6β 4 + 6β
10 +10 β 5 + 5β
⇒ =
4+ 6β 2+ 3β
7 1 2 7
0 −2 3 0
18. a. x= = 2 and y = =3
2 1 2 1
3 −2 3 −2
1 4 −1 −1 1 − 1 −1 4 −1
0 −1 1 2 0 1 2 −1 0
1 1 1 −1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 4
b. x= = , y= = , and z = =
−1 4 − 1 5 −1 4 − 1 5 −1 4 − 1 5
2 −1 1 2 −1 1 2 −1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 3   1
5 1 −  − 5 
5
   
=   . Hence 
1 1 2 
19. A–1 0 –1
x=A B=
5 5   5 
   
− 3 −1
7   4 
   
 5 5   5 
THE SET OF
UNIT
7 COMPLEX
NUMBERS
INTRODUCTION
The main task of this unit is to extend the real number system to another new number
system called complex number system. In this introduction part, you are required to see
to it that the students discuss the development of number systems. For example, the
extension of: whole numbers to integers; integers to rational; and rational to real number
system. In this way, the students will realize the need for the new number system. The
students also learn how to represent the new numbers in the system and calculate in it.
Thus, you are expected to create experiences that engage students and support their own
explanation, evaluation, communication and application of the mathematical models
needed to make sense of these experiences. Thus after the students conduct the
discussion thoroughly, familiarize them with the notation of complex numbers and
enable them to represent and calculate with complex numbers.
Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, students will be able to;
• know basic concepts about complex numbers.
• know the general principle of performing operation on complex numbers.
• understand facts and procedures in simplifying complex numbers.
• show the geometric representation of complex numbers on the Argand
plane.
227
Suggested teaching aids in Unit 7

You know that students learn in a variety of different ways. Some are visually oriented
and more inclined to acquire information from photographs or videos. Other students do
very well when they hear instructions rather than read them. Teachers use teaching aids
to provide these different ways of learning. It is, therefore, recommended that you may
use models of planes and charts for this unit. You can also use instruments for drawing
graphs like squared paper, ruler and compass.
7.1 THE CONCEPT OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Competencies
• define a complex number
• identify the real and imaginary parts of a given complex number.
• determine the equality of two complex numbers.
• describe the set of complex numbers and its relation to the set of real
numbers.
Vocabulary: Imaginary number, Complex number, Real part, Imaginary part
Introduction
When you introduce the notion of complex numbers, you should make clear to the
students that an equation has a solution depending on the domain of the variable. They
should note that the need for extending a number system is mainly to be able to solve an
equation that cannot be solved in the present system.
Teaching Notes
Complex numbers originate from a desire to extract square roots of negative numbers. If
we want square roots of negative numbers, it is enough to introduce i = − 1 . Once
you introduce this assumption to the students, for instance using examples like,
−4 = − 1 4 =2i, then you can define a complex number x + yi, and state the
set of complex numbers:
ℂ={x + yi : x, y ∈ℝ, i = − 1 }.
Since any real number b can be written as b + 0i, therefore, ℝ ⊆ ℂ. Hence ℂ is an
extension of ℝ.
Unit 7 – The Set of Complex Numbers 229
Equality in ℂ is defined by x + yi = u + vi if and only if x = u and y = v.

Students might wonder why they need this extension to another number system, while
they have many of them already. Give the students some quadratic equations to solve.
Give them the necessary orientation and guidance to enable them observe that the
quadratic equations with negative discriminants have no solution in the set of real
numbers, while they have solutions in the set of complex numbers. In ℂ, one can solve
any quadratic equation. It is also true that every number has a square root in ℂ (while, as
you know, some numbers have no square roots in ℝ).
To illustrate what we mean here, suppose
1 + 2i = x + yi
⇒1 + 2i = x 2 + 2 xyi − y 2 (squaring both sides)
⇒ x 2 − y 2 = 1 and 2 xy = 2
1
⇒ x2 − = 1, inserting the second equation in the first.
x2
1± 5
Solving this quadratic equation, we get x 2 = .
2
1+ 5
For real x, we have to take, x 2 =
2
1 2 5 −1
⇒ y2 = 2
= =
x 1+ 5 2
This gives you that
1+ 5 5 −1
1 + 2i = +i
2 2
Every complex number has a square root, and existence of square roots means that
quadratic equations can always be solved.
Once you discuss the definition, give students Exercise 7.1 as homework, and check
their work. Encourage them to go to the chalk board and do some of the problems. You
can assign question 2 to high achievers, while all can do the rest of the questions.
With this background, you may start this section by opening problem as given in the
student textbook. After having discussed the openingproblem, you introduce the new
number called “imaginary number” denoted by i and read as “iota” which stands for
− 1 . Having this new notation now, you can define what a complex number is, its
form, set of complex number; and characterize equality of complex numbers as given in
the student textbook.
Assessment
Use the opening problem to assess the background of students. In this opening problem,
you can ask them whether a quadratic equation has always a real root. You can give
homework and class-works and assess students by checking their exercise books on this
issue.You can also you use Exercise 7.1.

1. a. −i b. 1 c. −i
d. 1 e. 1 f. i
g. 1 h. −i
1 if n is even
2. i 2n = 
− 1 if n is odd
i if n is even
i 2 n+1 = 
− i if n is odd
3.
Complex number Real part Imaginary part
a 3 − 5i 3 −5
7 7 7
b 5 + 2i 2 5 2 2
c 7+0 i 7 0
d 0 + 5i 0 5
−1
4. a. x = 2 and y = b. t = 7 and y = −5
4
5. a. 3 = 3 + 0i b. − 7 = −7 + 0i
c. 0 = 0 + 0i d. 13 = 13 + 0i
6. From Exercise 7.1 (5), we observed that every real number r can be written as
r = r + 0i and hence every real number can be expressed in the form of a + bi.
7. Yes. From Exercise 7.1 (6), we can conclude that the set of real number is a subset
of the set of complex numbers.
7.2 OPERATIONS ON COMPLEX NUMBERS

Competencies
• add complex numbers.
• subtract complex numbers.
• describe the closure property of complex numbers.
• describe the commutative and associative properties of complex numbers.
• identify the additive identity of a complex number.
• identify the additive inverse of a complex number.
• determine the product of complex numbers.
• describe the basic properties of multiplication of complex numbers.
• identify the multiplicative identity of a complex number.
Vocabulary:Commutative, Associative, Distributive, Identity
Introduction
The purpose of this topic is to systematically extend the four operations on the set of
real numbers to the set of complex numbers. Before defining addition and subtraction
on the set of complex numbers, try to check the experiences of the students on adding
and subtracting terms involving variables by asking them questions.
Teaching Notes
You may use Activity 7.1 to introduce the notion of addition and subtraction of complex
numbers. First, give the students chances to do activity 7.1 and see the experiences of
students on how to add terms in the expressions. After that, you may summarize
experiences in adding terms like (3– 5x) + (6 + 7x). You may explain how they do it by
combining similar terms in the expressions. For example, if we were to simplify the
expression (3 – 5x) + (6 + 7x) by combining similar terms, then the constant 3 and 6
would be combined to yield 9, and the terms ( –5x) and (7x) would be combined to yield
2x; and the simplified form is
(3 − 5 x ) + (6 + 7 x) = (3 + 6) + ( −5 x + 7 x) = 9 + 2 x

This Activity is intended to make students aware of the properties of the set of complex
numbers with respect to the operation addition.
a. 7x –4y b. –3x+6y c. 8 –2k d. –8 + 2h
In a similar fashion as in the case of the above activities, we combine like terms (the
real part to the real part and the imaginary part to the imaginary part) in complex
numbers to add or subtract. For instance, given two complex numbers z1= 3 + 4i and
z2 = 5 + 2i to find z1 + z2 we add 3 and 5 together (the real parts) and add 4 and 2 (the
imaginary parts) to get 8 + 6i; and to find z1 –z2: we subtract 5 from 3 (the real parts)
and 2 from 4(the imaginary parts) to get –2 + 2i. After having done this,let the students
discuss how these operations are done and what their properties look like.You can group
the students and let them do Group Work 7.1. As a prelude to this discussion, we can
consider the following:
The set of complex numbers given by
ℂ={x + yi :x, y∈ℝ, i = − 1 } is closed under addition.

This means, if we add two complex numbers, the result is a complex number.
Besides, + is commutative and associative and 0 = 0 + 0i is the identity for +. The
inverse of z = a + bi with respect to addition is –z = –a + -bi.
To verify one of them, ∀a + bi, c + d i, e + fi inℂ,
a + bi + ((c + di) +(e + f i)) = a + bi + ((c +e) +( d + f )i)
= (a + (c +e)) +(b + (d + f ))i
= ((a + c) + e) +((b + d) + f )i
= (a + c) + (b + d )i + (e + f i)
= ((a + bi) + (c + di)) + (e + f i).
Thus, addition is associative on the set of complex numbers.
Answer to Group Work 7.1
You are required to guide students discuss the group work. After the group discussion,
you can summarize important points of the discussion as follows:
a. The set of complex number is closed under addition.
b. Addition is commutative on the set of complex numbers.
c. Addition is associative on the set of complex numbers.
d. The number 0 is the additive identity in the set of complex numbers.
e. For any complex number z,its additive inverse is –z.
Assessment
Use Activity 7.1and Group Work 7.1 to assess the background of students. You can
give homework, class-works and assess students by checking their exercise books.

1. a. 0+11i b. 6 + 2i c. 2 + 8i d. 4 − 23i
e. 1− i f. −1 + i g. 0+i h. − 3 + 2i
2. a. x = 7 and y = 3 b. x = 8 and y = 10
−8 −19 −5
c. x= and y = −4 d. x= and y =
7 2 4
After you make sure that students have understood addition and subtraction of complex
numbers, you can proceed to discuss multiplication and division. For this purpose,first
you let each student do Activity 7.2 for discussing multiplication since it is assumed that
the students have the background from previous grades and sessions.
The activities are very important to the necessityof the definition of multiplication on
the set of complex numbers. Thus, you may help the students to come to the definition
of the product of two complex numbers. Make the students aware that the students’ that
they need not memorize the definition,but that they just get the result simply by
multiplying like terms containing variables. But, in this case, the variable is i which is
simplified by using the notation i 2 = −1 .

1. a. a2+2ab+b2 b. a2–b2
c. 2x2+xy –15y2 d. x3+3x2+x+3
2. a. 3–i b. –19+61i c. 25 d. –7+ 24i
After having done this, let the students discuss how these operations are done and what
their properties look like.You can group the students and let them do Group Work 7.2.
This group work is intended to make students aware of the properties of the set of
complex numbers with respect to the operation multiplication. For illustration,
The set of complex numbers given by
ℂ={x + yi :x, y∈ℝ, i = − 1 } is closed under multiplication.

This means, if we multiply two complex numbers, the result is a complex number. The
operation of multiplication, “×” is also commutative and associative, and “×” is
distributive over “+”. 1 = 1 + 0i is the multiplicative identity inℂ.
Let us check that × is distributive over + (Since multiplication is commutative we only
check left distributivity):
Let z = a + bi, u = c + di and v = e + f i be complex numbers. Now

z (u + v) = (a + bi)(c + di + e + f i)
= (a + bi)((c + e) + (d + f )i)
= a(c + e) + a(d +f)i + (c + e)bi – b(d + f)
= ac + ae + adi+ afi + cbi + ebi – bd – bf
= ((ac – bd) + (ad + bc)i ) + ((ae – bf) + (af + be)i)
= zu + zv
By using this group work, help the students to come to the conclusion given as answers
to the Group Work.
a. Yes. The set of complex number is closed under multiplication. This is
called product property.
b. Yes. Multiplication is commutative on the set of complex numbers.
c. Yes. Multiplication is associative on the set of complex numbers.
d. Yes. Multiplication is left distributive over addition.
e. Yes. Multiplication is right distributive over addition
f. z1⋅1=1⋅z1= z1. 1 is the multiplicative identity in the set of complex numbers.
When the students discuss multiplication and generate some of its properties, you can
continue to discuss division. To get into discussing division of complex numbers, you
can form groups of students and let them do Group Work 7.3. This group work makes
the students aware of finding multiplicative inverse of a non-zero complex number and,
on the way, enable them to come to the definition of division of a complex number. At
this stage, conjugate of a complex number is not introduced yet.Following the task in
Group Work 7.3, introduce the concept of conjugates and tell students that the concept
of conjugate further simplifies division of complex numbers.
 1  1  1 1 1
1.  2 + 3i  2 − 3i  = 2 + 3i 2 − 3i = 4 + 6i − 6i + 9 = 13
   ( )( )
1  1   2 − 3i 
=   Multiplication by 1
2 + 3i  2 + 3i   2 − 3i 
1  1 
is multiplicative inverse of 2 +3i, because   ( 2 + 3i ) = 1
2 + 3i  2 + 3i 
 2 3i   2 − 3i  13
 −  (2 + 3i) =   (2 + 3i) = =1
 13 13   13  13
2. You can do the same as in (1).
At the end of Group Work 7.3, you may help students to conclude that: for any non-zero
x y
complex number z = x + yi ,its multiplicative inverse is given by 2 2
− 2 i.
x +y x + y2
At this stage, the four operations are defined and their properties are given. But, you
may need to give students additional exercises to work in small groups. Let them
discuss the solutions of the problems until all agree on the solutions. Then, let them
submit their common answers to you. You may correct the answers and then return the
papers with comments. You can give the comments to each group or bring the difficult
questions to the whole class for discussion. An alternative way is to ask a representative
from each group to go to the board and do some of the problems.
Assessment
To assess the understanding of students, you can give homework or assignments or quiz
that can be done individually or in groups, that ask students to give examples of
complex numbers. Let them identify the real and imaginary parts of a complex number.
Ask them to solve equations of the form x2+ 6x + 25 = 0.
Ask them questions based on equality of complex numbers like:
If x + 2yi = -x2 -2x − + 6i, then give the real and imaginary parts of x + yi.
You can also ask them to simplify powers ofi, like, 2i30 – 5i25 + i2.
Give them problems on addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of complex
numbers.Check if they can expand (z + w)2 , (z – w)2, (z + w)3 and (z – w)3 .

1. 2 + 14i 2. 12 + 6i 3. 34 − 13i
12 5
4. 5−i 5. 0 − 2i 6. − i
13 13
7. 6 + 8i 8. 1+ i 9. 0−i
2 3 13 11
10. − i 11. + i 12. 3+ i
13 13 29 29
7.3 COMPLEX CONJUGATE AND MODULUS

Competencies
• determine the conjugate of a given complex number.
• find the modulus of any given complex number
• use conjugates in the division process.
• describe basic properties of conjugates and modulus.
Vocabulary:Conjugate, Modulus
Introduction
In this subunit, the students are expected to learn about conjugates and modulus of
complex numbers. Since they are already aware of the operations and their properties,
you can make them reach at conjugates and modulus by doing activities presented in the
student textbook.
Teaching Notes
In order to present this topic, it would be advisable to let the students do Activity 7.3
which may help you to assess their pre-instruction background. Let them observe that
the product of such complex numbers is always real. Based on this, give the meaning of
complex conjugates. After that, go through the examples which are given in the
textbook and in Example 2, help the students fill in the two columns in the table which
is left as an exercise.
Help the students to do Activity 7.4 by themselves and guide them to discover those
properties which are given in Theorem 7.1 of their textbook. The purpose of this activity
is to verify various properties of the complex conjugate. Let the students go through this
activity, before they try the proofs of Theorem 7.1 and Theorem 7.2 (Understanding that
a proof is very important for their latter learning). Therefore, let the students present the
proofs of the two theorems on the board. Do not let them directly copy the proofs from
the textbook, but let them express the proofs in their own words.
a. 3–4i b. 5+2i c. 8–2i d. 8+2i
7 26
e. 8–2i f. 23–14i g. 23–14i h. − i
29 29
7 26
i. − i j. 3+4i k. 5–2i
29 29
Activity 7.4 verifies the theorem; but now let them take any generic complex number
z1 = a + bi and z2 = c + di and follow the method they used in Activity 7.4 to prove the
theorem. We will show two of them here:
Let z1 = x1 + y1i and z2 = x2 + y2i.
Then z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + x2 ) + i ( y1 + y 2 ) = (x1+x2) – i(y1+y2)
= (x1 – iy1) + (x2 – iy2) = z 1 + z 2
Similarly,
 z1   x1 + iy1   ( x1 + iy1 )( x 2 − iy 2 ) 
 = 
 z   x + iy  =  ( x + iy )( x − iy ) 
 2  2 2   2 2 2 2 
( x x + y1 y 2 ) ( x 2 y1 − x1 y 2 )
= 1 22 −i
x 2 + y 22 x 22 + y 22
On the other hand,
z 1 ( x1 + iy1 ) ( x1 − iy1 ) ( x1 − iy1 )( x 2 + iy 2 )
= = =
z2 x2 + iy 2 x2 − iy 2 ( x 2 − iy 2 )( x2 + iy 2 )
( x1 x2 + y1 y 2 ) ( x2 y1 − x1 y 2 )
= −i .
x22 + y 22 x22 + y 22
z  z
Thus,  1  = 1 , provided, z2 ≠ 0 .
 z2  z 2
z1 z
You can ask the students to multiply by its conjugate 1 and see the importance of
z2 z2
conjugates.
1 1 a − bi a b
For any z = a + bi ≠ 0, = = = 2 2
− 2 2
i = z −1 .
z a + bi ( a + bi)( a − bi ) a + b a +b
z1 z1 z 2
Thus, for any z1 and for any z2 ≠ 0, =
z2 z2 z2
One of the important features of complex conjugate is to facilitate division.Like
rationalization in simplification of expressions of real numbers, we multiply the
denominator and numerator of any given complex expression by the conjugate of the
denominator to get the complex expression simplified. You can illustrate this by taking
several examples like example 3 given in student textbook under this topic.
Having discussed this, define modulus (or absolute value) of complex number.And then,
there are properties of modulus and conjugate given as Theorem 7.2.Guide the students
to verify the theorem and understand the proofs which are given in the student textbook.
Afterwards, you can form groups of students and let them do Exercise 7.4. Give them
question number 3 as an assignment to help them develop their own generalization.
Assessment
In addition to the formative assessments you used during instruction, you can give
assignments, test/quiz to assess students understanding. You can also ask students to
give the conjugate and modulus of complex numbers and ask them to prove some of the
properties of conjugate and modulus. Give them problems to find inverses of non –
zero complex numbers and also to divide a complex number by a non – zero complex
number. They can do the problems in groups or individually
2 3 22 7 2 19
1. a. − i b. − i c. + i
13 13 13 13 29 58
2 11 −7 22 1 13
d. + i e. + i f. − i
25 25 41 41 17 17
−5
g. + 7i h. 8 − 6i
2
2. a. 5 b. 10 c. 50 d. 50
e. They are equal
f. z1 + z2 = 97 , z1 = 5 , z 2 = 10 implying z1 + z 2 = 15 .
Therefore, z1 + z 2 < z1 + z 2 .
g. z1 − z2 = 153 , z1 = 5 , z 2 = 10 implying z1 − z 2 = −5 .
Therefore, z1 − z 2 > z1 − z 2 .
h. z1 − z 2 = −5 , z1 − z2 = −5 = 5 .
Therefore, z1 − z2 < z1 − z2
3. The answer is yes, because
z1 z2 = x 2 + y 2 a 2 + b2
z1 z2 = ( x + yi )(a + bi ) = xa − yb + (ay + bx)i
= ( xa − yb)2 + (ay + bx )2
= x 2 a 2 + y 2b 2 + a 2 y 2 + b 2 x 2
= x 2 (a 2 + b 2 ) + y 2 (b 2 + a 2 ) = ( x 2 + y 2 )(b 2 + a 2 )
7.4 SIMPLIFICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Competency
At the end of this sub-unit, the students will be able to:
• write the simplified form of expressions involving complex numbers.
Vocabulary:Simplification
Introduction
The students are expected to know the four operations and their properties, the
conjugate of a complex number and its properties and the modulus of a complex number
and its properties. In this subunit, they will apply their knowledge on the above concepts
to simplify complex numbers.
Teaching Notes
The concept of simplification is not new to the students because they know how to
simplify expressions involving variables. But what makes this simplification different
from other simplifications is the use of the imaginary number i alongside the variables.
In this case, exponents of the imaginary number can be simplified further. At this point,
make the students aware that every equation of the form z2 = w has a solution in ℂ.
In order to start this lesson, you may need to check whether the students can recall and
describe the operations and properties. Afterwards, you can start the subunit by giving
them a revision exercise on the concepts covered so far. Let them do in groups the
revision exercises presented as examples in the student textbook and let some of the
groups present their agreed upon answers to the whole class. Next, discuss some more
examples and the proof of Theorem 7.3. You can then give them Exercise 7.5 as
homework. In Exercise 7.5, question number 3, we have considered equations upto
fourth roots only. But, you may encourage able students to find the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th
roots of 1,and make the students generalize for the nth roots of 1.
Assessment
Give students exercise problems on simplification of expressions, and let them present
some of their work on the board. If you decide to give them as group work, let one of
the students present their answer to the whole class.

13 i3 13(3 + 2i) (−i )(1 − i )
1. a. − = −
3 − 2i 1 + i (3 − 2i )(3 + 2i) (1 + i )(1 − i)
13(3 + 2i ) (i + 1)
= +
13 2
i +1 7 5
= 3 + 2i + = + i
2 2 2
5 5 1
b. = =− i
(i − 1) (2 − i) (3 − i) 10 i 2
120 94 31
c. i − 4i + 3i = 1 − 4 ( − 1) + 3( − i) = 5 − 3i
d. (2 + (
−25 − 3 − −216 + 1 + −9 ) ( )) = (2 + 5i − 3 + 6 6 i ) + 1 + 3i
= (8 + 6 6 ) i
1 + 2i 2 − i (1 + 2i) (3 + 4i ) 2 − i i
e. + = + ×
3 − 4i 5 i (3 − 4i ) (3 + 4i ) 5i i
−5 + 10i 2i + 1 1 2 2 1 −2
= + =− + i− i− =
25 −5 5 5 5 5 5
f. i29 + i42 + i = i − 1 + i = 2i − 1
g. i400 + 3i200 + 5i − 3 = 1 + 3(1) + 5i − 3 = 1 + 5i
12i 12
h. =
11i 11
3 3 3
i. ( −12 ) = ( 2i 3 ) = 23 (i 3 ) ( 3) = −24i 3
(3 − 2i) (2 + 3i) 12 + 5i
j. =
(1 + 2i) (2 − i ) 4 + 3i
(12 + 5i ) (4 − 3i )
=
(4 + 3i ) (4 − 3i )
63 − 16i 63 16i
= = −
25 25 25
2. a. z13 = (2 + i )3 = 2 + 11i
− 3 z 22 = − 3(5 −12i) = − 15 + 36i
 1 3 
⇒ z13 − 3 z22 + 4 z3 = 2 + 11i − 5 + 36i + 4  − + i 
 2 2 
(
= −15 + 47 + 2 3 i )
2
4 2
2  1 1   1 1  1 1
b. z = (z
3 3 ) = − − i 3 = − + i 3 = − + i 3
 2 2   2 2  2 2
1 3
c. 3z1 − 4 z2 + z3 = 6 − 3i − 12 − 8i − + i
2 2
13  3
= − +  −11 + i
2  2 
2
 13   3
2
=  −  +  −11 + 
 2  2 
169 487
= + − 11 3 = 164 − 11 3
4 4
z1 z 2 8−i
d. =
z3  1 i 3
− + 
 2 2 
 1 i 3 (8 + 3) (1 − 8 3)i
= (8 − i )  − −  = − +
 2 2  2 2
3. a. z 2 = −4 ⇒ z = ±2i
b. z 2 + 12 = 0 ⇒ z 2 = −12
⇒ z = −12 = ±2 3
−1 ± 3
c. z2 + z +1 = 0 ⇒ z = i
2
d. z3 = − 1 ⇒z3 + 1 = 0
⇒ (z+ 1) (z2−z + 1) = 0
⇒z= −1 or z2−z + 1 =0
1± 1− 4 1 ± i 3
But z2−z + 1 = 0 ⇒z = =
2 2
 1 ± i 3 
⇒ S.S = −1, 
 2 
f. z4 = 1 ⇒z4 − 1 = 0
⇒(z2 − 1) (z2 +1) = 0
⇒z = ± 1 or z = ±2
⇒ S.S = { ±i, ±1}
4. a. 6 b. –6 c. 6i d. 6i
The values in (a) and (b) are different; and the values in (c) and (d) are the same.
5. ab = a b if and only if a and b are nonnegative real numbers.
7.5 ARGAND DIAGRAM AND POLAR

REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS
Competencies
At the end of this sub-unit, the students will be able to:
• describe how to set up the Argand plane.
• plot the point corresponding to a given complex number.
• identify the complex number that corresponds to a given point in the Argand
plane.
• represent a complex number in the polar form.
• determine the modulus and argument of a given complex number.
Vocabulary: Argand diagram (Complex plane), Polar form, Real axis, Imaginary axis,
Argument (amplitude)
Introduction
The main issue in this topic is to associate the Cartesian coordinate plane to complex
numbers. You may begin this lesson by discussing the Cartesian coordinate plane and
particularly how to represent a point in the plane.
Teaching Notes
You can let each student do Activity 7.5 which will help them revise the coordinate
plane and identify points on the coordinate plane.
1. a. They represent different points on the plane and hence ( 2, 3) ≠ (3, 2) .
b. ( a , b ) = (c, d ) ⇔ a = c and b = d
c. (7, 5)
d. Yes; (a, b)+ (c, d)= (a+c, b+d)
2. All points of the form: (x, 0) lie on the x-axis; and (0, y) lie on the y-axis.
After ensuring the revision of the coordinate plane and points on the coordinate plane,
you can form groups of students and let them do Group Work 7.4. The purpose of the
group work is to establish the required one-to-one correspondence between a point on
the coordinate plane and a complex number represented as f : ℝ2 → ℂ, given by
f (x, y) = x + yi.
In the Group Work, they are expected to show that f is one-to-one (question 1) and f is
also onto(question 2). For this purpose, you are required to guide the students to
discover by themselves that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of
points in the plane and the set of complex numbers. After having discussed all these,
discuss the geometric representation, the Argand plane or complex plane and polar
representation of complex numbers. Meanwhile, introduce the concept of real axis,
imaginary axis and the complex plane or the z-plane.

1. It is impossible, since
f ( x, y ) = f ( a , b ) ⇔ x + iy = a + ib
⇔ x = a and y = b
Therefore ( x, y ) ≠ ( a, b ) ⇒ f ( x, y ) ≠ f ( a , b)
2. Yes, x = a and y = b
Since f ( a , b ) = x + iy
⇒ a + ib = x + iy
⇒ a = x and b = y
The students will have a better understanding of the modulus – argument form of a
complex number, if you guide them to revise the angle sum rule and the relationship of
a trigonometric function of an angle and the quadrant in which its terminal side falls.
So discuss some of the following:
cos(α + β) = cos(α)cos(β) – sin(α)sin(β)
cos(α - β) = cos(α)cos(β) + sin(α)sin(β)
sin(α + β) = sin(α)cos(β) + cos(α)sin(β)
sin(α - β) = sin(α)cos(β) – cos(α)sin(β)
Terminal side of angle Sign of cos sin tan cot cosec sec
Quadrant I + + + + + +
Quadrant II − + − − + −
Quadrant III − − + + − −
Quadrant IV + − − − − +
Figure 7.1
z = x + iy is identified with z(x, y), as shown in the figure. This gives us,
y
tan θ = , and r = x 2 + y 2 .
x
r is called the modulus of z and θ is called the amplitude or argument of z. Remind the
students that tan(θ + kπ) = tan(θ), for any integer k. In other words, argument of z
denoted by arg z, is not unique. The students may notice that tanθ is not defined when
(2n + 1)
x = 0. In this case, help them to notice that, arg z = π , for some integer n.
2
To avoid duplication, we can use the angle θ such that − π < θ ≤ π . This angle is called
the principal argument and is denoted by Arg z.
Arg z and Arg z are related by the relationship:
arg z = Arg z + 2kπ, for some integer k.
The students need help in finding Argz; so, you can guide them to calculate it as
follows:
 α , if x > 0
y 
For x≠ 0, if tan α = , then Arg z = π − α , if x < 0, y > 0
x α − π , if x < 0, y < 0

π
For x = 0, Arg z = .
2
Remark: For angles in 1st and 2nd quadrant, Arg z is measured in anticlockwise
direction.
Example 1 Express z = − 3 + i in modulus argument form by using Arg z.

Solution: The terminal side is in the second quadrant. i.e. x < 0 and y > 0.
Figure 7.2
 1  π 5π
Argz = π−α = π − tan −1   = π − = , and
 3 6 6
r = 12 + (− 3 ) 2 = 2
  5π   5π  
Therefore, − 3 + i = 2 cos  + i sin  
  6   6 
Remark: For angles in 3rd and 4th quadrant, Argz is measured in clockwise direction.
Example 2 Express z = − 1 + i in modulus argument form by using Argz.
Solution: The terminal side is in 3rd quadrant i.e. x< 0 and y< 0.
Figure 7.3
1 π 3π
Arg z = α−π = tan −1   − π = − π = − , and
1 4 4
r= (−1) 2 + (−1) 2 = 2
  3π   3π  
Therefore, − 1 − i = 2  cos  + i sin  
  4   4 
Example 3 Express z = 1 − i in modulus argument form by using Arg z.
Solution:
Figure 7.4
1 π π
Argz = α = − tan −1   = − = − , and
1 4 4
r = 12 + ( −1) 2 = 2
 π   π 
Therefore, 1 − i = 2  cos  + i sin  
 4  4 
Assessment
You can ask the students to plot complex numbers as points in the Argand Plane, or
conversely, you can ask them to give a point in the plane in the form x + yi. You can
also ask them to give the quadrant to which a given complex number belongs. Let
students find the argument – modulus form of a complex number and express products,
quotients, and powers of complex numbers using the polar form. Here you can give
problems of various degrees that can be done by low achievers as well as high achievers
that can be done in various active learning methods.

1. a. (1, 1) first quadrant b. (2, –3) fourth quadrant
c. (3, 4) first quadrant d. (–1, –2) third quadrant
π π
2. a. 3(cos 0 + i sin 0) b. 3(cos + i sin )
2 2
π π
c. 3(cos π + i sin π ) d. 3(cos − i sin )
2 2
π π π π
e. 4(cos + i sin ) f. 4(cos − i sin )
3 3 4 4
5π 5π π π
g. 2 2 (cos − i sin ) h. 3 (cos − i sin )
6 6 3 3
3. If ( r , θ ) is the polar form, then the corresponding complex number is of the form
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) , thus you can substitute and evaluate the values which are
given in
5 5 3i
a. + b. 3 3 + 3i
2 2
5 2 5 2i −5 5 3i
c. + d. −
2 2 2 2
θ = tan–1   θ = –tan–1  
3 3
4. a. b.
4 4
3π 3
c. θ = d. θ= − π
4 4
1. a. x= 3, y = 4
1 + 2i
b. = 1 − −4
x + yi
1 + 2i −3 4
⇒ = x + yi ⇒ + i = x + yi
1 − 2i 5 5
−3 4
⇒x = , y =
5 5
c. (3 + i)( x + yi)(3 + 4i ) = 3 + 9i
⇒ (3 + i )(3 + 4i )( x + yi ) = 3 + 9i
⇒ (5 + 15i)( x + yi) = 3( +3i)
3 3
⇒ 5(1 + 3i )( x + yi ) = 3(+3i) ⇒ x + yi = ⇒x= , y = 0
5 5
1
d. (2 x + yi)(i + 4) =
3 + 5i
1 7 23
(2 x + yi) = ⇒ − i
(3 + 5i)(i + 4) 578 578
7 7 23
⇒ 2x = ⇒x= ,y=−
578 1156 578
e. x = 3, y = 11
2. a. z = 3 − 4i b. 5 c. 5
4
d. 5(cos θ + i sin θ ) , where θ = tan −1 ( )
3
 3+ i  3+ i 3−i
3. a. conjugate:  = =
 5 − 4i  5 − 4i 5 + 4i
3 − i (3 − i)(5 − 4i ) 15 − 12i − 5i + 4i 2
Note that: = =
5 + 4i 52 + 4 2 41
15 − 4 − 17i 11 17i
= = −
41 41 41
Argument:
 3 +i  1  −4 
arg   = arg( 3+ i) – arg(5–4i)= arc tan   –arc tan  
 5 − 4i   3  5 
o
= −57 .
Modulus:
3 +i 3+ i 32 +12 10 410
= = = =
5 − 4i 5 − 4i 2
5 +( −4) 2
41 41
b. Conjugate:
 
 (2 − 3i )(4 + i)  (2 − 3i )(4 + i) (2 + 3i)(4 − i )
 = =
 i 3 +1  1 i + 5   1   1 


( )
2
  i 3 +1  i + 5 

( 2
) 
( 
)
1− i 3  5 − i 
2 
11 + 10i
=
 3  1
5−  − 5 3 + i
 2   2
 50 111 3   50 3 111 
=  −  +  +  i
 101 202   101 202 
Argument:
  50 3 111  
 − + 
  101 202  
arc tan   = arc tan (1.885) = -108o.
 
  50 − 111 3  
 101 202 
   
Modulus:
2 − i 4 +i 13 × 17 221 22321
= = =
1 101 101 101
i 3 +1 i+ 5
2
(i + 2)(3 − 4i )(5 + 3i) −3 4

c. = + i
(2i +1)(4i + 3)(5i − 3) 5 5
−3 4
Conjugate: − i
5 5
Argument: arc tan (1.33) = 127o.
2 2
 3  4 
Modulus:   +  =1
5 5
4. a. i 320 − 5i121 + 3i 45 = 1 − 5i + 3i = 1 − 2i
− 3 − 4i
b. +
10 10
c. −5+29i
 36 x 2 + 20 x + 1   12 x 2 − 3 
d.  2 + 2 i
 180 x + 5   180 x + 5 
20
 1− i 
40
  1 − i 2 
e.   =     = 1 = 1 + 0i
 2   2  
f. 2 40 = 2 40 + 0i
10
 i− 3 3
i− 3  30
(  )
 ( 8i )10   810 ( −1) 
  =  =  15 = 215 i
g.   = 
 1− i 
2 15
 ( −2i )   −2 ( −i ) 
15
(1 − i )(  ) 
5. Proof:
2 2
z1 + z 2 + z1 − z 2 = ( z1 + z 2 )( z1 + z 2 ) + ( z1 − z 2 )( z1 − z 2 )
= ( z1 + z 2 )( z1 + z 2 ) + ( z1 − z 2 )( z1 − z 2 )
= z1 z1 + z1 z 2 + z 2 z1 + z 2 z 2 + z1 z1 − z1 z 2 − z 2 z1 + z 2 z 2
2 2
= 2( z1 + z 2 )
6. a. Using the rational root test, 13 + 2(1)2 + 1–4 =0
⇒ x – 1 is a factor of x3 + 2x2 + x – 4
Long division gives:
x3 + 2x2 + x – 4 = ( x – 1) ( x2 + 3x +4)
The roots of x2 + 3x + 4 = 0 are
−3 ± 32 − 4 × 1× 4 −3 ± −7 −3 ± 7 i
x= = =
2(1) 2 2
 −3 7i −3 7i 
⇒ S.S =  − , + ,1
 2 2 2 2 
b. S.S = {−1 − 2i, −1+ 2i }

c. S.S = {–2, 2 –i, 2 + i}
d. In x4+2x2 + 2 = 0,
Let y = x2so that x4= y2
2
⇒ y + 2y + 2 = 0
−2 ± 22 − 4(1)(2) −2 ± 2i
y= = = −1 ± i
2 2
⇒ x2= y = –1 ± i
⇒x = ± −1±i
S.S= { −1+i,− −1+i, −1− i , − −1− i }

7. If z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) , then z n = r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) , for example substituting
n = 10 in each of the following, you get
 π π  10 10 
a. z = 8  cos + i sin  , z10 = 810  cos π + i sin π 
 3 3  3 3 
 7 7   70 70 
b. z = 6  cos π + i sin π  , z10 = 610  cos π + i sin π 
 4 4   4 4 
 π 7  10  70 70 
c. z = 4 2  cos + i sin π  , z10 = 4 2 ( )  cos π + i sin π 
 6 6   6 6 
10
2 3 11 11  10
2 3  110 110 
d. z=  cos π + i sin π  , z =    cos π + i sin π .
5  6 6   5   6 6 
5 i − 30 32i 21 − 2 5 (14 + 3 5 )
8. a. +− b. + c. + −i
13 13 37 37 13 13
9. a. A circle centered at (1,0 ) with radius 1.
b. Circular region of the circle in (a).
c. Regions outside the circle in (a).
−5 −5 3 
10. a. b. c. d.  
(−1, − 1) ( −1, 1) (−1, 0)  2 , 2 
 
UNIT
8 VECTORS AND
TRANSFORMATION
OF THE PLANE
INTRODUCTION
This unit deals with vectors and transformation of the plane. This chapter follows the
concepts which students discussed vectors in grade 9. Here, more discussions on vectors
that include representation of vectors, scalar (dot) product of vectors, applications of
vectors and transformation of the plane will be treated. Narrations and illustrative
examples are offered for each sub-unit. As students are expected to have some
background on vectors, the first sub-unit is devoted to revision of vectors and scalars
that were discussed in grade 9. Thus, you need to focus more on the subsequent
sections. You are expected to go for at most four periods for sub-units 8.1 and 8.2.
In this unit, students need also to develop as many applications of the concept of a
vector and vector algebra in their daily life. Although details of applications of a vector
are discussed, some of them include determining work done, angle between two vectors,
writing equations in vector form, and formulating equations such as tangent and circle.
It is also expected to extend this prior discussion to deliberating about transformation of
the plane which includes translation, reflection and rotation.
Involvement of students in various aspects of this chapter is also expected to help them
have a better understanding of the concepts. Cognizant of this fact, efforts should be
made to explore local issues that can best describe a vector. Representation of a vector,
dot product of vectors and applications and transformation of the plane should also be
dealt with along discussions of the ideas and examples delivered in the student textbook.
Unit Outcomes
• know basic concepts and procedures about vectors and operation on vectors.
• know specific facts about vectors.
• apply principles and theorem about vectors in solving problems involving
vectors.
• know basic concepts about transforming the plane.
• apply methods and procedures in transforming plane figures.
251

Setting of models, organizing flip charts that describe translations, reflections and
rotations are essential.
As an additional input, you can also constitute different groups of students so that they
can develop local examples which will help as teaching aid for a better understanding of
the notions of vectors and their applications.
8.1 REVISION ON VECTORS AND SCALARS

Period allotted: 3 periods
Competencies
• define a scalar quantity.
• identify the everyday application of scalars.
• define a vector quantity.
• identify the everyday application of vectors.
• describe the difference between a vector and a scalar quantity.
• represent vector by different notations.
• determine the sum of two or more vectors.
• determine the difference of two vectors.
• multiply a vector by a scalar.
Vocabulary: Scalar, Vector, Representation of a vector, Vector addition, Scalar
multiplication, Properties of vector operations.
Introduction
Students already have some background on vectors which they have studied in grade 9.
This subunit is devoted to strengthening their background by revising vectors and
scalars, addition of vectors and multiplication of vectors by a scalar, and representation
of vectors.
Teaching Notes
You may start the lesson by revising important points which the students had learnt
about scalars and vectors in grade 9. You may review grade 9 student text and organize
the revision accordingly. While revising, you may proceed with an activity which deals
with the concepts of “scalar quantity” so that students can define scalars as a quantity
with size or magnitude only. You can assist the students to realize every day examples
Unit 8 – Vectors and Transformation of the Plane 253
of scalars like mass (10kg), time (5sec), distance (5km), money (100Birr). You can then
consolidate the concept of scalar quantity as having only magnitude with some unit.
After consolidating students’ understanding of scalars, you may proceed to vector
starting from their discussion in grade 9. To do so, you may proceed with an activity
which deals with the concept of “vector quantity” so that students can define and
understand vector as a quantity with size or magnitude and direction included. In this
regard, you may need to let them understand how direction of a vector is treated as an
angle with respect to horizontal line or with respect to a vertical line in case of compass.
Examples for this may include weight (whose direction is towards the center of the earth
and whose magnitude is given in Newton (N)). You may also add more examples such
as velocity, acceleration, etc.
For the purpose of simplifying revision, you may organize students in pairs and
encourage them to do Activity 8.1.
1. a, c, and f are scalars whereas b, d, and e are vectors.
2.
Scalars Vectors
Distance Displacement
Speed Velocity
Work Acceleration
Area Force
Time Momentum
Volume Weight
Density
Temperature
Mass
After recognizing the understanding of the students about the concepts of scalars and
vectors, you need to revise the way vectors are represented. At this stage, students need
to recognize that there are different ways to describe vectors. Some of these ways may
include representation as a directed line segment, as an ordered pair, as a standard
vector etc. In order to further consolidate their understanding of scalars and concepts,
you may assist students to exercise the different ways of representing vectors. To enrich
these ideas, you may form groups of students and give them Group work 8.1 to discuss
and present to the class. When they do each work in groups, you can round in the class
and see if there are students who are deficient somehow and whom you need to assist.
And if you have gifted students you can give them some more questions which you can
prepare before coming to class.
When they discuss the group work, it will be helpful if you can encourage the students
to state in their own words, the definitions of scalar and vector quantities, and
representation of vectors. Finally, you can give them exercise 8.1 as a homework which
may help you to assess the understanding of the students as well.
Additional exercise problems for high ability students
1. Ask some of the high ability students to demonstrate the sum a + b + c + d + e + f
on the black board.
c
y
b d
A
D
•
e a
B
a b
x
f O

2. a and b are the position vectors of OA and OB as shown in Figure 8.2. If D
divides AB in the ratio m:n, express the position vector of D in terms of a and b.
AD m AD m
Solution: = ⇒ =
BD n AB n + m
 m  m
AD =   AB = n + m (b – a)
n+m
m na + mb
OD = OA + AD = a + (b – a) = .
n+m n+m
1. A vector v as coordinates point can be represented by v = ( x, y ) where the initial
point is the origin and terminal point is (x, y).
x
v = ( x , y ) can be represented as a column vector in the form of v =  
 y
2. Two vectors are equal if their corresponding components are equal.
Example: v = (2, 3) and v = (1, 1) + (1, 2)
3. The standard form of a vector v is v = ( x , y )

4. a. The components are 3 and 4 b. | v |= 5
4
c. θ = tan −1  
3  
5. It depends
Assessment
For this sub-unit, you may use the following assessments:
• Ask students to list out many examples of scalar quantities and vector
quantities
• Ask students to identify the difference between a vector and a scalar
quantity through examples
• Ask students to determine the different ways of representation of vectors
and explain their answers through examples
You can do any of these through activity, assignments or homework, group work, or
quizzes/tests.
1. Initial point and terminal point PQ , length.
2. The representation of the vector, coordinate components

3. PQ = (q1 − p1, q2 − p2 )
2
PQ = ( q1 − p1 ) + (q2 − p2 )2
4. (3, –4) = v. v = 5.
Now you may proceed to operations on vectors (addition, subtraction and multiplication
of a vector by a scalar). You may start this discussion by revising the addition of vectors
using the “triangle law of addition” and then proceed to the “parallelogram law of
addition” of vectors. For the purpose of revising these rules, it may be of help to let
each student do Activity 8.2. Select some students and encourage them to do each
activity on the board. Then discuss their solutions by giving corrections when necessary.
Here, you may need to discuss the properties of vector addition such as commutative
and associative properties with the active involvement of students. You can also
approach the difference of vectors as a consequence of vector addition and let the
students practice computing difference of vectors with several exercises.

1. B 4m
C
θ

3m AB + BC = AC
5m
AC = 5 m at an angle θ = tan −1  
3
4
A B
Figure 8.3
2.
C
AB + BC

A AD + DC
AB + BC = AD + DC = AC
Figure 8.4 D
Once the students have practiced discussing addition and subtraction of vectors, there is a
need to proceed into multiplication of vectors by a scalar. To revise multiplication of
vectors by a scalar, you may let students form groups and do Group Work 8.2. The
purpose of this group work is to help students to recognize the relationship between the
resulting vector when multiplied by a scalar and the original vector as parallel. If v is a
vector then, kv is a vector which is parallel to vector v and the direction is the same if k > 0
and opposite if k < 0. You may need to give assignments or group work for practicing
further concepts and for consolidating the revision of this unit.

1. If k > 0, then k PQ and P Q have the same direction.

If k < 0, then k PQ and P Q have opposite directions.

2. PQ = − PQ and PQ + − PQ = 0 ( )

3. ( )
PQ + − PQ = PQ − PQ = 0
4.
v
u−v
u
u
v
Figure 8.5
At last, you can use the questions in exercise 8.2 for the purpose of assessing students’
understanding by giving them the questions as group work.
Assessment
For this sub-unit you may use the following assessments:
• Ask students to determine the sum and difference of some pair of vectors.
• Ask them to describe some of the properties of operations of vectors.
• Give them exercise problems on scalar multiplication of vectors.
You can do any of the above through activity, assignments or homework, group work,
or quizzes/tests.

1. 5km
2. The displacement is 152 + 252 km = 850 km

3. mv = nv ⇒ (m – n) v = 0
⇒m – n = 0 since v ≠ 0
⇒m = n.
4. a. (3, 18) b. (–13, 26) c. (3, 5)
5. 200 − 20 2
6.
D
A C
A
B B
a. b.
Figure 8.6
C D
7. Consider Figure 8.7.

CD = w − v w v −v
w
DE = − v B v+w E

EF = −w v
v w −w

AF = w − v
A F
Figure 8.7

8. B AB + BC = AC

D B + BE = D E
1 1

D E ⇒ AB + BC = DE
2 2
1
⇒ DE = AC
2
A C
Figure 8.8
8.2 REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS

Periods allotted: 1 Period
Competencies
• resolve a given vector into two components.
• use unit vectors to determine the column representation of a given vector.
• determine the magnitude of a vector.
Vocabulary: Components of a vector, Magnitude, Unit Vector, Standard unit vectors
Introduction
This subunit is meant to revise the previous knowledge of students about representation
of vectors. Some practical examples on vector representation and on the use of
components of a vector will be discussed in this subunit.
Teaching Notes
You may start this lesson with an activity on the different ways of representing vectors
with more emphasis on resolving vectors or with oral question on the possibility of
representing a vector as a sum of two other vectors. For this purpose, you may need to
give them Activity 8.3 which will help them think of the properties of vector addition
and subtraction by way of resolving some force vectors given as a position vector using
its x and y components on the coordinate plane. While students try to do the activity,
you need to help them to practice component representation of vectors. You may then
proceed introducing the unit vectors i and j on the coordinate plane and explain how a
given vector is expressed as a sum and scalar multiplication of the vectors. With this
move, you need to assist the students by showing them how a vector P = xi + yj can be
resolved into its horizontal and vertical components.
This can be shown as follows,
If P = xi + yj, then we may consider the two vectors h = xi and v = yj where h = (x, 0)
1  0
and v = (0, y) and the unit vectors are i =   and j =   so that P = xi + yj becomes
0 1 
1   0
P = h + v = ( x 0 )   + ( 0 y )   = xi + yj .
0 1 
Classifying vectors into components will help students to easily understand computing
the magnitude of a vector in a way if P = xi + yj then its magnitude (length) is given by
P = x 2 + y 2 . Here you may give chance for students to determine magnitude of a
vector as a distance between the initial and terminal points of the vector. You also need
to help students to identify unit vectors. You may also need to let students practice more
exercises. When you finish your lesson, you may give students a reading assignment
about scalar (dot) product which will be discussed in the subsequent lesson.
1. Given a vector w, you may find two vectors u and v such that u + v = w where u
and v are components of vector w.
2. i. ( a i + b j) + ( ci + d j) ii. ( ai + bj) − (ci + dj)
= a (1, 0) + b(0, 1) + c (1, 0) + d (0, 1) = a (1, 0) + b(0, 1) − c (1, 0) − d (0, 1)
= ( a + c )(1, 0) + (b + d )(0, 1) = ( a − c )(1, 0) + (b − d )(0, 1)
= ( a + c ) i + (b + d ) j = ( a − c ) i + (b − d ) j
iii. t ( a i + b j) = t (a (1, 0) + b (0, 1))
= ta (1, 0) + tb (0, 1) = (ta )(1, 0) + tb (0, 1)
= (ta )i + (tb) j
You can give for high achievers additional exercises of the following type:
A car of mass 1800 kg climbs a hill at a constant speed of 60 km/hr. If the slope of the
1
hill is , find the work done by the car against gravity in one minute.
2
1000 m
500 m
30o
500 3 m
Figure 8.9
Solution:
In one minute, the car travelled 1000 m up the hill.
⇒ The vertical distance raised in one minute is 5000 m.
⇒ The work done against gravity in one minute is 1800 ×500 J = 900,000 J.
Assessment
• Ask students to resolve some vectors into their components and check their
work.
• Ask students to determine the length of some vectors.
You can do any of these through activity, assignments or homework, or group work.

1. a. u + v = (7, 6) b. u + v = (6, – 2)
c. u + v = (0, 1) d. u + v = (1, 2)
2
 3 3
2. a. u = 1 +1 = 2
2 2
b. u =   + 02 =
 2 2
c. u = ( −2) 2 + 12 = 5 d. u = x2 + y2
 7   5 1  13 9
3. a. u + v = 3+ i +  −  j = i + j
 2  2 4 2 4
 7   5 1  −1 11
b. u − v = 3 −  i +  +  j = i + j
 2  2 4 2 4
5
c. tu = 3t i + t j, t ∈ ℝ.
2
 7   1  5 21
d. 2u − v =  6 −  i +  5 +  j = i + j
 2  4 2 4
 1 2   5 2 5
4. a.  ,  or  , 

 5 5  5 5 
 −1 − 2  − 5 −2 5
b.  ,  or  , 

 5 5  5 5 
 x y 
c.  ,  is a unit vector in the same direction and
 x2 + y 2 x 2
y 2 
 + 
 −x −y 
 ,  is a unit vector in the opposite direction to the vector (x, y)
 x2 + y 2 x 2
y 2 
 + 
5. The coordinate form of the zero vector is (0, 0).
Let u = (x, y) for arbitrary x and y, and 0 = (0, 0)
u + 0 = (x, y) + (0, 0) = (x + 0, y + 0) = (x, y) = u
8.3 SCALAR (DOT) PRODUCT OF VECTORS

Competencies
• find the scalar product (dot product) of two vectors.
• describe some properties of scalar product of vectors.
Vocabulary: Scalar (dot) product
Introduction
Cognizant of the fact that students have revised and understood the previous lessons, in
this subunit, they will discuss scalar product of vectors, which is sometimes called
inner product or dot product. They will also discuss some applications of the dot
product in determining angles between two vectors, or length of a vector given length of
the other vector and the included angle.
Teaching Notes
In order to start this subunit, you may group the students and let them discuss Group
Work 8.3. Following their discussion, you can select one group to present its work so
that the whole class will discuss the ideas behind the group work.

1. Discussion
2. u ⋅ v =| u || v | cos θ
u⋅v  u⋅v 
cos θ = ⇒ θ = cos −1   where 0 ≤ θ ≤ π
| u || v |  | u || v | 
Then discuss.
Following their discussion, you may proceed by stating the definition of scalar product
as:
i. a.b = a b cosθ for vectors a and b and angle θ between them and
ii. a ⋅ b = a1b1 + a2b2 where a = a1i + a2 j and b = b1i + b2 j
After discussing these definitions, you may need to discuss some of the properties of
scalar product of vectors as listed in the student text.
You also need to explain to the students that, for purposes of computation, it is desirable
to have a formula that expresses the dot product of two vectors in terms of the
components of the vectors that lead to what is called cosine law, which is helpful in
application.
You should stress at this stage on the use of dot product to determine the angle between
two vectors and, through this, on orthogonality of vectors. You may also assist students
to observe the application of the concept of vector algebra in calculating work done, the
angle between two vectors and its application to real situation. At this point, you may
form group of students so that they can refer to physics texts and consolidate more
applications of scalar products. They can also find other real life problems that require
application of scalar product of vectors. Some examples are outlined in the student
textbook.
Finally, you may group students and let them do each of the questions in Exercise 8.4 as
a group work. But, for high achievers you can give questions of type:
y
6
5
4
A 3i + 4j
3 T•
B
2
9i + 2j
1
x
−3 −2 −1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1
−2
−3
Figure 8.10
If T is a point on the line OA that is closest to B, find the position vector of OT.
Solution:

OA.TB = 0

Let OT = k AB . Then BT = (9 – 3k)i + (2 – 4k)j
35 7
OA.TB = 0 ⇒ 27 – 9k + 8 − 16k = 0 ⇒ k = =
25 5
21 28
⇒ OT = i+ j
5 5
Assessment
• Ask students to state the possible scalar products of vectors,
• Give exercise problems on scalar product of vectors
• Give exercise problems on application of scalar products
You may perform these assessments through activity, or you may give the students
assignments or homework, or group work on the basis of which they can practice more
to relate scalar products with their daily life.
1. a. z = (8, 7) and z′′ = (–2, 8)
 35 31   58 29 
b. z =  ,  and z ′ =  , 
 3 10   15 15 
2. a. –6 b. –7 c. 13 d. 2 7
2
3. a. (u + v ) = ( u + v ) . ( u + v ) = u. ( u + v ) + v. ( u + v ) = u.u + u.v + v.u + v.v
= u 2 + u.v + u.v + v 2
= u 2 + 2u . v + v 2
2
b. (u - v ) = ( u − v ) . ( u − v ) = u. ( u − v ) − v. ( u − v ) = u.u − u.v − v.u + v.v
= u 2 − u.v − u.v + v 2
= u 2 − 2u.v + v 2
c. ( u + v ) .( u − v ) = u.( u − v ) + v.( u − v ) = u.u − u.v + v.u − v.v
= uu
. − v.v
= u2 − v2
d. ( u + v ) .( w + z ) = u.( w + z ) + v.( w + z ) = u.w + u.z + v.w + v.z
4. The angle θ between u and v is calculated as follows.
u⋅v
From scalar product, u ⋅ v = u v cosθ which is the same as = cosθ
u v
(1, − 1).(1,1)
a. cos θ = =0
2× 2
(1,1).(−2, 3) 1
b. =
2 13 26
(1, −1).(−2,3) −5
c. cos θ = =
2 13 26
5. Since u . v = 0 for all vectors v, it is true for v = u. That is, u. u = 0 ⇒ u = 0
6. Here we have to show both directions i.e, the “if part” and the “only if” part.
Suppose u + v and u – v are perpendicular. We then need to show that u = v .
Since u + v and u – v are perpendicular, the angle between them is 90o.
Hence 0 = cos90 =
( u + v ) . ( u − v ) . From this,
u+v u−v
2 2
u.u − v.v u −v
=0⇒ = 0 this further implies
u+v u−v u+v u−v
2 2 2 2
u − v = 0 ⇒ u = v ⇒ u = v . To show the backward direction, suppose
u=v.
Then, the angle between u + v, and u – v is
2 2
cosθ =
( u + v ) .( u − v ) = u.u − v.v
=
u −v
but u = v by assumption.
u+v u−v u+v u−v u+v u−v
2 2
Thus, cosθ =
(u + v ) .(u − v ) = u.u − v.v
=
u −v
=0
u+v u−v u+v u−v u+v u−v
Therefore, the vectors u + v and u – v are perpendicular.
7. If u = 0 and v = 0 then the inequality reduces to 0 ≥ 0 which is true.
Suppose v ≠ 0. For any real numbers s and t, we have
2
0 ≤ su + tv = ( su + tv ).( su + tv )
= s 2 u.u + 2 stu.v + t 2 v.v
Now, take s = v.v = v , and t = −u.v . Thus, the above inequality gives
2
= v  v u − 2 ( u.v ) + ( u.v ) 
4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
v u −2 v ( u.v ) + ( u .v ) v
 
= v  v u − ( u.v )  . Since v ≠ 0, v > 0 .
2 2 2 2 2
 
2 2 2 2 2 2
Thus 0 ≤ v u − ( u.v ) ⇒ ( u.v ) ≤ v u
2 2 2
Hence ( u.v ) ≤ (u.u)( v.v ) because u.u = u and v.v = v
Equality holds if v is a scalar multiple of u or u is a scalar multiple of v. (That is,
u and v are linearly dependent)
8. a. Suppose that u.v = 0
2 2 2
Then u + v = (u + v ).(u + v ) = u.u + 2u.v + v.v = u + v since u ⋅ v = 0
2 2 2
Conversely, suppose u + v = u + v
2 2 2
Then, u + v = (u + v )(u + v ) = u.u + 2u.v + v.v = u + 2u.v + v
2
= u + v + 2u.v
2 2
Thus, u + v = u + v + 2u.v ⇒ 2u.v = 0 ⇒ u.v = 0
b. The generalized Pythagoras theorem
2 2 2
9. a u + v = (u + v )(u + v ) = u.u + 2u.v + v.v = u + 2u.v + v
= 3+2( u v cos π6 )+1= 3+2( 3 ⋅1 ⋅ 3 )+1 = 4 + 3 = 7

2
Therefore, u + v =7 ⇒ u + v = 7
2
2 2 2
b. u − v = (u − v )(u − v ) = u.u − 2u.v + v.v = u − 2u.v + v
= 3–2( u v cos π ) + 1
6
= 3–2( 3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 3 ) + 1 = 4 – 3 = 1
2
Therefore, u - v =1⇒ u - v = 1
2
2 2 2 2 2 2
10. a u + v = u + 2u.v + v ⇒ 2u.v = u + v − u − v
1 1 1
⇒ u .v =
2 2 2
u + v − u − v = ( 576 − 169 − 361) = ( 46 ) = 23
( )
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
b. u − v = u − 2u.v + v ⇒ u − v = 169–46+361 = 484
Thus, u − v = 484 = 22
2 2 2
c. 3u + 4 v = (3u + 4 v )(3u + 4 v ) = 9 u + 24u.v +16 v
= 9(169) + 24(23) + 16(361) = 7849
Thus, 3u + 4 v = 7849 ≈ 88.6 .
8.4 APPLICATION OF VECTORS

Competencies
• apply vectors to solve problems on geometry, algebra, mechanics and other.
related problems.
• write the parametric equation of a line.
• write equation of a circle by applying vectors.
• determine the equation of the tangent line to a circle using vectors.
Vocabulary: Application of vectors, Concurrence, Tangent,
Introduction
This subunit is devoted to the application of vectors that include verifying Pythagoras
theorem and some of the properties related to concurrence in triangles of the
perpendicular bisectors of the sides, altitudes, and angle bisectors.
Teaching Notes
In order to start this lesson, you may need to help students recall the discussions on
scalar product of vectors which is useful for discussing their application. After
reviewing scalar products, you may proceed to discussing the proof of some theorems
from geometry using vector algebra with active involvement of the students.
When you ensure that students have captured some of the important applications of
scalar product, you may need to proceed to relating vectors and lines. Here, with
students’ active participation, you can verify the geometric properties of concurrence of
bisectors of angles and sides of a triangle and that of Pythagoras theorem. You then
discuss parametric vector equation of a line through different examples and exercises.
When the students become capable of expressing parametric vector equation of a line,
you may need to proceed to further application of vectors among which is discussing the
use of vectors in writing equations of circles. You may assist students in writing
equations of different circles through different examples.
Finally, you may also need to help students to identify and characterize a tangent line to
a circle and to write the equation of a tangent line to a given circle through examples
and exercises. You may group the students to do some more practical application of
vectors from problems related to, say, physics some examples of which are given in the
student textbook. This will help you assess their understanding of vectors. You can also
give them Exercise 8.5 as an assignment. You can also give for high achievers questions
of type:
Three forces, F1 = i + j, F2 = 3i – 4j and F3 = 2i + 3j act on a particle which moves from
point A to point B and then to point C. A, B and C have position vectors i + 2j, –i – j
and 2i + j respectively.
Find the work done by
a. each force in moving from A to B.
b. each force in moving from B to C.
c. the resultant force in moving from A to B.
d. the resultant force in moving from B to C.
Solution:

AB = –i – j –(i + 2j) = –2i – 3j BC = (2i + j) –(–i – j) = 3i + 2j

a. F1. AB =(i + j).( 2i – 3j) = –5J

F2. AB =(3i–4j).( –2i–3j) = 6 J

F3. AB = (2i + 3j).( –2i – 3j) = –13 J

b. F1. BC =(i + j).( 3i + 2j) = 5 J

F2. BC =(3i – 4j).( 3i + 2j) = 1 J

F3. BC =(2i + 3j).( 3i + 2j) = 12 J
c. F1 + F2 + F3= 6i

(F1 + F2 + F3). AB = 6i (–4 – 3j) = –12 J
d. 6i.(3i + 2j) = 18 J
Assessment
You can assess the understanding of students about the points discussed in this sub-unit
by using different mechanisms some of which may be:
• giving exercise problems on the application of vector algebra.
• asking students to write the parametric equation of a line.
• giving exercise problems on writing equations of tangent to a given circle
and check their work.
You may do these assessments through activity, or you may give to the students’
assignments or homework, or group work on the basis of which they can practice more
on applications of vectors that include problems from their daily life.
1. a. The vector equation of the line is
P = (–2, 1) +λ (–1, 1), λ∈ ℝ
= ( −2 − λ ,1 + λ )
The parametric equations are
x = −2 − λ
y = 1 + λ, λ ∈ ℝ
and the standard equations are
x + 2 y −1
=
−1 1
b. The vector equation of the line is:
(x, y) = (1, 1) +λ (2, 2), λ∈ ℝ
The parametric equations are
x = 1 + 2λ
y = 1 + 2λ, λ∈ ℝ and the standard equations are
x −1 y −1
=
2 2
2. Let P(x, y) be a point on the circle
Let P and C be the position vectors of P and C, respectively
Thus, equation of the circle is
2
3
(x, y)⋅(x, y) –2 (x, y)⋅(1, –2) + (1, –2)⋅(1, –2) =  
2
9
⇒ x2 + y2 – 2 (x – 2y) + 1 + 4 =
4
11
⇒ x2 + y2 – 2x+ 4y + = 0
4
3. a. The center of the circle is (1, 2). Thus, the equation of the tangent line is:
(x – 1) (1 – 1) + (y – 2) (4 – 2) = 4
⇒ 2y = 8
⇒y = 4
b. The center of the circle is: (–2, 0).
(
The equation of the tangent line at −1, 2 is:)
(x + 2) (–1 + 2) + (y – 0) ( )
2 −0 = 3
⇒ ( x + 2) + 2 y = 3 ⇒ x + 2 y − 1 = 0
4. a. they are not collinear
b. they are collinear

5. A line that passes through (3, 5) and (–2, 3) is the same as the line that passes
through one of these points and parallel to the vector (–2–3, 3–5) = (–5, –2). The
vector equation of the line passing through (3, 5) and parallel to (–5,–2) is
P = (3, 5) + λ(–5, –2), λ∈ℝ
= (3 – 5λ, 5 – 2λ)
The parametric equation is
x = 3 – 5λ
y = 5 – 2λ, λ∈ ℝ
and the standard equation is
x−3 y −5
= ⇒ 5y – 2x = 19
−5 −2
6. a. The point is said to lie on the circle if it satisfies the equation
x2 + y2 – 2x – 4y – 9 = 0. Here 12 + 42– 2(1) – 4(4) –9 = –10. This is not 0.
Hence, we say the point does not lie on the circle and therefore, there is no tangent
line at the point (1, 4)
b. (x+2)2 + y2 = 3 at P1(–1, 2 ) gives (–1+2)2 + 2 2 = 3. Thus, the point
satisfies the equation and hence it lies on the circle. The circle has its center
at (–2, 0) and radius r = 3 . Thus, the equation of the tangent line is:
(x + 1) (–1–(–2)) + ( y – 2 ) ( 2 – 0) = 0
⇒x + 1 + 2y – 2 = 0
⇒x + 2y – 1 = 0
1
⇒y= ( − x + 1) is the equation of the tangent line to the circle at
2
P1(–1, 2 )

7. Let O be the fixed origin of the given vectors since v – u = A B and w – z = DC are
parallel and equal. Again, since v – u = w – z, i.e.
w–v=z–u

⇒ BC = AD .

Thus, BC and AD are parallel and equal.
Hence, ABCD is a parallelogram.
8. Using the definition of the dot product, the solutions for the problems are given
below.
a. F1. F2 = F1 F2 cos θ b. F5 . F6 = F5 F6 cos θ
= 4 × 10 × cos 60 = 20 = 8 × 4 cos 45o = 16 2
c. (F1 + F2 – F3).(F4 + F5 – F6) = (F1.F4 + F1.F5 – F1.F6) + (F2.F4 + F2.F5 – F2.F6)
+ (–F3.F4 – F3.F5 + F3.F6)
⇒ F1.F4 + F1.F5 – F1.F6 = 4 × 6 cos 150o + 4 × 8 × cos 90o – 4 × 4 × cos 45o

 3
= 24  −  + 0 − 8 2 = − 12 3 − 8 2
 2 
F2.F4 + F2.F5 – F2.F6 = 10 × 6 cos 150o + 10 × 8 × cos 150o – 10 × 4 cos 105o
− 3 − 3  2 6
= 60   + 80   − 49  − 
 2   2   4 4 
= –70 3 −10 2 +10 6
–F3.F4 – F3.F5 + F3.F6 = –10 × 6 cos 120o – 10 × 8 cos 180o + 10 × 4 cos 135o
 1 − 2
= –60  −  − 80 (−1) + 40  
 2  2 
= 110 – 20 2
⇒ (F1 + F2 − F3 ).(F4 + F5 − F6 ) = (−12 3 − 8 2) + (−70 3 − 10 2 + 10 6) + (110 − 20 2)
= 110 – 82 3 – 38 2 + 40 6
9. a. The unit vector in the direction of a + b is
a +b (3i + j) + (2i − 2j)
=
a +b (3i + j) + (2i − 2j)
5i − j
=
26
5 1
= i− j
26 26
3 3
b. 2a + b − c = 2(3i + j) + (2i − 2 j) − (i + 3j)
2 2
= 6.5i – 4.5j
⇒ 2a + b − 3 c = (6.5) 2 + ( − 4.5) 2
2
= 2.5 10
3
Therefore, the unit vector in the direction of 2a + b − c is
2
6.5 4.5 13 10 9 10
i− j = i− j
2.5 10 2.5 10 50 50
10. The displacement AB = (3i + 4j) – (i – 2j) = 2i + 6j.
The total work done,
w = (F1 + F2 + F3). AB
= ((2i + 3j) + (i + 2j) + (3i – j)).(2i + 6j)
= (6i + 4j).(2i + 6j) = 36J
8.5 TRANSFORMATION OF THE PLANE

Competencies
• explain what is meant by transformation of the plane.
• describe the main properties of rigid motion.
• translate points, lines and circles using vectors.
• reflect points, lines, circles and some other plane figures.
• determine the images of a given plane figure when rotated through a certain
angle.
Vocabulary: Transformation, Translation, Reflection and Rotation
Introduction
Transformations are of practical importance in daily life problems. These can be
managed in different forms: those that maintain direction and those that change
direction. In this subunit, attention will be focused on discussing the most common
types of transformations, namely, translations, reflections and rotations. It will be
important to facilitate learning of the students by encouraging them to deal with
problems from their surrounding which will help them realize the ideas of the concepts
of transformations.
Teaching Notes
In order to start the lesson, you can group the students and let them do Group Work 8.4
which will help them distinguish shape and size changes, change of positions with or
without changing shape and size. By selecting some group members, encourage them to
present their work to the whole class. Finally, you can organize and guide them into the
discussions of transformations and rigid motions which will be helpful to discuss
translations, reflections and rotations.
1. a. Shape and size changes b. No change
c. No change d. No change
e. Only size changes
2. A' = (1, –1) B' = (–2, –2) C' = (3, 0)
The image of ∆ABC is ∆A ' B ' C ' and ∆ABC ≅ ∆A ' B ' C ' by SSS
3. AB = 58
a. A' = (2, 0); B' = (5, 0); AB ≠ A' B'
b. A' =(2, 3); B' = (5, –4); AB = A' B'
c. A' = (3, –6); B' = (6, 1); A' B' = AB
d. A' = (1, –6); B ' =  5 ,8  ; AB ≠A' B'

2 
4. Discuss some rigid and some non-rigid motions among those listed by students.
After students discuss the group work, you can assign them in pairs and ask them if they
can react to the terminologies of transformations, translation, reflection and rotation and
what each roughly means. Following discussions, you may proceed to defining
transformation of the plane and rigid motion as a special type of transformation. And
then, you may proceed with the help of several examples to discussing the main
properties of rigid motion, (a motion which preserves distance).
You may state the types of transformation, translation, reflection and rotation and
proceed to discussing them one by one. When starting with translation, you may
discuss what it means and its effects on the coordinate system. You may need to assist
students to translate points, lines and circles with sufficient examples. At this level, for
the purpose of assessing students’ understanding of the concept of translation, you can
give them Exercise 8.6 as an assignment.

1. The image of the points A (3, 1), B (5, 1), C (5, 4) and D (3, 4) are
T(3, 1) = (3 + (–3), 1 + 2) = (0, 3)
T(5, 1) = (5 + (–3), 1 + 2) = (2, 3)
T(5, 4) = (5 + (–3), 4 + 2) = (2, 6)
T(3, 4) = (3 + (–3), 4 + 2) = (0, 6)
Thus, the image of the rectangle is the rectangle whose vertices are A'(0, 3),
B'(2, 3), C'(2, 6) and D'(0, 6).
2. We have A' = T(2, 1) = (2+4, 1+3) = (6, 4)
B' = T(3, 5) = (3+4, 5+3) = (7, 8)
C' = T(–1, –2) = (–1+4, –2+3) = (3, 1)
3. We have A' = T(1, 2) = (1+3, 2+(–2)) = (4, 0)

B' = T(3, 4) = (3+3, 4+(–2)) = (6, 2)
C' = T(7, 4) = (7+3, 4+(–2)) = (10, 2)
D' = T(2, 5) = (2+3, 5+(–2)) = (5, 3)
4. Circle
5. The translation vector is (–4 – 1, 3 + 1) = (–5, 4). Thus, the point (x, y) is
translated to the point (x – 5, y + 4). This implies, the image of the circle is
(( x + 5) +1)2 + ( y − 4 − 3)2 = 5 ⇒ ( x + 6)2 + ( y -7)2 = 5

6. i. S(T(0, 0)) = S(3, –2) = (3+(–2), –2+(–1)) = (1, –3)
ii. T(S(0, 0)) = T(–2, –1) = (–2+3, –1+(–2)) = (1, –3)
7. ℓ': 2(x + 4) – 3(y – 6) = 7 ⇒ ℓ': 2x – 3y = –19.
2
Both ℓ and ℓ' have the same slope .
3
1. The transition vector is a = (4, −5).
a. ℓ' : y = 3x + b, from slope
Take A = (0, 7) on ℓ: y = 3x + 7, then
A' = (4, 2) lies on ℓ'
⇒ 2 = 3 (4) + b
⇒b = −10
⇒ℓ': y = 3x – 10
b. The transition vector is parallel to the line 4y + 5x = 10
⇒ℓ = ℓ'
9. The transition vector is
a = (7, 10) – (3, −2)
= (4, 12)
a. The image of the ellipse is
4( x − 4)2 + 3( y −12)2 − 2( x − 4) + 6( y − 12) = 0
⇒ 4 x2 + 3 y 2 − 34 x − 66 y + 432 = 0
b. The image of the parabola is
(y – 12)2 = 4 (x – 4)
c. The image of the hyperbola is (x – 4) (y – 12) = 1

⇒xy – 12x – 4y + 47 = 0
d. The translation shifts the graph of the function f 4 units in the

positive x direction and 12 units in the positive y direction.⇒The
image of the function is f (x - 4) -12 = x3 – 15x2 + 72x – 96.
When you make sure that your students have captured translation and its properties and
its effect on the coordinate system, you can proceed to discussing reflection. You may
start the discussion by asking students to express their ideas about reflection, for
example, while they use plane mirrors. Following their expressions of ideas about
reflection, you may proceed to stating what reflection is and discuss its effect on the
coordinate plane. Before discussing the main points, however, you may group your
students and let them do Activity 8.4 so that they can determine reflection points and
characterize reflected images. Here, essential questions on reflection need to be raised
and discussed, questions such as size of the reflected image, distance between an image
and its reflected image from the reflection line, etc. You then need to assist students in
reflecting points, lines, circles and some other plane figures along a given line through
examples and exercises.
You may also need to help students to relate the concept of reflection with problems
from daily life through examples and exercises.

1. Ask some students to demonstrate the images on the black board.
2. The perpendicular bisection of AA ' is the axis of symmetry.
3. x=3
Reflections about different lines, say the x and y axes, the line y = mx, and y = mx + b
need to be discussed. For the purpose of starting this discussion you can form pairs of
students and let them do Activity 8.5 whose purpose is to conduct discussions, share
ideas and reach their own understanding. Afterwards, select some pair of students to
forward their work in a presentation form and resume discussion on their presentation.
You then guide and assist students discuss their answers and present to them as many
examples as possible for consolidating their understanding. You also help them arrive at
the mathematical rule for determining reflection by use of trigonometric identities as
outlined in the student textbook. They also need to identify some particular properties of
reflection.

1. The image of f (x) = e x after refection
a. in the y-axis is f (x) = e–x = f (−x)
b. in the x-axis is f (x) = –ex = −f (x)
c. in the line y = x is f (x) = lnx = f −1(x)
2. a. (a, b) → (a, –b) b. (a, b) → (–a, b)
c. (a, b) → (b, a) d. (a, b) → (–b, −a)
Therefore, the image of the line is
a. y = –mx – b b. y = mx + b
c. my = x – b d. my = x + b
The image of the circle is
a. ( x − h)2 + ( y + k )2 = r 2 b. ( x + h)2 + ( y + k )2 = r 2
b. ( x − k )2 + ( y − h)2 = r 2 c. ( x + k )2 + ( y + h)2 = r 2
When the students have realized the use of reflection formula derived with the help of
trigonometric identities, they need to realize other analytical approach to finding
reflection whose steps are described on page 329. Guide them do each step one by one
so that they can internalize the meaning and achievements through several examples and
exercises.
For the purpose of assessing students’ understanding, you can group the students and
give them questions from Exercise 8.7 as a home work.

1. a. The images of A (2, 1), B (3, –2) and C (5, –3) after a reflection in the x-axis
are Aɑ(2, –1), Bɑ(3, 2) and Cɑ(5, 3), respectively.
b. The images of A, B and C after a reflection in the y – axis are Aɑ(–2, 1),
Bɑ(–3,–2) and Cɑ(–5, –3).
c. The images of A, B and C after a reflection in the line y = –x are Aɑ(–1, –2),
Bɑ(2, –3) and Cɑ(3, –5), respectively.
d. The images of A, B and C after a reflection in the line y = x are Aɑ(1, 2),
Bɑ(–2, 3) and Cɑ(–3, 5), respectively.

2. The slope of ℓ is 1. Thus, the slope of the line through (–4, 3) and perpendicular to
y −3
ℓ is –1. Thus, its equation is given by = −1 ⇒ y = −x −1
x+4
1 3
The intersection of y = x –2 and y = –x – 1 is M  1 , − 3  . Taking M  , − 
2 2 2 2
as the midpoint of P P ,
where P'(x', y') is the image of P ( −4, 3) , we obtain
−4 + x ' 1 3+ y ' 3
= and =−
2 2 2 2
⇒xɑ = 5 and yɑ = –6
Hence, the image of P(–4, 3) is Pɑ(5, –6)
3. The slope of the line through the points P(–1, 2) and Pɑ(1, 0) is –1. The mid-point
of PP′ is  − 1 + 1 , 2 + 0  = ( 0, 1) . Thus, the line of reflection is the line through
 2 2 
y −1
(0, 1) with slope 1. It’s equation is given by = 1 ⇒y = x + 1
x−0
4. Every point on y = x is fixed and also every point that is symmetric with respect to
the y = x is fixed.
For example, every line perpendicular to y = x, every circle with centre on y = x,
every isosceles triangle with the vertex angle on y = x are some of those fixed
figures.
5. Clearly, point P(0, 4) is on ℓ.
Let the image of P(0, 4) be P′(a, b) when it is reflected by the line L: y = x − 3.

Then,
b−4
i. Using slope, = −1, you have b = 4 − a.
a
 a b+4
ii. Using the mid-point,  ,  , b = a − 10.
2 2 
Solving the equations in i and ii gives a = 7 and b = −3.
Therefore, the equation of the image of ℓ is computed as:

y+3
ℓ′ : = 1 ⇒ ℓ′ : y = x − 10.
x−7
 y = 2x + 1
6. Solving the system 
 y = 3x + 2
gives x = – 1
y=–1
Therefore M (– 1, – 1) = (–1, –1)
Consider, (0, 1) a point on y = 2x + 1.
Let M (0, 1) = (1, b)
b −1 1
⇒ = − using the slope
a 3
⇒ 3b – 3 = –a
⇒ a = 3 – 3b
b +1 a using the midpoint
= 3  + 2
2 2
b + 1 = 3a + 4
b = 3a + 3
a = 3 − 3b
Solving  gives b = 1. 2 and a = –0.6
b = 3a + 3
The image line passes through (–0.6, 1.2)
2y – 11x = 9
7. The center of the circle is O (2, 3) and the radius is 5. The equation of the line
through (2, 3) and perpendicular to y = x + 3 is y = –x + 5. The point of
intersection of the two lines is M(1, 4). Taking M(1, 4) as a midpoint of OO' ,
where Oɑ is the image of O(2, 3) . When reflected in the line y = x + 3, we
compute the coordinates of Oɑ (xɑ, yɑ) as follows:
x '+ 2 y '+ 3
=1 and =4
2 2
⇒ x ' = 0 and y ' = 5
Thus, the new center is (0, 5) and the equation of the image circle is:
(x− 0)2 + (y− 5)2 = 52
2
⇒ x 2 + ( y − 5 ) = 25
8. The axis of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment with end
points the center of the circles.
2
 1 5
x2 + y2 – x + 2y = 0 ⇒  x −  + ( y + 1)2 =
 2 4
2
 1 5
x2 + y2 – 2x + y = 0 ⇒ (x – 1)2 +  y +  =
 2 4
M  1 , − 1  =  1, − 1  .
2   2 
1
− − (−1)
The slope of the line of the centers is m = 2 = 1 , hence ℓ has slope −1.
1
1−
2
The midpoint of the segment is  3 , − 3  . Hence ℓ has an equation y = –x.

4 4
9. a. The translation vector is a = (3, –2)
Let ℓ be the axis of reflection, then,
−1 −1 5
ℓ: y – 2 = ( x − 1) ⇒ ℓ : y = x+
2 2 2
1 5
⇒ The axis of reflection is ℓ : y = − x+
2 2
Let M (1, 3) = (a, b), then
b −3
Using slope, =2 ⇒ b = 20 + 1
a −1
Using the mid-point, b + 3 = − 1  a + 1  + 5 ⇒ b = a + 5

2 2  2  2 2
b−4
From slope, = 2 ⇒ b = 2a + 2 .
a −1
From midpoint.  a + 4 , b + 1  lies on the axis of reflection

 21 2 
⇒ b + 1 = − 1  a + 4  + 5
2 2  2  2
−a
⇒ b= +2
2
b = 2a + 2

Solving  −a
b = 2 + 2 gives
 18 1 
( a, b ) =  , 
 5 5
∴ M (T (1, 3)) = (4,1) =  18 , 1 


5 5 
b = 2a + 1
 3 
Solving  5 gives (a, b) =  , 4 
b = a + 2 2 
∴ T(M(1, 3)) = T  3 , 4  =  3 + 3, 4 − 2  = ( 4.5, 2 )

2  2  
b. M (T(1, 3)) = M (4, 1)
10. The line ℓ: y – 2x = 3 and its image ℓ': 2y – x= 9 meet at (1, 5).
Hence, the axis of reflection L passes through (1, 5).
Clearly, L is the bisector of the angle formed by ℓ and ℓ’. So you have two
reflecting lines, say L1 and L2.
See figure 8.11
Choose A = (0, 3) on ℓ, then M (A) = B or M(A) = D
⇒∆AOB and ∆AOD are isosceles triangles.

y
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
L1
ℓ′
1
x
−7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
−2
L2
−3
−4
−5
ℓ
Figure 8.11
The points A, B, C and D lie on the same circle with circle with centre O (1, 5) and
radius
OA = (1 − 0) 2 + (5 − 3) 2 = 5
It suffices to determine the intersection points of the circle and the lines ℓ and ℓ'.
The circle has an equation (x – 1)2 + (y – 5)2 = 5.

After the students have mastered the concepts of translation and reflection, you can
proceed to the third type of transformation called rotation. You may start this by
forming groups and letting them do Group Work 8.5 which is more of a practical type.
This group work will help them realize the concepts of rotations in general and rotation
on the coordinate plane in particular.
1. a. B = (–3, 2), C = (–2, –3), D = (3, –2)
b. B = (–y, x), C = (–x, –y), D = (y, –x)
2. a. A' = (–1, 3) B' = (–7, 3) C' = (0, 10) D' = (–4, 6) E' = (–4, 14) and
F' = (–3, 10)
b. Yes, the origin.
c. It is a rigid motion because AB ≅ A ' B ' and ABCDEF ≅ A ' B ' C ' D ' E ' F '.
d. –y and x
3. To define rotation you need the centre of rotation and the amount of rotation.
When each group tries the work, let some selected group present and demonstrate its
work to the whole class. When defining rotation, let the students enquire what might
happen on the object with changing value of the angle θ. By way of giving some more
activity on conducting rotational movements with active involvement of students and
defining the concept of rotation, and with the help of examples, discuss rotation of
points through 90o, 180o and through any angle θ about the origin. At this juncture,
encourage the students to perform the derivation of the rule for rotation by use of
trigonometric identities, which is outlined on page 336 of the student text. While you
define rotation, you may need to guide a discussion on the effect of rotation of some
plane figures through 90o, 180o clockwise and anti-clockwise directions about the origin
and then proceed with rotation through a given angle about the origin. After discussing
these, with active participation of students, set up the relation between the coordinates
of a point and that of its image.
When you ensure their understanding, you may proceed to assisting students to
determine the images of plane figures after rotating through a given angle θ about a
given point (a, b), which will enable them to generalize rotation at any angle.
Following their generalization, you may require them to determine rotation when the
center of rotation is arbitrary point (x0, y0). For this purpose, you can form groups of
students and let them do Activity 8.6. Assist them by rounding when they do the activity
and finally facilitate discussion on the activity. The purpose of this activity is to
generalize the rule they used to determine rotation when the center was the origin (0, 0).
1. The centre of rotation is the intersection point of the perpendicular bisectors of
AA and BB ' .
2. First, translate the centre of rotation from (3, 2) to (0, 0). Hence the P (2, 0) will
be translated to P' (1, –2). The image of P' (1, –2) in rotation about (0, 0) through
π 3 2 2
radian is  ,−  . Finally translate the image of P' by the translation
4  2 2 
 6+3 3 4− 2 
vector (–3, –2) which is  , 
 2 2 
You can give for high achievers questions of the following type.
1. Find the image of the point P(a, b) when it is reflected in the line y = mx.
 a + 2mb − am2 bm2 + 2am − b 

Answer  2
, 
 1 + m 1+ m2 
2. M(p, q) in the line y = mx + b.
 − pm2 + 2mq − mb + p m2q + 2mp + 2b − q 

Answer  , 
 1 + m2 1 + m2 
π
3. Find the image of the point P(5, 1) if it is first rotated radian about the origin
3
and then reflected by the line y = 3 x,
5 3 5 3 1
Answer  + , − 
 2 2 2 2
Assessment
For assessing students’ understanding you may:
- Give exercise problems on translating some points, lines, circles with given
translation
- Ask students to reflect points, lines, and some plane figures along given lines
- Give exercise problems on rotating points, lines, and some plane figures
through different angles in either direction about a given point.
In order to help you assess understanding of your students, you may use activity, or you
may give them assignments or homework, group work or project work on the basis of
which they can practice more on transformations (Translation, Reflection and Rotation)
and applications of transformations that include problems from their daily life.
1. The image of the vertices of the rectangle after a rotation about the origin through
an angle θ = π are A'(–1, –2), B'(–4, –2), C'(–4, 1), D'(–1, 1)
2. a. If the image of (–3, 4) is Pɑ(x', y'), then
x' = 3 cos 90o−4 sin 90o = −4
y' = −3 sin 90o−4 cos 90o = −3

Thus, the image of (–3, 4) is (−4, −3)
b. If the image of (–2, 0) is P'(x', y'), then
x' = –2 cos (60o) – 0× sin 60o = –1
y'= –2sin 60o+ 0 ×cos 60o = − 3
(
Hence, the image of (–2, 0) is −1, − 3 )
c. We have,
x' = 0 × cos π + 1 × sin π = 2

4 4 2
y' = 0 × sin π − 1 × cos π = − 2

4 4 2
 2 − 2
Hence, the image of (0, –1) is  , 
 2 2 
d. We have
x' = − 1 × cos (30 o ) − 2 × sin (30 o ) = − 3 − 1 = − 2 − 3

2 2
y' = − 1× sin (30 o ) + 2 cos (30 o ) = − 1 + 3 = − 1 + 2 3

2 2
 −2 − 3 −1 + 2 3 
Hence, the image of (–1, 2) is  , 
 2 2 
3 3 4
3. a. The angle θ satisfies tanθ = . Thus, sin θ = and cos θ = .
4 5 5
The points P(1, –1) and Q(5, 2) are on the given line. If image of P(1, –1) under
the given rotation is P' (x', y')
xɑ = 1  4  − ( − 1)  3  = 7
5 5 5
yɑ = 1  3  − 1  4  = − 1
5 5 5
That is, Pɑ  7 , − 1  is the image of P(1, –1)

 5 
5
Similarly, the image of Q(5, 2) is Qɑ  14 , 23  . Thus, the equation of the image

 5 5 
line is given passing through P′ and Q′ is given by 7y − 24x + 35 = 0
b. Using the points P (0, 3) and Q (–1, 5) on the line 2x + y = 3
 −3 2 3   1 −5 3 
You have P ' =  ,  and Q '  − , 
 2 2  2 2 
Therefore, the equation image line is eh equation of the line through P' and Q',
which is y =  1 − 3 × 3  x − 3 + 3 3
 4  4 2
4. a. The center of the given circle is C(0, 0). If P'(a, b) is the image of C(0, 0),
we have, a = 0 and b = 0.
2 2
Thus, the equation of the image circle is ( x ') + ( y ' ) = 1 , which is the same as
the given circle.
b. The center of the circle is (–1, 2). Let (a, b) be the image of (–1, 2). Then,
π  π  − 2  2  −2 2 − 2 3 2
a = −1cos   − 2sin   = − 2   = =−
4 4 2  2  2 2
π  π  − 2  2 2
b = 1 sin −1sin   + 2 cos   = + 2   =
4 4 2  2  2
2 2
 3 2  2
Thus, the equation of the image circle is  x +  +  y −  = 9.
 2   2 
5. Substitute (xo, yo) = (3, 2), θ = –60o and (x, y) = (1, 0) in the formula in corollary 8.4.
x' = xo + (x – xo) cos θ – (y – yo) sin θ
= 3 + (1 – 3) cos (–60o) – (0 – 2) sin (–60o)
1  3
= 3 + (−2)   − 2   =2– 3
 2   2 
y' = yo + (x – xo) sin θ + (y – yo) cos θ

= 2 + (1 – 3) sin (–60o) + (0 – 2) cos (–60o)
 3 1
= 2 – 2   − 2   = 1 – 3
 2  2
⇒ R (1, 0) = 2 − 3, 1 − 3
( )
6. a. In this problem, a rotation R is followed by a reflection M.
You know that R 90 o (3, 0) = (0, 3) and reflection about the line y = –x sends
(0, 3) to (–3, 0)
b. Thus, M (R (3, 0)) = M (0, 3) = (–3, 0).
Here a reflection M is followed by a rotation R.
R (M (3, 0)) = R (0, –3) = (3, 0).
In general,
M (R (x, y)) = M (–y, x) = (–x, y) and
R(M (x, y)) = R (–y, –x) = (x, –y)

7. The lines A A ' and B B ' are not parallel.
The intersection point of the perpendicular bisectors of A A ' and B B ' is the centre
of rotation.
The equation of the perpendiculars of AA ' and BB ' is the centre of rotation.
5
The equation of the perpendiculars of AA ' and BB ' are y = x – 1 and y = x −3
3
respectively.
Let O be the center of the rotation.
Solving the system of equations
 y = x −1

 5
 y = 3 x − 3
gives O = (3, 2).

This shows the amount of rotation is 90o. Therefore, the image of (0, 0) under this
rotation is found by using the formula in corollary 8.4.
x ' = 3 + (0 − 3)cos90o − (0 − 2)sin90o = 5
y ' = 2 + (0 − 3)sin90o + (0 − 2)cos90o = −1

R(0, 0) = (5, −1)
8. ℓ The perpendicular bisectors of ∆ABC are
concurrent at O.
B D A Hence, there is a rotation about 0 that maps
t • •
A to C through an angle equal to m(∠AOC).
E
But, ∠ COE ≅∠ BOE and ∠BOD ≅∠ AOD
⇒ m (∠AOC) = m (∠COB) + m(∠AOB)
C•
= 2m (∠BOE) + 2m (∠BOD)
θ
O = 2[m(∠BOE) + m (∠BOD)]
= 2θ
Figure 8.12

1. a. u – v + 2w = (15, 8) ⇒ |u – v + 2w| = 17
b. 2u + 3u – w = (–10, 16) ⇒ |2u + 3v – w| = 2 89
u  2 5 
,
| u |  29 29 
c. =
d. z = v – w – u = (–10, –5)
1  11 
e. z= (3 v − u ) =  − , 2 
2  2 
2.
150o
F1 + F2 = F
F2
30o
F1
Figure 8.13
F= 402 + 302 − 2 × 40 × 30 × cos150o N = 10 25 + 12 3 N
3. The intersection point of the perpendicular bisectors of AA' and BB' is the center
of rotation.
y
A′(3, 5)
•
x
•
B(0, 0)
A(1, −3)
•
B′(4, −6)
•
Figure 8.14
The perpendicular bisector of AA' has an equation: 4y + x = 6. The perpendicular
bisector of BB' has an equation of 3y – 2x = –13.
Solving the system
4y + x = 6
3y – 2x = –13, gives
70 1
x= and y = −
11 11
⇒ The center of rotation is  70 , − 1  .
 11 11 
(a + b) . (a – b) = a − b = 0
2 2
4.
5. W = 10 × 50 × cos 30o = 250 3 J
30o
50 m
Figure 8.15
2 2
 1  1 13
6. x + y – x + y = 6 ⇒ x −  +  y +  =
2 2
 2  2 2
⇒ The center of the circle is  1 , − 1 
2  2 
Let ℓ be the line tangent to the circle at (1, –3).
 1 −1   1 −5 
ro = (1, − 3 ) −  , = , 
2 2  2 2 
a.
y
(1, 2)
•
x
 1 1 •
 ,− 
 2 2  ro
•
• (x, y)
(1, −3)
Figure 8.16
⇒ ( x − 1, y + 3 ) .  1 , − 5  = 0 ⇒ x − 5 y = 16
2 2 
b. Similarly, ro = (1, 2 ) −  1 , − 1  =  1 , 5 
2 2  2 2
1 5
( x − 1, y − 2 ) .  ,  = 0 ⇒ x + 5 y − 11 = 0
2 2
7. The translation vector, (9, – 10) – (7, –12) = (2, 2).
a. ℓ : y = 2x – 5 ⇒ℓ' : (y – 2) = 2 (x – 2) – 5 ⇒ℓ' : y = 2x – 7.
b. ℓ' 2 (y – 2) – 5 (x – 2) = 4 ⇒ 2y – 5x = –2
c. ℓ': (x – 2) + (y – 2) = 10 ⇒x + y = 14
d. (x – 2)2 + (y – 2)2 = 3⇒x2+y2 – 4x – 4y = – 5
e. (x – 2)2 + (y – 2)2 – 2(x – 2) + 5 (y – 2) = 0 which gives
2
( x − 3) +  y +  = .
2 1 29
 2 4
8. The line of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of PP ′ .
Mid-point of PP ′ is (5, 6).
10 − 2
Slope of PP′ = = −2 .
3−7
1
Therefore, the slope of the perpendicular bisector is and it passes through (5, 6).
2
y −6 1
= ⇒ 2 y − x = 7 is equation of the line.
x −5 2
9. Using the formula

x' = a + (x – a) cos θ + (y – b) sin θ
y' = b – (x – a) sin θ + (y – b) cos θ
Together with the given (a, b) = (1, 4) and θ = 30o we have,
x' = 1 + (x – 1) cos 30o + (y – 4) sin 30o
= 1 + (x – 1) × 3 + ( y − 4 ) × 1
2 2
and y' = 4 + (x – 1) sin 30o + (y – 4) cos 30o
1
= 4 – (x – 1) × + (y – 4) × 3
2 2
Hence, substituting the corresponding values of x and y gives:
a. (
R ((–3, 2)) = −2 3, 2 − 3 )
b. x2 + y2 – 2x – 8y = 10
⇒ (x – 1)2 + (y – 4)2 = 27
⇒ The center of the circle is (1, 4) and radius 3 3 .

R ((1, 4)) = (1, 4) which is the same as the center of rotation.
⇒ The circle is fixed in this rotation.
2
 3 9
c. x2 +  y −  =
 2 4
  3    −1 3 9 −5 3 
R   0,   =  , , 
  2    4 2 2 4 
⇒ The image of the circle is
2 2
 1 3  9 5 3 9
 x + −  +  y − +  =
 4 2   2 4  4
d. Consider the points (0, 4) and (1, 5) on ℓ: y = x + 4.
 3 9 1 3
R ((0, 4)) = 1 − ,  and R ( (1, 5) ) =  , 4 + 
 2 2 2 2 
⇒ℓ' : y = x + 7 + 3
2
10. Consider a regular hexagon
A B b
f a c
F b
e
d f d
E D e
Figure 8.17
If the vectors are joined end to head, a regular hexagon will be obtained.
So, the sum of the vectors is 0.
Students may practice this by considering any regular polygon.
11. Given
C
•
A
O B
Figure 8.18

CA = CO + OA

OB = O A

From the figure CA = CO + O A and

OB = − OA

Then CB = CO + OB = CO − OA since −OA = OB ( )

(
∴ CA . CB = CO + OA . CO − OA .) ( )

CO . C O − C O . O A + O A . CO − O A . O A.
2 2
CO − OA = r 2 − r 2 = 0

⇒ CA ⊥ CB
⇒<ACB = 90°.
12. | a + b |= | a |2 + | b |2 + | a || b | cos θ
= 102 + 62 + 2 ×10 × 6cosθ = 136 +120cosθ
a. | a + b |= 136 + 120cos 30o = 136 + 60 3 ≈ 15.5
b. | a + b |= 136 + 120 cos120o = 2 19 ≈ 8.7
c. | a + b |= 136 + 120 cos150o = 2 34 − 15 3 ≈ 5.7
13. F = (3i + 4 j ) + (3i − 5 j ) + (5i + 4 j ) + (2i + j ) = 13i + 4 j
14.
y
2.5i + 4j
F
θ x
Figure 8.19
15. a. B = (600, 1200) = 600i + 1200j; C = (1400, 300) = 1400i + 300j
2
b. AT = (600i + 1200 j ) = 400i + 800 j
3

T C = (1000 i − 500 j ) TC × AB = 0
C
x
A
Figure 8.20
16. In this problem, students are expected to apply the rule of reflection about the line
DC.

First allow students to reflect the points A and B about DC .
Next, let them draw A'B and AB' each crossing DC at point E. See Figure 8.21.
B
E F
D C
G
A′
B′
Figure 8.21
Let F be an arbitrary point on CD. Prove that AF + FB > AE + EB
This is proved as follows.
In ∆ A'BF, A'F + BF > A'B by triangle inequality.
⇒ AF + BF > A'E + BE
⇒ AF + BF > AE + BE
Also, A'B2 = A'G2 + BG2
⇒ AF + BF > A'E + BE
⇒ AF + BF > AE + BE
Also, A'B2 = A'G2 + BG2
⇒ A'B = 10
This shows that the sum of the minimum distance from the power supplier to both
villages is 10 km.
UNIT
9 FURTHER ON
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
INTRODUCTION
This unit has two main objectives. The first objective is to enable students understand
trigonometric functions in detail as presented in the student textbook. Special emphasis
is given to the reciprocal trigonometric functions, inverse trigonometric functions, and
graphs of some trigonometric functions of the form y = a sin (kx + b) + c and
y = a cos(kx + b) + c.
The second objective is to enable students solve practical real world problems, such as
navigation, lengths related to angle of elevation and depression, and solving a triangle.
The unit also enables students to solve problems in other subjects such as geometry and
physics. It presents each topic in detail by producing illustrative model examples.
Therefore, in this unit, students are expected to show mastery of the subject with
encompassing various applications. Activities that are designed to revise the previous
topics and introduce the current topics are also formulated. They also guide to arriving
at some generalization of the concepts through ways of group discussions. This helps
students not to waste time in learning the unit. They also help you as a starting board to
teach each and every topic of the unit.
Unit outcomes
After completing this unit, the students will be able to:
• know basic concepts about reciprocal functions.
• sketch graphs of some trigonometric functions.
• apply trigonometric functions to solve related problems.
293
Suggested Teaching Aids

As teaching aids, there are various possibilities to select from. But, as a guide, the
following can be considered as suggested teaching aids for this unit. These include:
Charts containing graphs of y = sec x, y = csc x and y = cot x that are
showing the symmetric and periodic properties.
Charts showing graphs of some inverse trigonometric functions.
Calculators
Tables
Charts of some trigonometric functions
Graphing calculators
Softwares such as Geometers sketchpad, Matlab, Minitab, Mathematica,
Tinkerplots, etc
Pictures or photos containing model and solved problems.
Additional materials: Calculators and software graphing.
9.1 THE FUNCTIONS Y = SEC X, Y = CSC X AND

Y = COT X
Competencies
• define and describe the functions sec x, csc x and cot x.
• sketch graphs of sec x, csc x and cot x.
Vocabulary: Sin x, Cos x, Tan x. Sec x, Csc x, Cot x, Domain, Range, Period, Symmetry
Introduction
This subunit is devoted to strengthening the previous concepts of trigonometric
functions the students have studied in grade 10 and to discuss the reciprocals of the
ratios that define the sine, cosine and tangent. The main theme of this subunit will then
be discussing the three trigonometric functions: cosecant, secant and cotangent, and
their graphs.
Teaching Notes
This topic can be started by considering the reciprocals of the trigonometric functions of
an acute angle and then extending it to a general angle. In the graphing part, you may
start by presenting some simple reciprocal functions and constructing their graphs.
Here, you are expected to help the students use the techniques of graphing the reciprocal
Unit 9 – Further on Trigonometric Functions 295
trigonometric functions. For this purpose, you can form groups of students and let them
do Activity 9.1. This activity is designed to revise the trigonometric functions sin x, cos
x and tan x, and evaluate their reciprocals. After discussing the activity, you can define
sec x, csc x and cot x using right angled triangles.

4 3
1. a. sin A = b. sin B =
5 5
4 3
c. cos B = d. tan B =
5 4
1 13 1 13 1 12
2. a. = b. = c. =
sin θ 5 cos θ 12 tan θ 5
When the students are capable of evaluating the reciprocals of the ratios of
trigonometric function, they are expected to practice sketching graphs of y = sec x,
y = csc x, and y = cot x for different intervals. For this purpose, you can form groups of
students and let them do Group Work 9.1 from which students will be able to revise
graphs of y = sin x, y = cos x and y = tan x that students studied in grade 10, and
determine domain, range and period of these three trigonometric functions. They will
also discuss how to determine domain and range of y = sec x, y = csc x, and y = cot x,
and issues of period and symmetry and symmetric properties of secant, cosecant and
cotangent functions. When they do that, you are expected to assist students to correctly
determine the domain and range of these functions and understand issues of period.
1. a.
y
2
1
x
-2π -π −1 π 2π 3π
Figure 9.1 Graph of y = cos x

Domain = ℝ
Range = [–1, 1];
Period = 2π
b.
y
2
x
-2π -π π 2π 3π
Figure 9.2 Graph of y = sin x

Domain = ℝ
Range = [–1, 1],
Period = 2π
 π 
c. D =  x ∈ R : x ≠ (2k +1) ; k ∈ Z 
 2 
Range = ℝ,
Period = π
5
y
4
1
x
-2π -1.5π -π -0.5π 0.5π π 1.5π 2π
-1
-2
-3
Figure 9.3 Graph of y = tan x

2. Give this problem as oral question.
1
3. a. y = csc x =
sin x
sin x = 0 ⇒ x = kπ ; k∈ Z
⇒ The domain of cosecant function is { x ∈ ℝ : x ≠ kπ ; k ∈ ℤ}
b. The domain of secant function is ℝ
 π 
 x ∈ ℝ : x ≠ ( 2k + 1) ; k ∈ ℤ 
 2 
c. The domain of cotangent function is { x ∈ ℝ : x ≠ kπ ; k ∈ ℤ }

1
4. = csc x ≥ 1
sin x
Thus, the range of cosecant and secant functions is { x ∈ ℝ x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 }
But the range of cotangent is ℝ

1 1
5. sec ( x + 2π ) = = = sec x
cos ( x + 2π ) cos x
1 1
Also, cot ( x + π ) = = = cot x
tan ( x + π ) tan x
⇒ secant and cosecant have period 2π. The period of cotangent is π.

1 1
6. csc ( – x) = = = − csc x
sin(− x ) − sin x
1 1
sec (–x) = = = sec x
cos(− x ) cos x
1 1
cot (–x) = = = − cot x
tan(− x) − tan x
⇒ cosecant and cotangent are odd functions but secant is an even function.
Once the students have become capable of determining the domain and range, period,
and other properties such as symmetry, the next discussion will be graphing these
trigonometric functions. As an example, the graph of cosecant function is deliberated
on page 351 of the student textbook. The graphs of the other trigonometric functions
can be given as an assignment by forming groups of students. In addition, you can give
them Exercise 9.1 which may help you to assess their progress.
You can give for high achievers additional exercises of the following type.
Draw the graphs of each of the following trigonometric functions for one cycle and
demonstrate to the class.
a. f (x) = 2 sec x
b. f (x) = 2 – 3 csc x
1  π
c. f (x) = − cot  x −  .
4  2
Solution:
1. 2.
5 8
y y
4
3
f (x) = 2 sec x 6
2 f (x) = 2 – 3 csc x
4
1
x
2
-0.5π 0.5π π 1.5π 2π
-1
x
-2 0.5π π 1.5π 2π 2.5π
-3
-2
-4
3.
3
y
1  π
2 f (x) = − cot  x − 
4  2
1
x
0.5π π 1.5π
-1
-2
-3
Figure 9.6
Assessment
In addition to the formative assessments, you conducted previously, you can also
perform the following for the purpose of assessing understanding of your students.
- ask oral questions so that the students restate the definition of sec x, csc x
and cot x.
- use the examples in the textbook to assess students during instruction.
- give the exercises from the textbook as class work or homework. You may
give your own additional exercise problems on sketching the graphs of those
functions.

1. a. 2 b. –1 c. 1 d. 2
2 3
e. –2 f. – 3 g. –2 h.
3
i. 3 j. undefined k. undefined l. undefined
π   3   π  π 
2. a.  2 , π  ∪ π , 2 π  b.  0, 2  ∪  2 , π  c. ∅
       
sin x
3 a. sec x sin x = = tan x .
cos x
sin x 1
b. tan x csc x = × = sec x
cos x sin x
tan x cos 2 x + sin x
c. 1+ =
cos x cos 2 x
 π 1 1
d. csc  x +  = = = sec x
 2  π  cos x
sin  x + 
 2
 π 1 1
e. sec  x −  = = = csc x
 2  π  sin x
cos  x − 
 2
 π
sin  x + 
 π  2  cos x
f. tan  x +  = = = –cot x
 2  π  − sin x
cos  x + 
 2
4. It is known that sec x ≥ 1
cos x ≤ 1 ⇒ −3cos x ≤ 3 ⇒ −3sec x ≥ 3
Hence, the range of y = –3 sec x is ( −∞, −3] ∪ [ 3, ∞ )

5. Using the Pythagoras’, identity, sin2 x + cos2x = 1, dividing both sides by cos2 x
gives tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x and dividing both sides by sin2 x gives 1 + cot2 x = csc2x.
Hence,
a. sec2 x – tan2x = (tan2x + 1) – tan2 x = 1
b. csc2x – cot2x = (1 + cot2x) – cot2 x = 1
9.2 INVERSE OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Competencies
• define the inverse trigonometric functions.
• sketch the graph of the inverse trigonometric functions.
Vocabulary: Inverse sin x, Inverse cos x, Inverse tan x, Inverse sec x, Inverse csc x,
Inverse cot x, Invertible, One-to-one, Restricted domain, and Graph.
Introduction
In the preceding subunit, students have exhaustively discussed the six trigonometric
functions. In this unit, they will discuss the inverse of these trigonometric functions.
They will also discuss some facts about inverse functions. The need for restricting the
domain when trying to find the inverse trigonometric function will be discussed in this
subunit. Following these, they will draw graphs of the inverse trigonometric functions.
Teaching Notes
The topic of inverse trigonometric functions involves an arrangement of the domain of
the trigonometric functions. This is so because the functions whose inverse will be
determined need to be one-to-one in the selected domain. For this reason, you may start
the lesson by asking questions such as:
i. Is the inverse of a function f a function?
ii. If f –1 is the inverse of f, what is the rule for f –1 (x)?
Finally, you may give opportunities to students to determine the domain of the newly
defined inverse functions.
After deliberating on these points, you can ask if whether any trigonometric function
has an inverse. If yes, ask them where the inverse is.
This will lead the students to discuss the fact that trigonometric functions are not one-to-
one everywhere but they can be one-to-one in some restricted domain in which inverse
of the trigonometric functions can be discussed.
To enrich their understanding, you can assist the students to revise the inverse of
functions through examples and then introduce and define the inverse trigonometric
function.
Following the explanation through examples, you can form groups of students and let
them do Activity 9.2 which will give chance for the students to determine an interval on
which the sine function will be one-to-one. It will also help them try to draw the graph
 −π π 
of f (x) = sin x in the interval  ,  and see its reflection along the line y = x.
 2 2
 π π
1.  − 2 , 2 
2. The graph of sine function, y = sin x, is given on the student text

(Figure 9.11 (a)) whose reflection is also in Figure 9.11 (b).
Pursuant to the discussion of the students on the activity, you can define inverse sine
function and assist students to point out the remark stated in the student text. You can also
let them do some exercises of computing the value of the inverse function of a number.
Here, you may help students to practice how they can use calculators to determine values
of inverse trigonometric functions. You may also use, if available, some computer
software to demonstrate how the graphs of trigonometric function and the graphs of
inverse trigonometric functions behave by simulating or animating these graphs.
In the same way, you can proceed with discussing the other trigonometric functions and
their inverses that are presented with illustrative examples.
When you discuss these ideas,
- allow students to distinguish inverse trigonometric functions from reciprocal
functions. (sin x) –1 from sin–1x, (cos x) –1 from cos–1x and (tan x) –1 from
tan–1x by producing examples.
- help students to practice sketching graphs of inverse trigonometric functions
through reflection in the line y=x.
- help students to determine the domain and range for the inverse of
trigonometric functions.
- motivate students to use a calculator and tables to solve problems in inverse
trigonometric functions.
You can give clever students additional exercises of the following type:
1. Draw the graph of each of the following inverse trigonometric functions.
1 
a. y = arc sin  x  b. y = arc cos (2x).
2 
2. Simplify each of the following expressions.
a. tan (2 arc sin x) b. cos (arc(sin 2x)) c. sin (arc cos(2x))
Solution:
1. a.
Figure 9.7
b.
Figure 9.8
x
2. a. Let θ = arcsin x, then sin θ = x and tan θ =
1 − x2 1
x
2 tan θ
⇒ tan (2 arcsin x) = tan (2 θ ) =
1 − tan 2 θ θ
2x
1 − x2 2 x 1 − x2
1 − x2
1 − x2 2x
= 2 = × 2
= Figure 9.9
 x  1 − x2 1 − 2x 1 − 2x2
1−  
2
 1− x 
b. Let θ = arcsin (2x).
Then sin θ = 2x
2x 1
⇒ cos(arcsin(2x)) = cos θ = 1 − 4x 2
θ
1 − 4x 2
Figure 9.10
c. Let θ = arccos(2x).
1
⇒ cosθ = 2x 1 − 4x2
⇒ sin (arccos(2x)) = sin θ = 1 − 4x 2
θ
2x
Figure 9.11
Assessment
To assess the understanding of the students you can
- ask oral questions so that the students restate the definition of inverse
trigonometric functions
- give exercise problems on sketching graphs of inverse trigonometric functions
- give the exercise from the textbook as class work and homework.
Or forming groups of students, you can give them exercise 9.2 as an assignment.
Answer to Exercise 9.2
 1 1 π
1. a. sin −1  −  = − sin −1   = − b. cos−1 ( 3 ) doesn't exist
 2   
2 6
 3 π  2   2  π
c. tan −1   = d. csc −1  −  = − csc −1   =−
 3  6  3  3 3
π 3π
e. sec −1 2 =
( ) f. cot −1 ( −1) =
4 4
g. Consider a right angle triangle.
 12   −π π 
sin −1   = θ ⇒ θ ∈  , 
 13   2 2
2
 12   π π
⇒ cos θ = 1 −   ,since cosθ ≥ 0 on  − , 
13
12
 13   2 2
5
⇒ cos θ =
13
θ   12   5
∴ cos  sin −1    =
5   13   13
Figure 9.12
  π   2 π
h. sin −1  sin    = sin   = .
  4   2  4
  5π    2  2 π
i. sin −1  sin    = sin −1  − −1
 = − sin   = −
  4   2   2  4
 5   3 3 π 5
j. arc cos  cos π  = arc cos  −  = π − arc cos =π− = π
 6   2  2 6 6
3   3  π 
k. l. 3 m. tan  arc sin    = tan   = 3
2  3
  2 
  π 
n. cos−1  tan  −   = cos −1 ( −1) = π − cos−1 (1) = π – 0 = π
  4 
2. Consider the following right angle triangle. 1 + x2
x
Let arc tan x = θ ,θ ∈  ,  ⇒ tan θ = 1 = x
−π −π
 2 2  x θ
x 1
a. sin (arc tan x) = sin θ =
1 + x2 Figure 9.13
−x x
If x < 0, sin (arc tan x) = –sin (arc tan (–x)) = – =
1 + x2 1 + x2
Hence the value does not depend on the sign of x.
b. Let arc sin x = θ
1 α x
⇒ cos (arcsin x) = cos θ = 1 − x 2
θ
1 − x2 1 − x2
c. Let arccos x = α ⇒ tan (arccos x) = tan α =
x
3. a. Let y = tan–1 (– x) ⇒ tan y = –x ⇒ – tan y = x Figure 9.14
⇒ tan (–y) = x ⇒ – y = tan x–1
⇒ y = –tan –1 x ⇒ tan –1 (–x) = – tan –1 x

1 1
b. let y = arccos   ⇒ cos y =
 x x
1
⇒ =x
cos y
⇒ sec y = x ⇒ y = sec–1 x
Hence, sec–1x =arccos 1
x
1 1
c. let y = sin-1   ⇒ sin y =
 x x
1
⇒ =x
sin y
⇒ csc y = x ⇒ y = csc–1 x
Hence, csc −1 x = sin −1  
1
x
4. a. y = arccsc x b. y = arcsec x

c. y = arccot x
Figure 9.17
5. y = 3 + 2 arcsin (5x – 1)
2
⇒ 5 x − 1 ≤ 1 ⇒ −1 ≤ 5 x − 1 ≤ 1 ⇒ 0 ≤ x ≤
5
y−3
Also, = arcsin (5 x − 1)
2
 y−3
⇒ sin   = 5x −1
 2 
1  y − 3 
⇒ x =  1 + sin  
5  2 
y −3 π
Also, ≤ ⇒ –π ≤ y – 3 ≤ π
2 2
⇒ 3–π≤y≤3+π
9.3 GRAPHS OF SOME TRIGONOMETRIC

FUNCTIONS
Competencies
• sketch the graphs of
y = a sin x
y = a sin (kx)
y = a sin (kx + b) and
y = a sin (kx + b) + c
• list the properties of these graphs.
y = a cos x
y = a cos (kx)
y = a cos (kx + b)
y = a cos (kx + b) + c
Vocabulary: Graph, Amplitude, Period, Symmetry, General form of trigonometric
function.
Introduction
This sub-unit is devoted to generalizing the discussions the students have conducted in
the preceding subunit. Here the general forms of trigonometric functions will be
presented and properties related to changes in any one of the parameters of the general
form of the functions will be addressed. With this concept, the students are expected
to be able to graph any trigonometric function.
For the purpose of demonstrating the graphs in relation to changes in amplitude,
period or constant term, either some organized charts or computer softwares are
useful.
Teaching Notes
Students already know how to draw the graphs of trigonometric functions in their
standard forms. Here, they are expected to discuss general forms of trigonometric
functions of types
y = a sin (kx + b) + c and y = a cos (kx + b) + c
and deal with graphing of these functions. These equations are important in analysis
of sound waves, x-rays, electric circuits, vibrations, spring-mass systems, etc. They
need to expand the technique on how to sketch graphs of trigonometric functions. The
graphing technique emphasizes that students manipulate the functional values;
determine the amplitude, period, phase shift, and the horizontal or vertical expansion
or contraction.
To get into the lesson, you can form groups of students and let them do Group Work
9.2 which will help students to find functional values and sketch graphs. It also helps
them to determine ranges, periods and amplitude. Here, when the students do the
group work, you can round and identify students who face difficulties and those who
are gifted to do these easily. For those who need assistance, you can guide them or
group them with the talented students so that they can cope. For those who are far
ahead, you can give them additional problems from the exercises.

1.
1 2
θ sin θ 2 sin θ sin θ cos θ – 3 cos θ cos θ
2 3
2
0 0 0 0 1 –3
3
π 1 1 3 3 3
1 −3
6 2 4 2 2 3
π 2 2 2 2 2
2 −3
4 2 4 2 2 3
π 3 3 1 3 1
3 −
3 2 4 2 2 3
π 1
2 1 2 2 0 0 0
2 3 3 1 3 1
π 3 − −
3 2 4 2 2 3
3 2 2 2 2 2
π 2 − 3 −
4 2 4 2 2 3
5 1 1 3 3 3
π
1
− 3 −
6 2 4 2 2 3
2
π 0 0 0 –1 3 –
3
7 1 1 3 3 3
π – –1 – − 3 −
6 2 4 2 2 3
5 2 2 2 2 2
π − − 2 − − 3 −
4 2 4 2 2 3
4 3 3 1 3 1
π − − 3 − − −
3 2 4 2 2 3
7π 2 2 2 2 2
− − 2 − −3
4 2 4 2 2 3
11π 1 1 3 3 3
– –1 – −3
6 2 4 2 2 3
2
2π 0 0 0 1 –3
3
2. a
y
2 y = sin θ
θx
-2π -π π 2π
-2 y = 2sin θ
Figure 9.18
b.
y
y = sin θ 2 1
y= sin θ
2
θx
-2π -π π 2π
Figure 9.19
c. 4
y
y = −3cos θ
2
y = cos θ
θx
-2π -π π 2π 3π
-2
Figure 9.20
d. 2
y y = cos θ
2
y = cos θ
1 3
xθ
-2π -π π 2π 3π
-1
Figure 9.21
 1 1
3. a. Range =[ –2, 2], period= 2π b. Range=  − , , period= 2π
 2 2 
 2 2
c. Range=[–3, 3], period= 2π d. Range=  − , , period= 2π
 3 3 
4. a. 1 b. 1 c. 0.25 d. no e. 6 f. 0.5
Following the group work, encourage students to explain how it is possible to determine
graph of y = asin x from the graph of y = sin x. Let them also discuss amplitude and
period. Once they discuss how they can draw graphs of y = asin x from the graph of
1
y = sin x, assist them to draw the graphs of y = 2sin x and y = sin x as a transformation
2
of the graph of y = sin x. When they draw the graphs, you can assist them to use the
graphing procedures. Cognizant of their understanding to relate y = asin x from the
graph of y = sin x, you can proceed to discussing the graph of f(x) = sin kx, k > 0. To
continue with discussion, you can form groups of students and let them do Group Work
9.3. This group work will guide students to determine functional values, their minimum
and maximum that can be used to draw their graphs. This will also help them determine
the period of the function. When the students try to do the group work, you need to
assist them and guide them with hints and directives.

1. A calculator or tables can be used
1 1 
x 2x x sin (2x) sin  x 
2 2 
0 0 0 0 0
π π π
1 0.3825
4 2 8
π π 2
π 0
2 4 2
3π 3π 3π
–1 0.9237
4 2 8
π
π 2π 0 1
2
5π 5π 5π
1 0.9239
4 2 8
3π 3 2
3π π 0
2 4 2
7π 7π 7π
–1 0.3827
4 2 8
2π 4π π 0 0
2. a. The maximum value is 1 and the minimum is –1.
b. Maximum value = 1 minimum value = – 1
3. a. f (x) = sin (2x)
2
y
x
-2π -π π 2π
-1
Figure 9.22
1 
b. g(x) = sin  x 
2 
2
y
x
-2π -π π 2π 3π
-1
Figure 9.23
To enrich their trial, you can consolidate the discussion with examples and proceed to
jointly consider trigonometric function of type y = a sin kx and y = a cos kx. To get
them right, you can assist them to discuss and explain the graphing procedures, and help
them draw graphs of different function of the above forms. To check their level of
understanding, you can pair the students and give them exercise 9.3 as an assignment.
1. a. f (x) = 4 sin x
4 y
1
x
-2π -π π 2π 3π
-1
-2
-3
-4
Figure 9.24
b. f (x)= –2cos x
y
2
x
-3π -2π -π π 2π 3π
-2
Figure 9.25
2
c. f (x)= sin x
3
2
y
1
x
-2π -1.5π -π -0.5π 0.5π π 1.5π 2π
-1
Figure 9.26
1
d. f (x) = cos x
4
2
y
1
x
-2π -1.5π -π -0.5π 0.5π π 1.5π 2π
-1
Figure 9.27
2. Follow the graphing procedure. Another graphing technique can be used if
necessary.
a. f ( x) = sin (4 x)
y
1 π
Period =
2
x
-0.5π 0.5π a=1
-1
Figure 9.28
1 
b. f ( x) = −2 sin  x 
3 
y
2
P = 6π
x
-3π -2π -π π 2π 3π 4π a = 2
-2
Figure 9.29
2
c. f ( x) = cos (2 x )
3
y
1
P=π
x
2
-0.5π 0.5π
a=
3
-1
Figure 9.30
 −2 
d. f ( x) = 5 sin  x
 3 
6
y
P = 3π
x
-1.5π -π -0.5π 0.5π π 1.5π a=5
-2
-4
Figure 9.31
1 
e. f ( x ) = 4 cos  x 
4 
y
5
P = 8π
x
-4π -3π -2π -π π 2π 3π 4π 5π a=4
-5
Figure 9.32
1  −3 
f. f ( x) = cos  x 
2  2 
1.5
y
1 4π
P=
3
0.5
1
xa = 2
-0.5π 0.5π π
-0.5
Figure 9.33
Finally, you can proceed to discussing sketching the graphs of y = a sin (kx + b) + c and
y = a cos (kx + b) + c. Here what is most important is investigating the geometric effect
of the constants b and c in drawing the graph of the function. For simplifying
procedures of drawing graphs, you can form groups of students and let them do Activity
9.3. When they do the activity you need to assist them.
1 1
1. a. 0 ≤ 2x + 1 ≤ 2π ⇒ – ≤ x≤π −
2 2
1 2π 1
b. 0 ≤ 3x – 1 ≤ 2π ⇒ ≤x≤ +
3 3 3
π π 7
c. 0 ≤ 2x – ≤ 2π ⇒ ≤x≤ π
3 6 6
π 1 3
d. 0 ≤πx + ≤ 2π ⇒ − ≤ x ≤
2 2 2
π 3 1 1 π 1 π 1 3π 1 π
2. a. x = 0, , π , π , 2π b. x= , + , + , + , +
2 2 4 4 8 4 4 4 8 4 2
3.
1 1 π 1 π 1 3π 1 π
x + + + +
4 4 8 4 4 4 8 4 2
3 sin (4x – 1) 0 3 0 –3 0
3 cos (4x – 1) 3 0 –3 0 3
When they finish the activity, select some group members and encourage them to
demonstrate their work to the whole class. You also need to organize the ideas discussed
in this regard and encourage students to generalize the properties of the functions of type
y = a sin x, y = a sin (kx) and y = a sin (kx + b) + c. You also need to ensure that the
procedures of drawing graphs are well taken by the students. For this purpose, you can let
the students do as many examples as possible and, finally, you can give them exercise 9.4
as an assignment with which you can check the level of understanding of your students.
You can also give for high achievers additional exercise problems of the following type:
1. Given below is the graph of y = a cos ( ωx – φ) + k.
y
α β
Figure 9.34
1. Express each of the following letters in terms of the others.
a. a b. ω c. φ d. k
M −L 2π (3α + β )π L+M
Answer a. b. ω= c. φ= d. k=
2 β −α 2(β − α ) 2
2. Solve 2 sin2x + cos x – 1 = 0

Solution: 2 sin2x + cos x – 1 = 0
⇒ 2(1− cos2 x )+ cos x – 1= 0
⇒ 2cos2 x – cos x – 1= 0
1
⇒ cos x = − or cos x = 1
2
3 
⇒ S .S =  π ± 2nπ  ∪ {2nπ }; Where n ∈ ℤ
2 
3 
⇒ S .S =  π ± 2nπ , 2nπ ; n ∈ ℤ 
2 
Assessment
- Give exercise problems on sketching graphs of
1
y = 2sin x, y = sin x, y = –3sin x, etc. by using the graph of y = sin x.
2
- Give exercise problems on sketching the graphs of
y = a sin (kx), y = a cos (kx), y = a sin (kx + b), y = a cos (kx + b) for
different values of a , b and k .
- Use the exercise problems in the textbook as class work / homework.

1 1 1
1. f ( x) = − sin (2 x − 1) 1. a = . P = π; phase angle =
2 2 2
1 1 2 −2
2. f ( x) = cos(3 x + 2) 2. a = , P = π phase angle =
2 2 3 3
1  3. a = 3, P = 4π phase angle = − 6
3. f ( x ) = 3 sin  x + 3  − 2
2 
4. f ( x) = sin (π x) + 3 4. a = 1, P = 2 phase angle = 0
5. f ( x ) = 2 cos(2 x − π ) π
5. a = 2, P = π phase angle =
2
 x 6. a = 2, P = 4π phase angle = 0
6. f ( x) = 3 − 2cos  
 2
−3  3  3 2 π
7. f ( x) = sin  3x + π  7. a = , P = π phase angle = −
2  4  2 3 4
1  3π π
8.
1 4
a = , P = π phase angle = −
1
8. f ( x ) = 2 − cos  x+ 
2  2 4 2 3 6
1.
1 y P=π
1
0.5 a=
2
x
1
Phase shift =
-0.4π -0.2π 0.2π 0.4π 0.6π 0.8π 2
-0.5
Figure 9.35
2.
1
y 2π
P=
3
0.5 1
a=
x 2
-0.4π -0.2π 0.2π 0.4π 2

Phase shift = −
3
-0.5
Figure 9.36
3.
2
y
P = 4π
x
-2π -π π 2π 1
a=
2
-2
2
Phase shift = −
3
-4
Figure 9.37
4.
y
4
3
P=2
a=1
2
Phase shift =0
x
-1 1
Figure 9.38
5.
2
y
P=π
1
a=2
x
π
-0.5π 0.5π Phase shift =
2
-1
-2
Figure 9.39
6.
8 y
6
P = 4π
4 a=2
2 Phase shift = 0
x
-π π 2π 3π 4π
-2
Figure 9.40
7.
2
y
1 2
P= π
3
x
3
a=
-0.5π 0.5π π 2
−π
-1 Phase shift =
4
-2
Figure 9.41
8.
y
2.5
2 4
P= π
3
1.5
1
a=
2
1
−1
Phase shift =
6
0.5
x
-0.2π 0.2π 0.4π 0.6π
-0.5
Figure 9.42
So far, students have discussed the various trigonometric functions and the ways the
graphs of such functions are drawn. They have also discussed relationships between
each type of trigonometric functions. In this subunit, they are supposed to discuss the
applications of graphs particularly in solving trigonometric equations. To proceed with
this discussion, you can form groups of students and let them do Activity 9.4 which will
help them realize particular solutions among the infinitely many ones relating it with the
concept of period, domain or range. While letting them do this activity it is
recommended if students themselves discover the rules for the general solutions of
1
simple trigonometric equations such as: sin x = . It is also good if you encourage
2
students to draw the graphs of the trigonometric functions and the constant functions
together when they do the activity.

1. a. Let students draw the graph f ( x) = tan x and y = t , for an arbitrary real
 −π π 
number t and see that they intersect at exactly one point on  ,  . From
 2 2
this, they will conclude that the equation tan x = t has exactly one solution
 −π π 
on  , .
 2 2
 π   −π π 
The solution for tan x =1 is   on  , 
4  2 2 
b. Let students draw the graphs of y = sin x and y = b; 0 < b < 1 together and
see that the equation sin x = b has exactly two distinct solutions on [ 0, 2π ] .
π 
The general solution set for tan x = 1 is  ± nπ ; n ∈ ℤ 
4 
2. Apply the same technique for cos x = b, b < 1 on [ −π , π ] .
1  −π π 
The solution set for the equation cos x = in the rage [−π, π] is  , 
2  3 3
3. As given in the student text book, cos x = b; b ≤ 1.
π 
⇒ S .S =  ± 2nπ ; n ∈ ℤ 
3 
When they perform the activity, it is advisable to give them as many examples as possible
for consolidating the concept discussed. Finally, to help them share ideas and work
together, you can group your students and give them Exercise 9.5 as an assignment. You
can also use their result for the purpose of assessing their understanding.

1 1 π 5π
1. a. sin x = − ⇒ sin( − y ) = ⇒ − y1 = and − y2 =
2 2 6 6
−π −5
⇒ y1 = and y2 = π
6 6
π 11π 5 7
⇒ x1 = 2π − = , x2 = 2π − π = π
6 6 6 6
11π 7π 
⇒ S .S =  + 2nπ , + 2nπ 
 6 6 
3 π −π  π
b. cos x = ⇒ x1 = and x2 = ⇒ S .S = 2nπ ± 
2 6 6  6
π π 
c. tan x = 3 ⇒ x1 = ⇒ S .S =  + nπ 
3 3 
d. 2 cos2x + 3 sin x = 0 ⇒ 2(1 − sin 2 x) + 3sin x = 0
⇒ −2sin 2 x + 3sin x + 2 = 0
⇒ 2sin 2 x − 3sin x − 2 = 0
3 ± 9 + 16 3 ± 5 −1
⇒ sin x = = = 2,
4 4 2
−1
⇒ sin x = 2 or sin x =
2
−1
But sin x ≤ 1 ⇒ sin x =
2
11π 7π 
⇒ from (1), S.S =  + 2nπ , + 2nπ 
 6 6 
e. The identity cos (2x) = cos2x – sin2x should be given to students. In fact,
this is introduced in section 9.4.2.
cos(2 x) + sin 2 x = 0
cos 2 x − sin 2 x + sin 2 x = 0 ⇒ cos 2 x = 0
π π
⇒ x1 = and x2 = −
2 2
 π
⇒ S.S = 2nπ ± 
 2
3 π 2π
f. sin(6 x) = ⇒ 6 x1 = and 6 x2 =
2 3 3
π π
⇒ x1 = and x2 =
18 9
 π nπ π nπ 
⇒ S .S . =  + , + 
18 3 9 3 
2. sin2 x – sinx cos x = 0 ⇒ sin x ( sin x – cos x) = 0
⇒ sin x = 0 or sin x = cos x
π 5π
⇒ x = 0, π, 2π or x = ,
4 4
 π 5π 
⇒ S.S = 0, , π , , 2π 
 4 4 
3. a. For 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
 3 π 11 
cos x = ⇒ x= , π
 2 6 6  11 
  ⇒ S .S =  π 
 tan x = − 3 ⇒ x = 11 π  6 
 3 6 
π  2π
b. The period for y = cos  x − 2  is =6.
3  π 
 
3
π  1 π π
cos  x − 2  = ⇒ x1 − 2 = ±
3  2 3 3
 π  3  6
x1 =  2 ±   = ± 1
 3  π  π
 6 
⇒ S.S = 6n + ± 1, n = −3, − 2, − 1, 0,1, 2 
 π 
3 π
c. sec  x −  = 2 and cot x < 0 on [ 0, 2π]
2 3
3π 1
⇒ < x < 2π and cos x =
2 2
 5π 
⇒ S.S=  
 3 
d. 2 sin2 x + cos2 x – 1 = 0 ⇒ sin2 x + sin2x + cos2 x – 1 = 0 ⇒ sin2 x = 0
⇒ x = 0, π, 2π
⇒ S.S = {0, π, 2π}
9.4 APPLICATIONS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Competency
• apply trigonometric functions to solve problems from fields of science,
navigation, engineering, etc.
Vocabulary: Application
Introduction
So far, students were discussing trigonometric functions, their inverses, properties and
some applications in solving trigonometric equations. However, trigonometric functions
have applications in science, navigation, wave motions and optics among many others.
This subunit is, thus, devoted to discussing applications of trigonometric functions.
Some of the applications discussed in this subunit include solving triangles,
trigonometric formula for the sums and differences, navigation, optics problems and
simple harmonic motion.
You can also expand the discussion to other applications when available.
Teaching Notes
You know that there are tremendous applications of trigonometric functions. In this
topic, some of the applications such as solving triangles, trigonometric formula for the
sums and differences, navigation, optics problems and the simple harmonic model are
discussed. To do this, the laws of sines and cosines and some trigonometric identities
are included. You may give additional exercise problems as project work. For
discussing these practical applications, it is advisable if the students are grouped and
each application is discussed in the form of group works. While the students do the
problems in group, you can assist some of the groups who need help. You may also
organize additional application problems that will be useful for gifted students. Finally,
you assign each group to search for some application problems in other fields such as
physics and do each problem as an assignment. This will help them try every problem
by themselves.
You can also give additional exercise problems of the following type for high achievers:
1. In Figure 9.43, O is the centre of the circle and θ is in radian measure. Show that
1
the area of the segment is r2 (θ − sin θ ) .
2
θ
O B
r
Figure 9.43
2. In Figure 9.44a, AB and CD are parallel chords that are equidistant from the
centre O. If the distance between AB and CD is 2x units, find the area of the
shaded part in terms of the radius r.
A B A B
2x • O 2x • θ
O
D C D C
a b
Figure 9.44
Solution:
x  x
sin θ = ⇒ θ = sin–1  r 
r
 x
2
r 2 sin −1    x
Aθ =
πr θ
=  r  ⇒ 4 A = 2r2 sin–1   .
2π 2
θ r
1 2 1
a( ∆ AOB) = r sin( β ) = r 2 sin(π − 2θ )
2 2
1 2   x  1   x 
= r sin  π − 2sin −1    = r 2 sin  2sin −1   
2   r  2   r  r
x
1 2 2
= r sin 2θ = r sin θ cos θ
2 θ
x r 2 − x2 r 2 − x2
= r2 × × = x r 2 − x2
r r Figure 9.45
2 a ( ∆AOB) = 2x r 2 − x 2
The area of the shaded part = 4Aθ + 2a(∆AOB)

 x
2 –1  
= 2r sin  r  +2 x r 2 − x 2
cos α cos β cos γ a 2 + b 2 + c 2

3. In Figure 9.46, prove that + + = .
a b c 2 abc
Proof: a2+b2+c2 = 2a2+2b2+2c2 – 2ab cos γ – 2 bc cos α– 2ac cos β

Dividing both sides by 2abc completes the proof.
b γ a
α β
A B
c
Figure 9.46
Assessment
Give exercise problems on application of trigonometric functions.
You may also give project work on measuring
- The height of a tree
- The width of a river/pond
- The heights of historical buildings.
- The height of a cliff
- Waterfall

1.
30o 60o
A 1200 m B x C
Figure 9.47
h h h
tan 60o = ⇒ x= o
⇒ x=
x tan 60 3
h 1 h
Also, tan 30o = ⇒ =
x + 1200 3 x + 1200
h
⇒ x + 1200 = h 3 . But x =
3
h
⇒ + 1200 = h 3
3
⇒ h = 600 3 ≈ 1039
⇒ The altitude of the airplane is about 1039m

x
2. a. sin 30o = ⇒ x=4
8
y
cos 30 o = ⇒ y=4 3
8
b. θ = 180o – 120o – 20o = 40o
sin 20o sin120o 3sin120o
= ⇒x= ≈ 7.6
3 x sin 20o
sin 20o sin 40o 3sin 40o
= ⇒y= ≈ 5.6
3 y sin 20o
c. x2 = 82 + 72 – 2 × 8 × 7 × cos 150o = 113 + 56 3
⇒ x= 113 + 56 3
7 113 + 56 3 7
By law of sines, = o
⇒ = 2 113 + 56 3
sin θ sin150 sin θ
7
⇒ sin θ =
2 113 + 56 3
⇒ sin θ ≈ 0.2415⇒ θ ≈ 14o

d. By law of sines
10 x 10 × sin 20o
= ⇒ x = ≈ 20(0.342) = 6.84
sin 30o sin 20 sin 30o
e. (1.5)2 =22+12 – 2(2)(1)cosθ

2.25=4+1– 4cosθ ⇒ 0.6875 = cos θ
⇒ θ = 46.57o
y y
3. tan 60o = ⇒ x= 3m
x 3
3+ y 3 + y (3 + y ) 3
tan 70o = ⇒ tan 70o = =
x  y  y
 
 3
(3 + y ) 3 y
⇒ 2.7475 =
y
70o
⇒ 2.7475y = (3 + y) 3
60o
A x
⇒ y ≈ 5.12
Figure 9.48
⇒ The height of the building is (3 + 5.12) m = 8.12 m.
4.
D b C
a h a
θ
A B
x E F x
Figure 9.49
h
sin θ = ⇒ h = a sin θ
a
x
cos θ = ⇒ x = a cos θ
a
1 1
The area of the trapezium ABCD = xh + bh + xh
2 2
= xh + bh
= a cos θ a sin θ + ba sin θ
= a sin θ (a cos θ + b).
5.
N
Q 75o
15o
W E
45o o
45
S
Figure 9.50
RQ2 = 602 + 802 – 2 × 60 × 80 × cos 60o = 5200
⇒ PQ = 5200 ≈ 72 km
sin α sin 45o

6. =µ ⇒ = 1.33
sin β sin β
1
⇒ sin β = ≈ 0.5317
1.33 2
⇒ β = sin–1 (0.5317)
⇒ β = 32o
6− 2 2− 6
7. a b. c. 2+ 3
4 4
d. 2− 6 e. 3−2 f. − 2− 6
8. a. tan (175o − 130o) = tan 45o = 1
b. sin x
c. Note that (i) sin (2x) + sin (4x) = sin (2x) + 2 sin (2x) cos (2x)
= sin (2x) (1 + 2 cos (2x))
(ii) cos (2x) − cos(4x) = cos (2x) − (cos2 (2x) − sin2 (2x))
= cos (2x) −(2 cos2 (2x) − 1))
= cos (2x) (1 − cos (2x)) + (1 +cos (2x))
= (1 − cos (2x)) (1 + 2cos (2x))
sin(2 x)
Then the quotient will be simplified to .
1 − cos(2 x )
sin x cos x
d. 1; by direct substitution of tan x = and cot x = .
cos x sin x
e. Applying the addition identity for sin gives,
  12     5    12     5 
sin  sin −1    cos  cos −1    + cos  sin −1    sin  cos−1   
  13     13     13     13  
12 5 5 12 120
= × + × =
13 13 13 13 169
2π 1
9. a. Amplitude = 20 period = = .
40π 20
w 40π
b. f = = = 20
2π 2π
10.
N
O
W E
56 km
o
A 30 1403 km
15o
S B
Figure 9.51
2
AB = 562 + 14032 − 2 × 56 × 1403 × ≈ 1364
2
sin(A) sin 45o

Also, = ⇒ sin(A) ≈ 0.7272
1403 1364
⇒ m(∠A) ≈ 47 o
⇒ The velocity of the airplane relative to the ground is 1364 km / hr S73o E
11. 20 km/hr N 75oE is the resultant velocity.
BA = 202 + 6 2 − 2 × 20 × 6 cos 75o ≈19.34
sin A sin 75o

= ⇒ sin A ≈ 0.3
6 19.34
⇒ m(∠A) ≈ 17.5o
⇒ The velocity of the boat relative to the ground is 18 km/hr N 57.5oE.

A
20km = R
75o
W o E
O 75
o
30
Figure 9.52
12. In ∆XYZ, x = 23.5, y = 9.8, ∠ X = 39.7o.
X
First a draw∆XYZ and organize the given information
z 39.7o
o 9.8
∠ X = 39.7 x = 23.5
∠ Y =? y = 9.8 Y Z
23.5
∠ Z =? z =? Figure 9.53
Using the SSA situation and beginning by finding y with the law of sines:
x y 23.5 9.8
= ⇒ o
=
sin X sin Y sin 39.7 sin Y
⇒ sin Y = 0.2664
There are two angles less than 180o with a sine of 0.2664. They are 15.4o and
164.6o, to the nearest of a degree. An angle of 164.6o cannot be an angle of this
triangle because it already has an angle of 39.7o and these two angles would total
more than 180o. Thus 15.4o is the only possibility for Y.
Therefore, ∠ Z = 180o − (39.7o + 15.4o) ≈ 124.98
We now find z.
z x z 23.5
= ⇒ o
=
sin Z sin X sin124.9 sin 39.7 o
⇒ z ≅ 30.2 .
13. In ∆ABC, b = 15, c = 20, and ∠ B = 29o.

Listing the known measures shows that you have the SSA situation.
A
∠ A =? a =?
20
15
∠ B = 29o b = 15
o
29
∠ C =? c = 20 B a C
Figure 9.54
We first find C:
b c 15 20
= ⇒ o
=
sin B sin C sin 29 sin C
20 sin 29o
⇒ sin C = ≈ 0.6464
15
There are two angles less than 180o with a sine of 0.6464. They are 40o and 140o,
to the nearest degree. This gives you two possible solutions.
9.8 39.7
Z Y
23.5
Figure 9.55
Possible solution I
If C = 40o A
o
A = 180o − (29o + 40o) = 111o 20 111 15
o o
29 40
Then, we find a B C
29
a b a 15
= ⇒ o
= Figure 9.56
sin A sin B sin111 sin29 o
15.sin111o
⇒a= ≈ 29
sin 29o
These measures make two triangles as shown in figure 9.56 and 9.57.
Possible solution II
If C = 140o, then
A
o o o) o
A = 180 − (29 + 140 = 11
o
Then, we find a: 11
15
a b a 15 20
= ⇒ o
= 140
sin A sin B sin11 sin 29 o o
o C
15 sin 11o 29
6
a= ≈ 6 B
sin 29o
Figure 9.57
14. x 2 = a 2 cos 2 θ − 2 ab cos θ sin θ + b 2 sin 2 θ
y 2 = a 2 sin 2 θ + 2ab cos θ sin θ + b 2 cos 2 θ
ℓ 1.2
15. a. T = 2π = 2π ≈ 2.2seconds
g 9.8
2π 2π
b. ω= = ≈ 2.9 / sec.
T 2.2
c. y = a cos(ωt ) = 0.06 cos(2.9t ).

1. The statements can be proved using the symmetric properties of sine, cosine and
tangent and periodic property of cotangent in question 1(a).
2. a. 2 b. 2 c. 0
π
3. Shifting the graph of y = csc x by units to the left gives the graph of y = sec x.
2
4. f ( x ) = a sin ( kx )
2π 2
a. a = 3, = π ⇒k =5
k 5
⇒ f ( x) = ± 3sin (5 x)
2
b. a = , f (3) = 0 ⇒ sin (3k) = 0
5
⇒ 3k = 0, π, 2π
π 2
⇒ k = 0, , π , but k = 0 cannot be a solution.
3 3
2 π  2 2 
⇒ f (x) = ± sin  x  or ± sin  π x 
5 3  5 3 
  π  kπ π 3
c. sin  k    = 1 ⇒ = ⇒ k=
  3  3 2 2
3 
⇒ f ( x ) = 5 sin  x 
2 
  π 
d. f ( x) = ± 2 sin (kx ) with sin  k    = 0
  3 
kπ
⇒ = 0, π , 2π
3
⇒ k = 0, 3π, 6π
⇒ f ( x ) = ± 2 sin (3 x) or ± 2 sin (6 x )
5. f ( x ) = a cos ( kx )
a. f ( x ) = ± 3 cos (5 x) ⇒ f (3) = 0
π 3 π π
b. ⇒ 3k = , π ⇒ k= ,
2 2 6 2
2 π  2 π 
⇒ f ( x) = ± cos  x  or ± cos  x 
5 6  5 2 
π  π
c. cos  k  = 1 ⇒ k = 0, 2π
3  3
⇒ k = 0, 6 but k = 0 is not possible.

⇒ f ( x) = 5 cos 6 x.
π  π π 3π 3 9
d. cos  k  = 0 ⇒ k = , ⇒ k= ,
3  3 2 2 2 2
3  9 
⇒ f ( x ) = ± 2 cos  x  or ± 2 cos  x 
2  2 
π π π
6. a. − b. c. −
4 4 3
7. a. 5.4o b. 56.56o c. – 67.5o
3 −3 3 7
8. a. b. 0.025 c. d.
5 4 8
65
e. 1 − x2 f. 1 − x2 g.
4
h. Using the fact that sine and arctangent are odd function, you have:
  4   −1  4  
sin  2 tan −1  −   = – sin  2 tan  5  
  5    
4
Let θ = tan–1   See Figure 9.57
5 41
4
θ
  4 
Then, –sin  2 tan −1    = –sin (2θ) = –2 sin θ cos θ 5
  5 
Figure 9.58
4 5 40
= 2× × =
41 41 41
9. sin α = sin (α + θ – θ) = sin (α + θ) cos θ – cos (α + θ) sin θ
2
4  55  48
But cos θ = and cos (α + θ ) = 1 −   =
5  73  73
55 4 48 3 76
Hence, sin α = × − × =
73 5 73 5 365
10. Clearly
−35 x
cos x = and cos < 0
37 2
From the identify
−35
+1
x cos x + 1 x 37 1
cos2 =± ⇒ cos = ± =±
2 2 2 2 37
x 1
⇒ cos =−
2 37
y = 2sin  x − 
π
11. a.
 2
y
2
1
x
-π -0.5π 0.5π π
-1
-2
Figure 9.59
y = cos  + 
x π
b.
2 4
y
2
x
-2π -π π 2π
Figure 9.60
[
1 π
c. y = 3 − sin  x + 
2 4
y
4
x
-2π -π π 2π
Figure 9.61
π 
d. y = 2cos  x +3
 4 
6
y
5
1
x
-4 -2 2 4
Figure 9.62
5 c 5 c
12. a. = ⇒ o
=
sin α sin γ sin 60 sin 70o
5
⇒ c= × sin 70o
 3
 
 2 
10 3
⇒ c≈ ( 0.9397 )
3
⇒ c ≈ 5.4254
5 b 10 3
and o
= o
⇒b= × sin 50o
sin 60 sin 50 3
10 3
⇒ b≈ ( 0.76602 )
3
⇒ b ≈ 4.4225
5 3 3  2
b. o
= ⇒ sin β = sin 45o = 0.6  
sin 45 sin β 5  2 
⇒ sin β ≈ 0.4243
⇒ β ≈ 25o
11 24 24
c. o
= ⇒ sin β = × sin 59.5o
sin 59.5 sin β 11
24
= ( 0.8616 ) ≈ 1.8799
11
This is impossible sine sin β ≤ 1. There is no such triangle.
13. a. c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos γ = 52 + 62 – 2 × 5 × 6 × cos 60
= 31
⇒ c= 31
b. a2 = b2 + c2 – 2ab cos α
= 82 + 72 – 2 × 8 × 7 cos 30o
= 113 – 56 3
⇒ a= 113 − 56 3
c. b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac cos β
= 202 + 302 – 2 × 20 × 30 × cos 110o
= 400 + 900 – 1200 (– 0.3420)
≈ 1710.4
⇒ b = 41.357
14. a. sin(2 x) = 3 sin x ⇒ 2 sin x cos x = 3 sin x
⇒ 2 sin x cos x – 3 sin x = 0
⇒ sin x 2 cos x − 3 = 0
( )
⇒ sin x = 0 or 2cos x − 3 = 0
π
⇒ x = nπ or x = 2 nπ ± ; n∈ℤ
6
 π 
⇒ S .S = nπ , 2nπ ± ; n ∈ 
 6 
1
b. sin(2 x) = −
2
5π 7π
The particular solutions are 2 x1 = , 2 x2 =
4 4
5π 7π
⇒ x1 = , x2 =
8 8
 5π 7π 
⇒ S.S =  + nπ , + nπ ; n ∈ ℤ 
8 8 
 5π nπ 
Also, S .S =  (−1) n + ;n∈ 
8 2 
 π π π 7π
c. tan  3 x −  = 3 ⇒ 3 x1 − = ⇒ x1 =
 4 4 3 36
 7π 
⇒ S .S =  + nπ ; n ∈ 
 36 
d. 2 sin x = sin (2x) ⇒ 2 sin x = 2 sin x cos x
⇒ sin x = 0 or cos x = 1
⇒ S.S = {nπ , 2nπ ; n ∈ } = {nπ ; n ∈ }

x x x  x
e. tan   − 2sin x = 0 ⇒ tan   − 4sin   cos   = 0
 2 2 2  2
 
x  1 x  x  x
sin    − 4 cos   = 0  ⇒ sin   = 0 or 1 − 4 cos2   = 0
 2   cos  x  2  2  2
   
 2 
x  x 1
⇒ = nπ or cos   = ±
2  2 2
2π 4
⇒ x = 2 nπ , 4 nπ + or x = 4 nπ ± π
3 3
 2π 4   2π 
⇒ S .S = 2nπ , 4nπ ± , 4nπ ± π  = 2nπ , 2nπ ± 
 3 3   3 
1
15. If A drives 80 km/hr, then it drives 120 km in 1 hours. Similarly if B drives
2
1
90 km/hr, it drives 135 km in 1 hours. See figure 9.62.
2
N A
120 km
o
30
W o E
30 0
o
60
135 km
B
Figure 9.63
AB2 = (135)2 + (120)2 – 2 × 135 × 120 cos (150o)
= 32625+16200 3
AB = 246.34
They are 246.34 km far apart.
16. Let x be the width of the river, then
h
tan 15o = ⇒ h = x tan15o ≈ 0.2679 x
x
15m
o h + 15
tan 30 =
x
x 3
⇒ h + 15 = x tan 30o =
3 h
But h = 0.2679x
x 3 15o
⇒ 0.2679x + 15 = 30 o
3
x
⇒ x = 48.4731
⇒ The width of the river is about 48.5 m. Figure 9.64
sin 40o 0.6428

17. = 1.309 ⇒ = 1.309
sin β sin β
0.6428
⇒ sin β = ≈ 0.4912
1.309
⇒ β ≈ 29.42o
18. a. cos 4 x − sin 4 = (cos2 x − sin 2 x)(cos 2 x + sin 2 x)
= cos 2 x − sin 2 x
= cos(2 x)
cos x
−1
cot x − 1 sin x cos x − sin x
b. = =
cot x + 1 cos x cos x + sin x
+1
sin x
cos x − sin x cos x + sin x
= .
cos x + sin x cos x + sin x
cos2 x − sin 2 x
=
cos 2 x + sin 2 x + 2sin x cos x
cos(2 x)
=
1 + sin(2 x )
19. Let sin–1 x =θ, then tan (2 sin–1 x)) = tan 2θ

2 tan θ x
= 1
1 − tan 2 θ θ
2x 1 − x2 1 − x2
=
1 − 2x2
Figure 9.65
 2π t 
20. P(t ) = 5 + 3sin   ; 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
 5 
a. The initial population is when t = 0
 2π × 0 
P(0) = 5 + 3 sin  =5
 5 
⇒ The initial population is 500 birds.
 2π t 
b. The population is the largest if sin   = 1 and it is the smallest if
 5 
 2π t 
sin   = −1 .
 5 
Hence, the maximum population is (5 + 3 × 1) × 100 = 800 birds and the
minimum population is (5 + 3( −1)) ×100 = 200 birds
 2π t   2π t 
c. P(t ) ×100 = 350 ⇒ 5 + 3 sin   = 3.5 ⇒ sin   = −0.5
 5   5 
2π t 7π 11
⇒ = ⇒ t=2 .
5 6 12
The population for the first time reaches 350 birds, almost at the third month.
 2n(12)   4 
d. P(12) = 5 + 3sin   = 5 + 3sin  4π + π 
 5   5 
4  π 
= 5 + 3sin  π  = 5 + 3sin  
5  5
= 5 + 3 (0.5878)
= 6.7634
⇒ After one year, the population reaches 676 birds.
UNIT
10 INTRODUCTION
TO LINEAR
PROGRAMMING
INTRODUCTION
Many real life problems involve finding the maximum or minimum value of a function.
For this purpose, there are different approaches of finding the maximum or minimum
value of a function that may represent a real life problem under certain conditions. In
particular, linear programming is a field of mathematics that deals with the problem of
finding the maximum or minimum value of a given linear function subject to certain
conditions expressed as linear equalities or inequalities. In this unit, the graphical
method of solving linear programming problems involving two variables is discussed.
For problems with more than two variables and many constraints, the simplex method is
used which is not included in this text.
Unit Outcomes
• identify regions of inequality graphs.
• create real life examples of linear programming problems using inequalities
and solve them.
343

This unit starts with a review of linear graphs and you may use a big ruler to draw lines
on the board. When you find graphical solutions of systems of linear inequalities you
can use different colored chalks to sketch solution regions. For real life linear
programming problems, you can encourage students to identify several points by asking
them whether a point is in the feasible region or not. In order to do this, you may
prepare graphed flip charts. You can also use various softwares than can freely be found
in the internet through which you can describe the ideas, feasible region, critical points
and solution to a linear programming problem.
10.1 REVISION ON LINEAR GRAPHS

Competency
• draw graph of linear inequalities y ≤ mx + c, y ≥ mx + c, ax + by ≥ c, and
ax + by ≤ c.
Introduction
In unit 3, students have studied the concepts of coordinate geometry where the first
section was the straight line. This subunit is intended to give students a quick review of
graphing straight lines which they have discussed previously.
Teaching Notes
It is expected that students have a good background on the different forms of equations
of straight lines. Both Activity 10.1 and Exercise 10.1 are intended to see if students
recall the concepts discussed in unit 3. You can encourage students to identify parallel
and perpendicular lines and indicate the form of the equation of the given lines. To help
them recall some of the key ideas from what they have learned about lines in unit 3, you
can let them do Activity 10.1.
3 − (−2) 5
a. Slope m = = =5 ⇒ k =2
k −1 k −1
3 −1 2
b. Slope of ℓ1 is m1 = =−
−2 − 1 3
6−2 4 −2
Slope of ℓ2 is m2 = =− = = m1
−3 − 3 6 3
Therefore, ℓ1 is parallel to ℓ2.
Unit 10 – Introduction to linear programming 345
You can also let them do the examples given in the student textbook and some more
other exercises.
Assessment
To make sure that the students have recalled what they have studied in unit 3 and can
proceed further, you can give them exercise 10.1 (1) as class work (2) and (3) as
homework and check their results.

1. a. y – 3 = 4 (x + 1) or y = 4x + 7
1 − 2 −1 1
b. m= = =
−4 − 1 −5 5
1 1 9
Equation: y − 2 = ( x − 1) ⇒ y = x +
5 5 5
c. y = – 2x + 5
−4
2. Slope of the line 4x + ky = 8 is m1 =
k
−1
Slope of the line x + 2y = 0 is m2 =
2
−4 −1
Parallel means m1 = m2 ⇒ = ⇒ k =8
k 2
3. As we can observe from the graph, the two lines y = 2x – 1 and y = 2x + 3 do not
cross each other because they have the same slope (they are parallel). But lines
y = 2x – 1 and 3x – 2y = 4 meet at (–2, –5). Similarly, y = 2x + 3 and 3x – 2y = 4
meet (crosses) at (–10, –17).
y
6
5
4
y = 2x + 3
3
2
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4
−1
−2
y = 2x − 1
−3
−4 3x − 2y = 4
−5
−6
−7
Figure 10.1
10.2 GRAPHICAL SOLUTIONS OF SYSTEMS OF

LINEAR INEQUALITIES
Competency
• draw graphs of linear inequalities.
Introduction
In this sub-unit, students are expected to identify regions satisfied by a system of
linear inequalities. Such regions are called solution (feasible) regions. In addition to
half planes and possibly their intersections, finding feasible regions will involve
solving systems of two equations with two variables simultaneously.
Teaching Notes
Once students are familiar with drawing lines, discuss the fact that a line divides the plane
into two half-planes. A linear inequality is satisfied by one of the two half-planes. To
check which half is satisfied by the linear inequality, you can test a point not on the
line. An inequality of the form ax + by < c does not contain the boundary line, (use
broken line); whereas ax + by ≤ c contains the boundary line (use unbroken or solid
line).
A graphical solution of a system of linear inequalities is then the intersection of the
regions satisfied by all the given inequalities. Finding the corner points or vertices of
such regions needs solving equations simultaneously. You can check if students can
recall this method by asking some of them to stand up and do it on the board.
To make the students practice shading feasible regions, you can let them do Activity
10.2. This activity has dual purpose. One is drawing lines and the other is identifying
the feasible region.

This activity will enable students to shade regions of single linear inequalities.
a. b. c.
y y
5 5 y
4 5
4
x≥0 3 4
3
2 3
2 y ≥ 3x
1 2
1 x
x 1
−2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−2 −1
−2 −3 −2
−3 −4 y < −1 −3
Figure 10.2 Figure 10.3 Figure 10.4

d. e. f.
y y y
5 5 5
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2 4x + y ≥ 1 2
1 x 1 x 1 x
−2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 −2 −1−1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−2 −2 −2
x > 2y −x + 3y < 2
−3 −3 −3
Figure 10.5 Figure 10.6 Figure 10.7
Once you make sure that the students can shade a feasible region, you can give them
some ordered pairs and ask them whether they are feasible or not feasible, i.e. whether
they lie in the feasible region or not. For instance, in Activity 10.2 (c) you can take the
point (2, 8) which is feasible and the point (4, 3) which is not feasible. It is also possible
to let the students practice checking whether points lie in the feasible region from the
questions in Exercise 10.2.
After they have done these, you can proceed to discussing two inequalities and
determine feasible regions. You can use example 3 and 4 of the student textbook.
Continuing in the same way, you can let the students practice to find feasible (solution)
region from more than two inequalities. To do this, you can discuss example 5 of the
student text book and give them more questions. Let them also determine the corner
points and practice if some other points lie in the feasible region.
You can give Exercise 10.2 as homework. On this question, you can also ask them to
determine the corner points for each feasible region.
Assessment
To make sure that the students have understood feasible regions and corner points, you
can give them several problems which they each need to do individually. You can also
use Exercise 10.2 and ask the students whether or not the points (2, 2), (−1, 3) and (3, 5)
are feasible in (b).

a. b.
y
8
7
6
y 5 x−y=2
4
2 x=0 3
2
x + 2y = 8
1 1
x
y=0 x −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1 3 −2
−2 −1 2 x+y=2
−3
2x + 3y = 4 x=4
−1 −4
−
c. d.
y y
16 32
14 28
4x + y = 48
12 24
10 20
8 16
3x + 5y = 30 6 12
2x + 3y = 60
4 8
2 4 x
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 −8 −4
−4
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
−2
−2 −8
x+y=8 2x + y = 28
−3 −12

10.3 MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM VALUES

Competency
• find maximum and minimum values of a given objective function under
given constraints.
Introduction
Many applications in business and economics involve a process called optimization in
which we are asked to find the maximum or the minimum value of a quantity. The
function whose maximum or minimum value is to be found under certain conditions is
called the objective function. In this text, we consider an optimization strategy called
linear programming. In particular, when the objective function depends on two variables
(x and y), we can easily solve it using graphical methods in the plane.
Teaching Notes
Before you give the formal definition of maximum and minimum values of a function,
make sure that students understand how they can transform the word problem in Group
Work 10.1 into a system of linear inequalities.
You can guide them to first assign variables for the two numbers say x and y. Since the
numbers are positive, guide them to realize that x > 0 and y > 0. From their difference
being at most 7, they need to get x – y ≤ 7. You also need to consider x + y ≥ 15. Under
all these given conditions (constraints), emphasize that the objective is to find x and y
whose product xy is the largest (maximum). You can tell them that they should not worry
about the exact solution since they can easily solve it after the discussion of the
fundamental Theorem of linear programming.
After they formulate the feasible region, it is advisable to discuss what the maximum and
the minimum values are and what they mean mathematically. Then you let them discuss
Example 1 of the student textbook so as to state the Fundamental Theorem of Linear
Programming. Here students need to understand why we use straight lines at fixed values
of Z to get the maximum or minimum solution. Right after stating the Fundamental
Theorem of Linear Programming, they need to realize that simply checking the objective
function values at the corner points is sufficient to determine the maximum or minimum
value. Describe this by use of Example 2 of the student textbook. And, by forming groups
of students let them do Activity 10.3. This activity will help them to practice solving or
finding maximum or minimum values. When they do the activity, let some group
members present their work to the whole class and discuss their solutions.
2 
1. You can take the points (1, 1) and  , 1 inside the solution region with z = 5 and
3 
z = 4, respectively.
2. a. vertices at (0, 0), (5, 0) and (0, 2) y
4
Vertex z = 6x + 10y x=0
3
(0, 0) z = 6(0) + 10(0) = 0
(5, 0) z = 6(5) + 10(0) = 30
2
2x + 5y = 10
(0, 2) z = 6(0) + 10(2) = 20 1
y=0 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6
−1
−2
−3
Figure 10.12
Thus, maximum value of z is 30 and minimum is 0.
b. vertices at (0, 0), (36, 0), (24, 8) and (0, 20)
Vertex z = 4x + y y
40
(0, 0) z = 4 (0) + 0 = 0 35
(36, 0) z = 4(36) + 0 = 144 30 x = 0
(24, 8) z = 4(24) + 8 = 104 25
x + 2y = 40
(0, 20) z = 4 (0) + 20 = 20 20
2x + 3y = 72
15
10
• (24, 8)
5
x
y=0
−20 −15 −10 −5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
−5
−10
Figure 10.13
Thus, maximum value is 144 and minimum value is 0.
Following the activity which they have done in group, you can give them as many
examples and exercises as possible to practice individually. These may, as well, help
you to assess students’ understanding. While they do the group work, you can let those
who finished early do the following problems in class.
a. maximize P = 2x + y b. maximize P = x + 3y
subject to x ≥ 0 subject to 7x + 4y ≤ 28
y≥0 5x + 9y ≤ 45
4x + 3y ≤ 12 5x – 3y ≤ 15
5x + 2y ≤ 10 x, y ≥ 0
Assessment
To make sure that the students are capable of finding maximum or minimum values,
you can use exercise 10.3 for the purpose of assessment. It is also possible to give a test
or quiz.

a. vertices at (0, 0), (10, 0), (12, 2) and (0, 8).
y
Vertex z = 2x + 3y 16
(0, 0) z = 2 (0) + 3(0) = 0 14

12 x = 0
(10, 0) z = 2(10) + 3(0) = 20
10
(12, 2) z = 2 (12) + 3 (2) = 30
8 x + 2y = 16
(0, 8) z = 2 (0) + 3 (8) = 24 x − y = 10
6
The maximum value = 30 and minimum
4 (12, 2)
value = 0.
2 •
x
y=0
−6 −4 −2
−2
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
−4
Figure 10.14
 22  y
b. vertices at (0, 0), (14, 0), (7, 3) and  0,  16
 5  14
Vertex z = 2x + 3y 12 x = 0
10
(0, 0) z = 2 (0) + 3(0) = 0 8
3x + 7y = 42
(14, 0) z = 2(14) + 3(0) = 28 6
x + 5y = 22 4
(7, 3) z = 2 (7) + 3 (3) = 23 •
(7, 3)
2
x
22 22 66 y=0
(0, ) z = 2 (0) + 3 ( ) = −8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
5 5 5 −2
−4
The maximum value is 28 and minimum is 0.
Figure 10.15
c. The point of intersection of y

8
x + 2y = 4 and 3x + y = 7 is (2, 1). x=0 −x + 2y = 7
7
The point of intersection of 6 3x + y = 7
3x + y = 7 and –x + 2y = 7 is (1, 4). 5 (1, 4)
x + 2y = 4 4
Vertex z = 4x + 2y •
3
(2, 1) z = 4 (2) + 2(1) = 10
2
(1, 4) z = 4(1) + 2(4) = 12 1 •
(2, 1) x
(4, 0) z = 4 (4) + 2 (0) = 16 y=0
4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
−1
Figure 10.16
The minimum value is 10 at (2, 1).
This problem has no maximum value.
d. vertices at (0, 0), (5, 0), (0, 3) and (4, 1).
z = 4x + 5y
(0, 0) z = 4 (0) + 5 (0) = 0
(5, 0) z = 4 (5) + 5 (0) = 20
(0, 3) z = 4 (0) + 5 (3) = 15
(4, 1) z = 4 (4) + 5 (1) = 21
Figure 10.17
e. vertices at (3, 0), (0, 2), (0, 4) and (5, 3).
vertex z = 4x + 3y
(3, 0) z = 4 (3) + 3 (0) = 12
(0, 2) z = 4 (0) + 3 (2) = 6
(0, 4) z = 4 (0) + 3 (4) = 12
(5, 3) z = 4 (5) + 3 (3) = 29

Figure 10.18
f. vertices at (0, 0), (2, 0), (6, 4) and (2, 6).

vertex
z = 3x + 4y
(0, 0) z=0
(2, 0) z=6
(6, 4) z = 34
(2, 6) z = 30
Figure 10.19
10.4 REAL LIFE LINEAR PROGRAMMING PROBLEMS

Competencies
• create linear inequalities from real life problems.
• solve real life linear programming problems.
Introduction
In the examples and exercises given in the student textbook, the objective function and the
constraints were given as linear equations and inequalities respectively. But in real life
practical problems, both the objective function and the constraints have to be constructed
from some given conditions. This sub-unit deals with how real life problems can be
formulated as mathematical problems consisting of objective function and constraints.
Teaching Notes
Solving real life linear programming problems involves two basic steps:
1. expressing the problem in terms of objective function and constraints (as linear
equalities or inequalities)
2. solve the linear programming problem using the techniques discussed in sub-unit
10.3.
To begin this sub-unit, you can form groups of students and let them do Group Work
10.2. This Group work will help you to see if students can construct an objective
function and inequality constraints. It will also help you to guide students to perform
the above two steps in the practical examples given in sub-unit 10.4. When the students
do the group work, you can select some group members to present their work to the
whole class and discuss their work.
Answer to Group work 10.2

1. a. The profit from sales of 6 chairs and 4 tables is 9(6) + 7(4) = 82 Birr.
b. If x represents number of chairs and y represents number of tables, then the
objective function (in this case profit function) will be 9x + 7y.
2. The three inequalities and the corresponding region are given by:
a. C ≥2 b. W≥2 c. C + W ≤ 10
W
10
9
8
C=2
7
6
5 C + W = 10
4
3
W=2
2
1
C
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
−1
−2
Figure 10.20
You then proceed to discuss the examples given in the student text book with active
participation of the students. At the end, you summarize the steps the students can use to
solve geometrically real life optimization problems of the examples type.
To enable students work with such optimization problems from their real life you can
give them a task as group work where they, for example, can go to a workshop that
produces doors and windows, chairs and tables, or beds and cupboards, etc from their
surroundings, formulate a linear programming problem and solve it. This may be
suitable, however, for clever students. You can also give them the following problems
as homework and make them present their results in class.
Chaltu raises two types of animals, namely, hens and goats for commercial purpose. She
does not want to raise more than 18 animals. It costs her Birr 6 to raise a hen and Birr
12 to raise a goat. She has Birr 156 available for this purpose. The profit from each hen
is Birr 8 and the profit from each goat is Birr 18. How many of each animals should she
raise to maximize profit?
Assessment
For the purpose of assessing students’ understanding, you can give them several
problems as homework. You may also use exercise 10.4 for the purpose of assessment.
Since this is the end of the unit, it is also possible to give a test or quiz.

a. Let x = the number of sheep to be bought.
and y = the number of goats to be bought.
Then 300x + 200y ≤ 1700.
i. The maximum number of goats he can buy is 8 (since 200 (8) = 1600
but 200 (9) = 1800 > 1700) or 200 y ≤ 1700 ⇒ y ≤ 8.5
Therefore, the maximum no goats he can buy is 8.
ii. He bought 2 sheep for Birr 600. He is left with Birr 1100 which can
buy maximum 5 goats. 200y ≤ 1100 ⇒ y ≤ 5.5 and hence the
maximum number of goats he can buy is 5.
iii. 4 sheep and 3 goats is Birr 1800 which is not possible.
2 sheep and 5 goats is Birr 1600 which is possible.
3 sheep and 4 goats is Birr 1700 which is possible (and is the
maximum possible).
b. To define the decision variables, let

x = the number of Table A to be produced.
and y = the number of Table B to be produced.
Summarize in table form as:
Table A Table B Max. hrs
Cutting time 2 10 112

Assembling time 4 3 54
Profit 60 170
Then, the objective function is to maximize profit

P = 60x + 170y
Subject to 2x + 10y ≤ 112,
4x + 3y ≤ 54,
x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0
Vertices at (13.5,0) , (6, 10) and (0, 11.2) with maximum profit of Birr 2060
attained by producing 6 Table A and 10 Table B.
y
30
25
20
4x + 3y = 54
15
(6, 10)
10 •
5 2x + 10y = 112
x
−10 −5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
−5
−10
Figure 10.21
c. Let x = number of buses
y = number of vans
Summary:
Buses Vans
Students 36 6
Supervisors 4 1
Cost 1000 150
Minimize cost C = 1000 x + 150y

Subject to 36x + 6y ≥ 420
4x + y ≤ 48,
x, y ≥ 0
 35 
The vertices are  , 0  , (12, 0 ) and (11, 4)
 3 
The minimum cost Birr11, 600 is attained if the officers rent 11 buses and 4 vans.
y
12
10
36x + 6y = 420
8
6
x=0
4 •(11, 4)
Feasible region
2
y=0 x
−4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
−2
4x + y = 48
−4
Figure 10.22
−3 1
1. a. m= b. m = tan 45 = 1 c. m=
4 2
2. Take two points from each and sketch
y
5
4
3 x − 5y = 2
2
1
x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
y = 3x − 4 −2
−3
−4
−5
Figure 10.23
3. a. b.
y y
8
5
7
4 y − 2x = 4
3x − y = 4 y + 2x = 4 6
3
2 5
4
1 x − 5y = 2
x 3
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 2
−1
1
−2 x
−3 1
−4 −3 −2 −1 2 3 4 5
−1
−4
−2
c. d.
y
8 y
7 x=2 5
y + 2x = 4 4
x=0
6
5 3
4 2y + 3x = 6
2
3
1
2 x
1 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
y=0 x −1
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 −2
−1
−
4. a. Vertices at (0, 0), (4, 0), (3, 4) and (0, 5).

Maximum value 17 at (3, 4) and minimum value 0 at (0, 0).
y
12
10
4x + y = 16
8
6
(3, 4)
4 •
x + 3y = 15
2
y=0 x
6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
−2
−4
x=0
−6
Figure 10.28
b. Vertices at (40, 20), (80, 0) and (0, 100).
Minimum value 140 at (40, 20). No maximum value.
y
100
90
80
70
60
50
40 x + 2y = 80
30
20 •
(40, 20)
10
y=0 x
−30 −20 −10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
−10
−20
x=0 2x + y = 100
30
Figure 10.29
c. Maximum value 740 at (60, 20) and minimum value 0 at (0, 0).
y
80
70 5x + 6y = 420
60
y = 45 50 (30, 45)
•
40
30
(60, 20)
20 •
10
y=0 x
−30 −20 −10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

−10
−20
x = 60
−30 x = 0
Figure 10.30
 3
d. Vertices at (4, 0), 1,  .
 2
 3
Minimum value is 9 at  1,  . . No maximum value.
 2
y
5
x + 2y = 4
4
3
2
1
y=0 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
−1
−2 3x − 4y = 12
−3
x=1
−4
Figure 10.31
5. a. Let x = number of radios of model A

y = number of radios of model B
22 hrs means 22 × 60 = 1320 min.
25 hrs means 25 × 60 = 1500 min.
Summary:
Model A Model B Max. min.
Assembly line I 20 10 1320

Assembly line II 10 15 1500
Profit 10 14
Maximize profit P = 10x + 14y

Subject to 20x + 10y ≤ 1320
10x + 15y ≤ 1500,
x, y ≥ 0
Maximum Birr 1416 at (24, 84).
Thus Ahadu’s company must produce 24 radios of model A and 84 radios of
model B to get maximum profit of Birr 1416.
y
160
140
120 20x + 10y = 1320
100
(24, 84)
80 •
60
10x + 15y = 1500
40
20
y=0 x
−60 −40 −20 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

−20
−40
x=0
−60
Figure 10.32
b. Let x = the no of bags of Brand X

y = the no of bags of Brand Y
Brand X Brand Y Min.
requirement
units of A 2 1 12
units of B 2 9 36
units of C 2 3 24
Cost 25 20
Minimize cost C = 25x + 20y

Subject to: 2x + y ≥ 12
2x + 9y ≥ 36
2x + 3y ≥ 24
x, y ≥ 0
Vertices at (0, 12), (18, 0) P(3, 6) and Q (9, 2)
Minimum cost is Birr 195 obtained at P(3, 60) ; i.e. 3 bags of Brand X and 6 bags
of Brand Y.
y
12
10
8
6
2x + 9y = 36 4
2
x
−8 −6 −4 −2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
−2
−4
2x + 3y = 24
−6 2x + y = 12
Figure 10.33
UNIT
11 MATHEMATICAL
APPLICATIONS
IN BUSINESS
INTRODUCTION
The application of mathematics in business involves simple arithmetic operations to
compute the profit or loss, or to determine the corresponding percentage. Whenever
people are engaged in business directly or indirectly, they are involved with financial
institutions such as bank, insurance, etc. Hence, one has to know how to compute the
amount of interest obtained or paid for that institution. On the other hand, s/he has to be
able to identify and compute the amount of tax that has to be paid for the government.
It is expected that you have to make sure that the students have correctly understood the
terms in each section. This can be attained by involving them in solving the examples
given in the textbook and then doing activities and exercises following the examples.
To this end, this unit deals with the concepts of basic mathematics in business,
compound interest and depreciation, saving, investing and borrowing money, and
taxation.
Unit Outcomes
• know common terms related to business.
• know basic concepts in business.
• apply mathematical principles and theories in practical situations.
363

Since this unit is of practical nature where students can utilize samples and discuss real
problems, it may require intensive use of teaching aids. From among the many possible
teaching aids apart from the students textbook and teacher’s guide, the following can
also be used as teaching aid for this unit.
Sample of bank account book of an individual.
Tax proclamation and regulations of the government of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia or of your region.
VAT declaration and collection formats.
Schedule for the payment of presumptive taxation.
Sample of payroll sheet of an organization.
Annual reports of Saving and Credit Associations.
Annual budget proclaims by the government for a particular year with its
details of sources and uses of the funds, etc.
11.1 BASIC MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS IN

BUSINESS
Competencies
• compare quantities in terms of ratio.
• calculate the ratio of increase in price of decrease in price of commodities.
• solve problems on proportional variation in business.
• solve problems on compound proportion.
• find a required percentage of certain given amount.
• compute problems on percentage increase or percentage decrease.
Vocabulary: Ratio, Rate, Rate of change, Rate of increase, Rate of decrease, Proportion,
Simple proportion, Compound proportion, Mean proportional, Percentage,
Base, Discount, Markup
Introduction
As the topic suggests, this section primarily introduces the basic mathematical concepts
associated with business activities. You are expected to raise and discuss concepts like
ratio, rate, proportion, compound proportion, percent, commercial discount, mark-up, etc.
Unit 11 – Mathematical Applications in Business 365
Teaching Notes
It is always a good practice to start the lesson by revising important ideas about ratio,
rate, proportion and percentage. Raising real life examples of the concepts help the
students to have a better understanding of each concept.
Remind students, for example, the concept “ratio” as an expression used to compare two
quantities that have the same unit and show them how ratio is written.
For better understanding, you can let the students do Activity 11.1. This activity will
help the students mathematically calculate ratio and discuss it.

20 1 20 1
a. = = 1: 2 b. = = 1: 3
40 2 60 3
When the students finalize doing and discussing the activity, you can discuss some more
examples as presented in the student textbook. Encourage students to identify problems
from their surrounding that requires consideration or application of ratio. To this end,
give them Exercise 11.1 as class work or homework.
Assessment
To assess whether students have understood the concept of ratio, you can give them
practical questions such as: What is the ratio of female students to the total number of
students in your section? What is the ratio of male students to female students?, etc.
You can also give them exercises that are similar to the examples given in the students
textbook. You can also use Exercise 11.1 for assessment purpose.

1. 4890 Birr, 3260 Birr, 1630 Birr, and 9780 Birr, respectively.
2. The total amount of money shared among the three is 32,704.00 Birr (Hint: The
2 4
ratio of the division is : : 2 , and the common denominator for the ratio is 15.
5 3
2 4 6 20 30
Hence the ratio can be expressed as : : 2 = : : . Therefore, the
5 3 15 15 15
total part to be allocated is 6 + 20 + 30 = 56)
Owing to the understanding of ratio, the next point for discussion is rate. Rate is
another important concept that students should know. Introduce it as a concept which is
used to compare two quantities that have different units.
You can use the examples presented in the student textbook for explaining rate. At this
moment, it is advisable for the students to recognize that a “ratio” can be a “rate”. At
last, use several examples from daily life so that students can differentiate rate from
“ratio”. Explain “rate of change” in general and “rate of increase” and “rate of decrease”
in particularin relation to selling and buying goods. To explain these concepts, you can
use the examples given in the students textbook, and finally let students do exercises on
rates of increase and decrease.
For the purpose of assessing students’ understanding, before you pass onto the next
point of discussion, you can give them Exercise 11.2 either as class work or homework,
and check their results.
Assessment
You can assess your students through several approaches. You can ask oral questions to
explain the relation and difference between ratio and rate. You can give them exercises
that are similar to the examples given in the students textbook focusing on ratio, rate of
change, rate of increase and rate of decrease. You can also use Exercise 11.2 for
assessment purpose.
1. 40 Birr per unit 2. 0.54
Once students have understood the concepts of ratio and rate, another important
consideration in business mathematics is proportion. To introduce proportion, raise
issues like the following:
Three towns A, B and C have a population of 20,000; 332,000 and
40,000 respectively. Suppose town A has 5 medical doctors serving the
population in this town. Towns B and C have 8 and 10 medical doctors
serving the population of their respective towns. Is the distribution of
medical doctors in these three towns fair (proportional) compared to
their respective population?
Assist the students to determine whether a given proportion is true or not and then
encourage them to solve more problems on proportion by considering examples from
business activities like proportional variation in price and supply of goods to a market.
Following this introduction, you can let the students do Activity 11.2 which will help
them apply equality of rates/ratios to determine proportions.
3 150
= ⇒ 3x = 16.5(150) ⇒ x = 825 birr
16.5 x
Let some volunteer student do the activity on the board and continue discussing his/her
work. Then you give them additional examples from the textbook and from your own
sources. Example: If Hamid scored 20 out of 30 in Mathematics and 32 out of 40 in
Economics, how do you compare his scores? Are they proportional?, etc.
Following their effort, make sure that the students have understood the concept of
proportion. The discussions conducted earlier on ratio, rate and proportion, were
assuming change in one variable with respect to the change in another variable. The
proportion discussed earlier is also called simple proportion. But, there can be changes
attributed to more than one variable. After you make sure of their understanding of
simple proportion, guide them through a problem towards compound proportion.
You can also introduce the concept of compound proportion by raising examples which
involve more variable quantities like:
The amount of interest obtained depends on the amount of money
deposited in a bank, length of time it is deposited and the rate of interest
payable per year.
To strengthen their understanding, you can discuss the examples given in the student
textbook and let students do more exercises or assignments.
Pursuing the discussion, another important concept which the students need to know is
the percentage. This is so because percentage is another concept which needs a
treatment not far from the student’s life.
Percentage is commonly applied by the students. Some illustrative examples for
percentages include:
- How many students scored correctly 80% in an exam?
- What does a 50% discount mean? What does price of a given item
has increased by 20% mean?
- A refrigerator costs 3800 Birr. If 15% of Value Added Tax (VAT) is
added on this sale, then what is the total cost of the refrigerator?
Raise such issues so that students will be interested in the lesson and think of other real
applications of percentages.
To enrich their effort and thinking, you can give them Activity 11.3 and let a student do
the answer on the board. Then you discuss his/her answer.
x
x% (60) = 5 ⇒ (60) = 5 ⇒ x = 8.33%
100
When you discuss the activity, you can do more examples with the active participation
of students. Here, you can use examples of VAT and other taxations that are calculated
using percentages.
As a consequence of percentages, you can,as well, let students calculate discount, profit
and loss, percentage of increase and decrease. It is quite common to hear discount of
sales by some percentage. What it means and how it needs to be calculated will be of
interest to the students.
For the purpose of assessing students understanding, you can give them Exercise 11.3 as
class work or homework and check their answers.
Assessment
To assess whether students have understood the concepts: ratio, rate, proportion, and
percentage, you can group them and ask them to bring practical applications of these
concepts and report to the class. You can also give them exercises that are similar to the
examples given in the students textbook in a form of quiz. You can also use Exercise
11.3 for assessing students understanding.

1. 82% 2. 15%
Another important concept that is related to profit is mark-up or mark-down. Here,
focus will be given to mark-up only.However, the idea is the same except mark-up
treats profit and mark-down may be associated with loss. Mark-up is simply the
difference between selling price and cost price. If someone buys an item for Birr 100
and sells it for Birr 112then the mark-up is Birr 12. Though it seems that mark-up is
simple, an interesting consequence of it is the mark-up percent which is useful in daily
applications and for determining tax rates and the like.
After introducing the mark-up, you can discuss it by giving several examples and
exercises. Some illustrative examples are given in the students textbook. For talented
students, you can ask questions of the following type.
Example: Suppose Dalelo is paid 10 Dollars for what he did yesterday. Today he is paid
Birr 145 for a similar task. If the currency change is $1 = 13.45Birr, discuss
the mark-up of Dalelo’s payment. Express this mark-up in percentage.
Assessment
You can use formal or informal assessment techniques like oral questions, group
discussions,classwork,etc, to assess the students’ level of understanding of this business
concept. You can also let them discuss Exercise 11.4.

1. 45 Birr, 29.03%
2. 53.73%
3. a. 30 b. 11.63%
4. cost = Birr 3320
5. a. 67.2 b. 347.20
6. 736.55
7. 42.86%
11.2 COMPOUND INTEREST AND DEPRECIATION

Competencies
• calculate payment by installment for a given simple interest arrangement.
• calculate the compound interest of a certain amount invested for a given
period of time.
• apply the formula for compound interest to solve practical problems in
business.
• compute annuity for a given arrangement in compound interest.
• describe what depreciation means and some of its causes.
• compute depreciation by using either of the two methods approximately.
Vocabulary: Principal, Interest, Simple interest, Compound interest, Interest period,
Nominal rate, Annuity, Ordinary annuity, Depreciation, Asset, Current
asset, Fixed asset, Salvage value.
Introduction
In this sub-unit, the concepts of compound interest and depreciation will be discussed.
When money is deposited in a bank for some time, its total amount will increase in the
future due to interest. On the other hand, the value of an asset decreases or depreciates due
to several reasons as time goes on. These two concepts will be introduced in this sub-unit.
Teaching Notes
Start the lesson by asking if there are students who have ever deposited money in a
bank. Or you may simply raise a discussion question as to what banks do with the
money deposited by somebody else. Check if there are students who know what interest
is and how it is calculated. Then you may revise the concept of simple interest which
they have learnt in their previous grades.
Explain terms like “principal”, “rate of interest”, “interest period” and “amount” by
using a simple example. Discuss how simple interest is calculated using I = prt.
It is also advisable to discuss future value of simple interest, right after they realize how
they can calculate the simple interest. This will help them diagnose principal against
future value and describe role of simple interest in finding future value. To this end, you
can strengthen their understanding by discussing several examples of different type that
may require calculating interest, future value, time, and principal. Highlighting
examples are given in the student textbook.
11.2.1 Compound Interest
After revising simple interest, ask the students whether they know something about
compound interest and what it means. Following their effort and assessing students
background in relation to compound interest, you can group the students and let them do
Activity 11.4. The purpose of this activity is to enable them calculating compound
interest and familiarize them with the terms that are useful in considering compound
interest.
0.04 2(2)
A = 100 (1 + )
2
A = 108.24 birr
Pursuant to the activity, continue introducing the concept “compound interest” by

considering simple exercise problems. Let students discuss compound interest and its
difference from simple interest.
When the students realize the issue of compounding the interest, you can derive the
formula for calculating compound interest together with your students. Give them one
simple initial problem. Let them calculate the amount for few years,so that they can
generalize their findings into A = P (1 + r) n.
But you should clearly explain to them that this formula will be modified if interest is
compounded several times in a year. If interest is compounded m times per year, then
mt
 r
the amount after t years will be A = P 1 +  . Encourage you students to discuss this
 m
change and how it appears.
Here you also need to discuss present value and future value in an amount compounded
at stated interest rate and time. Illustrative examples are given on pages 440 – 444 in
the student textbook.
Though compounding is one of the common applications in our day-to-day life, it is

equally common to consider someone taking a loan may pay fixed amount of money at
pre-specified time gap. Example, Helen might have taken a loan of Birr 10,000 and she is
required to pay Birr 400 every month. Such regular payments are best discussed with
what we call annuity. Annuity in general and ordinary annuity in particular are of interest
when discussing compound interest. Introduce ordinary annuity as deposits made at a
regular interval and discuss it using several examples. For the purpose of highlighting the
concept, an example is given on page 445 of the student textbook. However, you may
need to add more examples so that the students can exercise with them.
There could be some students who may need more on such concepts. For those talented
students you can also guide them to deal with concepts of sinking fund and floating
fund.
Assessment
To assess your students, you can give them Exercise 11.5 as homework so that they can
discuss out of class and do the answers. You need to check their answers later on and
discuss their answers.
To assess the students understanding on compound interest and related concepts, you
can also do any one of the following.
You can give them project work so that they can go to either banks, credit unions,
cooperatives, etc, in their surrounding and identify applications of these concepts and
report to the class. You can give test/quiz.

1. 9.3 years
2. a. 18,327.04 Birr b. 1047.04 Birr
3. 1967.15
4. t = 5.25
5. 2429.74
6. 25 years
11.2.2 Depreciation
So far, students were discussing interests, specifically compound interest, in which an
amount would have been increasing. Example: if we deposit money in a bank at
specified interest rate compounded at specified time interval, the amount is increasing
as time goes on.
Equally, however, there are quantities that decrease their values as time goes on. To
start this, you can guide the students by asking them a question of the following type:
If you want to buy a second hand material, what do you think will its price be? Will it
increase or decrease? Why?
For example, if we buy a car for 100,000 Birr now, then the value of the car decreases
as time goes on. We say the value of the car depreciates as time goes on. The concept
that deals with such a decrease in value is called depreciation.
Thus, depreciation is another important concept that should be discussed in this section.
To get into this discussion, you can begin your lesson by defining essential terms such
as “Assets” in business and then introduce to them “Fixed Assets”. Explain to them
that fixed assets are not fixed in value because they wear out at varying rates according
to their use over a period of time. Then discuss the concept of “Depreciation” and let
them list some of the causes of depreciation.
Note:There could be several reasons that cause depreciation.
Make sure that the students understand depreciation as the fall in value. Then introduce
how depreciation should be calculated.
To do so, it will be advisable to let the students identify that there are two types of
calculating depreciation: The fixed installment method and Reducing balance method.
Illustrative examples are offered in the students textbook. To help the students practice
with these methods on calculating depreciation,you can give them more examples and
exercises either as an assignment or project work.You can ask talented students the
following questions:
1. Sometimes value of an object, say a car, increases from time to time even if
it is used, while the value must have been decreasing. Do you think this is
normal? What do think is the problem?
2. List down some examples of physical depreciation and functional
depreciation from your surroundings.
Assessment
To assess the students’ understanding of these concepts, you can give them homework
or assignment. You can also give them chance to discuss if the situation in their
surrounding is similar to the theoretical discussion, and try to explain why? You can
also give them Exercise 11.6.

The answers to each of (i), (ii) and (iii) are:
a. The depreciation schedule for the asset using the fixed installment method
isshown in the following table.
Number Yearly Accumulated Book value at the

of years depreciation depreciation at the end of the years
end of the years
0 0 0 100,000
1 18,400 18,400 81,600
2 18,400 36,800 63,200
3 18,400 55,200 44,800
4 18,400 73,600 26,400
5 18,400 92,000 8,000
b. The yearly depreciation and book value using the double reducing balance
method is shown in the following table.
Book value at the Depreciation Accumulated Book value at the

Year
beginning of the year for the year Depreciation end of the year
1 100,000 40,000 40,000 60,000
2 60,000 24,000 64,000 36,000
3 36,000 14,400 78,400 21,600
4 21,600 8,640 87,040 12,960
5 12,960 5,184 92,224 7,776
11.3 SAVING, INVESTING AND BORROWING MONEY

Competencies

• list five valid reasons for saving.
• explain how saving becomes investment.
• list three saving plans.
• identify four kinds of financial institutions.
• describe three main factors in choosing a particular institution for saving.
• compute and solve numerical problems on saving.
• identify the four factors that should guide consumers in planning an

investment strategy.
• explain the differences between stocks and bonds.
• describe ways to invest in stock and bond.
• compute and solve numerical problems on investment.
• describe the advantages and disadvantages of borrowing money.
• identify the usual sources of cash loan.
• compute the amount and time on the return of loan based on the given
agreement.
Vocabulary: Money, Saving, Investment, Market economy, Stock, Bond, loan.
Introduction
In this sub-unit, several reasons and methods of saving money will be discussed. Most
businesses have better information on how to save and invest their money. This requires
knowhow about how money can be saved and invested. Different ways of investing
money will be discussed in this sub-unit. Finally, reasons and types of borrowing
money will be discussed.
Teaching Notes
Before going into the details of saving, investing, and borrowing money, form groups of
students and let them do Group Work 11.1. The purpose of this group work is to guide
the students discuss issues on who makes most decisions on how much to save and
invest. Here, personal decisions, institutional decisions and market based decisions can
be among the issues the students need to discuss. The importance of banks and
financial markets, and also how saving facilitates growth need to be addressed.
Pursuant to their discussion, the students may need to discuss a little about money.

1 Businesses and households.
2 Banks and other financial intermediaries lend money to help people start and
expand business. Financial markets such as bond markets and stock markets also
play a critical role in channeling personal savings to business that uses these funds
to make investments.
3 A key assumption of a market economy is that individuals in households and
business have better information about their own circumstances and objectives
than government officials. They also have the strongest incentives to make good
investment decision, because they make money from good investments, and lose
money with bad investments. However, some kinds of investment decisions relate
to public rather than private goods and therefore must be made by government
officials.
Before discussing on saving money, it will be nice to discuss what money is and let the
students strengthen this idea by doing Activity 11.5

Birr is money because:
- It acts as a medium of exchange
- It is a unit of account
- It is a store of value
- It offers a standard of deferred payment
11.3.1 Saving Money

In this part we will see:
A. Reason for saving B. Planning a saving program
C. Saving as investment D. Saving institutions
A. Reason for Saving
After setting the basis for further discussion, start your lesson by making students
discuss what “saving” is. Give them time to reflect their discussion. Along their
discussion, you may observe some misconceptions. Some may think saving as “money
left over after expenses”. Discussing the meaning of saving, explain to them that saving
is the most important activity in the personal or family budget. Why do we save?
Though some are listed in the student textbook, let students give their own reasons for
saving money. Help them to realize that when one plans for saving s/he is planning for
her/his dream. Depending on the planned interest, explain to them that there are “short-
term” and “long-term” savings. As a consequence, you can leave them with the
question: Where and how do we save money?
To make the issue more realistic and help the students reflect their assessment, let them
do Group Work 11.2. This will help the students to discuss whether people around them
save money and if yes to discuss where they save the money. This also helps to
understand some of the saving institutions around them and help them to discuss and
explain the reasons on why we save money in detail.

This group work may not have definite answer. However, the following are possibly
among the common ones. Some of them may say “yes, they save money” and they may
tell that they save money in a bank.
The seven reasons on why you save money can be elaborated as follows:
1. Save for emergency funds
It is important to have an emergency fund set aside to cover unexpected expenses. This
could cover an unexpected car repair or a sudden job loss. Ideally your emergency fund
should be about three to six times your monthly expenses.
2. Save for retirement
Another important reason to save money is your retirement. The sooner you start saving
for retirement, the less you will have to save in the future. You can put your money to
work for you. As you continue to contribute over time you will be earning more interest
on the money you have. You should be contributing at least up to your employer's
match and eventually you may want to contribute ten to fifteen percent of your gross
income.
3. Save for a down payment on a house
A third reason to save money is for a down payment on a house. Your negotiating
power goes a lot farther when you have a significant down payment towards your home.
You will receive better interest rates, and be able to afford a bigger home. You can
determine how much you save towards this each month depending on your
circumstances.
4. Save for vacations and other luxury items
A fourth reason to save money is to have fun. You can save for your tour of Lalibela or
that of Awash National Park. Additionally you can be saving for large ticket items such
as the World Cup Football. Your negotiating power is stronger if you have cash in hand
on bigger purchases. Plus you do not want to be paying off your trip to Axum in five
years time.
5. Save for a new car
A fifth reason is to purchase a car with cash. You will be amazed at how much money
you can free up in your budget if you do not always have a car payment. You can also
negotiate the price of the car much lower if you are willing to pay cash at the dealership.
6. Save for sinking funds

A sixth reason is to build up your sinking funds. A sinking fund is money you set aside
for future repairs or improvements on your car, home or other possessions. This
planning can help you to stop dipping into your emergency fund every time you need to
fix your car.
7. Your education
A seventh reason to begin saving money is for your future education. Each year more
people return to school to earn their masters or doctorate degrees. You may also
consider saving for your child's education when the time comes.
B. Planning a saving Programme
After you discuss Group work 11.2 on why we save money, you can discuss on
planning a saving programme. This can be started from Activity 11.6.
In this activity you can give some cases like consider an employee with monthly salary
of Birr 1,800 and give chance for the students to manage this salary for retirement,
vacations and down payment for a house. Here different figures can be suggested by the
students.
C. Saving as investment
The General idea on investment could be discussed in 11.3.2 but here you can stat from
Activity 11.7.

Here also you can give a case for the students like the monthly income of an individual
is Birr 3,000 and she/he wants to participate in an investment, how could she/he save
money to be partner in the investment. Here different ways of saving methods and
amount of money to be saved could be indicated.
D. Saving institutions
It will be nice to start this section by letting students do Group work 11.3, here different
groups may suggest or include banks, credit associations, Equib, etc. From this group
work it will be easier to see the formal saving institutions as stated in the text book.
Assessment
Exercise 11.7 could be given as class work or homework depending on the extra time
that we have after the group work.

a. Commercial banks
b. Commercial banks
c. Credit unions
d. Savings and loan associations
e. Mutual saving banks
f. Mutual saving banks
g. Savings and loan associations
h. Saving and loan associations
i. Commercial banks or saving and loan associations
11.3.2 Investment
To start this section raise the questions like what is investment? After forming groups,
let students start this section by doing Group work 11.4 and let some groups present
what they discussed to the class, this can tells you how much they know about
investment.

The answers that could be given by different groups could vary, but still depending on
their surroundings they can give some investment activities in different areas and they
could also indicate that there is tight relation between the investors and financial
institutions like banks and insurances.
After some groups present their ideas you can explain the concept if investment as the
production and purchase of capital goods to produce more goods and services in the
future. Then, you may raise conditions that should be considered during investment, like
investment strategy types of securities.
To discuss types of securities further, you can use Activity 11.8

Some of the features that distinguish preferred stock from common stocks are
- Preference as to dividends
- Preference as to assets
- The conversion privilege
- The callable feature and
- The voting features
The basic right of stock holders in corporation include:
- To vote at stock holders meetings

- To share in corporate profits in the form of dividends
- To share in corporate assets if the company is liquidated
- To buy additional share from the company if it issues more stock
On type of securities after discussing stocks based on Activity 11.8 you can give
emphasis that one should be sure to research a stock before investing. You should
understand its products or services, its market, as well as whether it has a sound balance
sheet, cash-flow management, and competent directors and managers. You should also
consider analysts' projected earnings estimates.
Then you can introduce bonds, to strengthen this idea on bonds you can let your
students do Activity 11.9 to see the difference between bonds and stocks.

Major differences between bonds and stocks are as follows:
1. Bonds are commonly issued by corporations and government as a means of
raising capital
2. Preferred stock is an ownership security
3. Bond is a debt security
4. Preferred stock has no maturity data
5. Bonds have maturity date
6. In terms of the degree of security, preferred stock ranks behind bonds.
7. Bonds ranks a head of preferred stock.
Because it reduces risk of losses and cost of collecting money.
To be prepared for the next section if you have more time, you can also explain about
mutual funds.
Mutual funds
Mutual funds are designed to offer the individual investor diversification and professional
money management, even with low investment amounts. A mutual fund pools money
from its many investors to purchase securities for the fund's portfolio. As a result,
investors typically own a portion of a portfolio that includes many more investments than
they could afford to purchase individually — the value of the investor's share of that
portfolio increases or decreases based on the value of the investments in the portfolio.
Every mutual fund has a specific investment objective. Most mutual funds invest in
stocks, bonds, cash equivalents, or a combination of the above. Within those categories, a
stock fund may emphasize domestic or foreign equities or stocks from a particular
industry sector. A bond fund may concentrate on investments with either long- or short-
term maturities, or on government or corporate securities.
A mutual fund distributes its income and capital gains. As the fund buys and sells
investments within its portfolio, it distributes any income received from stock dividends
or bond interest to the shareholders along with any capital gains from the sale of
securities. Be sure to read the prospectus before investing. The prospectus tells you how
the fund will invest, how you may purchase shares, how the fund will be administered,
and what it will cost you in fees and other expenses.
After discussing bonds and stocks through Activity 11.8 and 11.9 our next discussion
will be on how to invest.
To start this discussion you can ask your students on what type of investment they
would like and why they choose this type of investment.
As given on the text you can lead your students to the discussion of the categories and
the different choices they have and factors that should be used to decide the type of
investment. After discussing the short-term and long-term investing vehicles, if you
have more time you can also discuss retirement plans
Retirement plans
A number of special plans are designed to create retirement savings, and many of these
plans allow you to deposit money directly from your paycheck before taxes are taken
out. Employers occasionally will match the amount (or a percentage of that amount) you
have withheld from your paycheck up to a certain percentage of your salary. Some of
these plans let you withdraw money early without a penalty if you want to buy a home
or pay for education. If early withdrawals are not permitted, you may be able to borrow
money from the account, or take out low-interest secured loans with your retirement
savings as collateral. Rates of return vary on these plans, depending on what you invest
in, since you can invest in stocks, bonds, mutual funds, certificate of deposits or any
combination.
Investing in stocks
It is worth taking a closer look at stocks, because historically, they have had much
better returns than bonds and other investments. Essentially, stock lets you own a part of
a business. That ownership is represented by stock -- specialized financial "securities,"
or financial instruments that are "secured" by a claim on the assets and profits of a
company.
Common stock
Common stock is aptly named -- it's the most common form of stock an investor will
encounter. This is an ideal investment vehicle for individuals, because anyone can take
part; there are absolutely no restrictions on who can purchase common stock -- the
young, the old, the savvy, the reckless. Common stock is more than just a piece of
paper; it represents a proportional share of ownership in a company -- a stake in a real,
living, breathing business. By owning stock -- the most amazing wealth-creation vehicle
ever conceived (except for inheriting money from a relative you've never heard of) --
you are a part-owner of a business.
Shareholders "own" a part of the assets of the company and part of the stream of cash
those assets generate. As the company acquires more assets and the stream of cash it
generates gets larger, the value of the business increases. This increase in the value of
the business is what drives up the value of the stock in that business.
Because they own a part of the business, shareholders get a vote to elect the board of
directors. The board is a group of individuals who oversee major decisions the company
makes.
As with most things in life, the potential reward from owning stock in a growing
business has some possible pitfalls. Shareholders also get a full share of the risk
inherent in operating the business. If things go bad, their shares of stock may decrease
in value. They could even end up being worthless if the company goes bankrupt.
This time, you can use Exercise 11.8 to help the students practice the questions and
develop their understanding.

Allow time for students to respond in writing. Then review.
a. (I) b. (P) c. (N: consumption)
d. (I) e. (S) f. (I for Ford, P for Sara)
g. (I) h. (P)
11.3.3 Borrowing Money

Although the students may tell something about borrowing, to help you assess how they
understand borrowing you can start from group work 11.5.

The expected answers in this activity may vary depending on the condition they
understand borrowing, sometimes they can understand borrowing as the simple issues of
borrowing money from a friend to buy a pen or they can think of their parents
borrowing money from their neighbour or relatives.
After the students try Group work 11.5, let some students present their answers to the
class. Here you can also help your students to see how one borrows money from an
institution for personal use and how one borrows money from an institution for large
scale investment purposes.
At last you can help them to relate borrowing money should be a well planned activity,
otherwise borrowing will be disadvantageous if it is not planned.
Assessment
Students are to finish their discussion related to money, saving, institutions and
borrowing. Before you pass to the next session, it will be good to assess the overall
understanding of the students. In order to help you assess the understanding of the
students, you can do any of the following as feasible in your school situation. You can
give them assignment with list of guiding questions to go to any of the saving
institutions around them and report accordingly. You can also give them homework and
check their work. To see their general understanding, let the students do Group work
11.6
In this section the students have discussed what overdraft is and they know how to
calculate interest on money borrowed from a bank.
To see the two different ways of settling their one million Birr credit, you can give them
some clues like when you borrow money from a bank there is a fixed rate of time that
you should settle your loan, suppose if you should settle this one million Birr in three
years every month you should pay a certain amount of money, and by chance for two or
three months if you can’t settle your monthly payment you could face problem on the
guarantee you give for the institute.
You can also guide your students in an overdraft the interest you pay could be more but
still if your business for two or three months is below your expectation you may not
face the problem with the banks.
By doing such discussion you can see how far the students have understand the section.
11.4 TAXATION
Competencies
• name three types of activities that government performs and examples of
each.
• explain why governments collect taxes.
• describe the basic principles of taxation.
• describe the various kinds of taxes.

• give their opinion about what “income taxes” mean for them in relation to
their future first job.
• calculate different types of taxes based on the “rate of tax” in Ethiopia.
Vocabulary: Tax, Income tax, Turnover tax, Value added tax, Excise tax, Custom duty
Introduction
It is known that governments provide a number of public services. To provide public
services, they need money which has to be collected through tax. This sub-unit will
discuss different objectives and principles of taxation. Taxes will also be classified as
direct and indirect and each one will be discussed.
Teaching Notes
To discuss taxation and related issues, it will be better to give chance for the students to
talk about what they know on tax and taxation. To help you guide them, you can form
small groups and let students discuss Group Work 11.7 and the following additional
issues.
What kind of public services do governments provide?
What is taxation?
Who collects taxes?
Why do governments collect taxes?
From where or from what kind of business activities do governments collect
taxes?

1. - To remove inequalities in income and wealth among the people.
- To achieve economic stability by controlling inflation and deflation.
- To change people’s behaviors by discouraging consumption of harmful
products
- To divert producers attention by imposing heavy tax on non-essential and
luxury goods
- To promote economic growth
2. Income from
- employment
- rental of buildings
- business
- technical services, games of chance, dividend, casual rental of property,
interest, transfer of investment property.
After such questions are properly addressed, you can proceed to the discussion of the
objectives and principles of taxation some of which are listed in the student textbook.
Additional points on the earliest functions of government could also be discussed as
follows.
One of the earliest functions of government was to set standards to limit the exploitation
of the poor (and implicitly limit the supply of labour) by passing laws against child
labour. Also to undertake taxation and expenditure measures to redistribute income to
achieve a less unequal distribution of wealth.
Secondly, there are some goods called public goods that the private market economy
cannot provide. They have the basic quality that if they are made available at all they
must be made available equally to all individuals. Since no one can be excluded from
their benefits they cannot be produced and sold on a profit making basis. National
defence is the most obvious example.
Thirdly, the market economy may not be capable of functioning in a sufficiently stable
fashion. Governmental action may be needed to stabilize the economy through
appropriate fiscal and monetary policies.
Fourthly, the rate of capital formation may be too high or too low to achieve what is
thought to be an acceptable rate of growth. Thus governments may be required to
change the parameters that affect the rate of growth.
Clearly the scope of government activity is substantial. To perform all of these functions
governments must have extensive source of revenue.
After discussing the activities indicated in the text book, you can give Activity 11.10.

The main objective of this activity is to create awareness on the youth that government
is doing so much activities and still have many many more to perform, for these
activities to be practical government need to collect taxes and we have to create
awareness that the majority of the income for a government is taxation, and if the public
failed to pay tax the government cannot implement its plan effectively and the people
will not get the necessary public services.
After discussing the principle of taxation as on the text you can also indicate that some
taxes are imposed for social and economic purpose, e.g. the highest rates are imposed for
the purpose of reducing very large incomes. Taxation has often been increased in order to
reduce purchasing power to check demand, or has been reduced to stimulate demand to
strength their understanding of the principles.
Form groups and allow the students to work Group work 11.8 after school hours in the
library.

After the students do Group work 11.8, you can give chance to some groups to present
their work.
The following are the expected principle.
1. Equity
Similarly situated taxpayers should be taxed similarly. The principle of taxing similar
taxpayers similarly is typically described in terms of equity. The concept of horizontal
equity provides that two taxpayers with equal abilities to pay should pay the same
amount of tax. If a taxpayer has a greater ability to pay than another taxpayer, the
concept of vertical equity comes into play, which means that the person with the greater
ability to pay should pay more tax.
It is the most important cannon of taxation which embodies the principle of equity or
justice. It provides the concept of the equality of sacrifice. The amount of the tax paid is
to be in proportion to the respective abilities of the taxpayers. It is not very unreasonable
that the rich should contribute to the public expense not only in proportion to their
revenue but somewhat more than that proportion. The principle of equity is often
viewed as a fairness principle. That is, many people view a tax as fair if taxpayers with
the greatest ability to pay have the highest tax burdens.
2. Certainty
The tax rules should specify when the tax is to be paid, how it is to be paid, and how the
amount to be paid is to be determined. A person's tax liability should be certain rather
than ambiguous. A tax system’s rules must enable taxpayers to determine what is
subject to tax (the tax base) and at what tax rate(s). Taxpayers should be able to
determine their tax liabilities with reasonable certainty based on the nature of their
transactions. If the transactions subject to tax are easy to identify and value, the
principle of certainty is more likely to be attained. On the other hand, if the tax base is
dependent on subjective valuations or transactions that are difficult to categorize, the

principle of certainty might not be attained. In addition, how the taxes are paid and
when the taxes are due should be spelled out in the applicable laws, as well as in the tax
forms and instructions.
Certainty is important to a tax system because it helps to improve compliance with the
rules and to increase respect for the system. Certainty generally comes from clear
statutes as well as timely and understandable administrative guidance that is readily
available to taxpayers.
The principle of certainty is closely related to the principle of simplicity. The more
complex the tax rules and tax system, the greater the likelihood that the certainty
principle will be compromised. The tax paid by each individual should be certain but
not arbitrary. The time of payment, the manner of payment and the quantity to pay,
should all be clear and plain to the contributor.
3. Convenience
A tax should be due at a time or in a manner that is most likely to be convenient for the
taxpayer. For example, a tax on the purchase of goods should be assessed at the time of
purchase when the person still has the choice as to whether or not to buy the goods and
pay the tax. Convenience of payment is important in helping to ensure compliance with
the tax system. The more difficult a tax is to pay the more likely that it will not be paid.
Typical payment mechanisms include withholding (such as the withholding of income
taxes from employee paychecks) and periodic payments of estimated tax liability. The
appropriate payment mechanism should depend on the amount of the liability and ease
of collection.
Every tax ought to be levied at the time, or in the manner, in which it is most likely to
be convenient for the taxpayers to pay it. A tax upon the rent of land or of houses,
payable at the same term at which such rents are usually paid, is levied at the time when
it is most likely to be convenient for the contributor to pay; or, when he/she is most
likely to have resources to pay.
4. Economy
The costs to collect a tax should be kept to a minimum for both the government and
taxpayers. These costs include the administrative cost to the government that is
influenced by the number of revenue officers necessary to administer the tax. There are
also compliance costs incurred by taxpayers to consider. This principle is also closely
related to the principle of simplicity. The more complex a tax, the greater the costs for
the government to administer it and the greater the compliance costs for taxpayers to
determine their tax liability and report it.
5. Diversity
A tax should be as broad based as possible, resulting in a low percentage rate that offers
little incentive for tax evasion and tax avoidance and all the unproductive activities
people engage in efforts to lower their taxes or evade or avoid taxes altogether.
6. Productivity
The system should be able to yield enough revenue for the treasury and the government
should have no need to resort to deficit financing. The tax system should enable the
government to determine how much tax revenue will likely be collected and when. Tax
systems should have some level of predictability and reliability to enable the
government to determine how much tax revenue is likely be collected and when. This is
particularly important to state governments, most of which operate under a balanced
budget requirement. Typically, a mix of taxes provides a more stable tax base because
different types of taxes are affected differently by changes in the economy.
7. Simplicity
The tax law should be simple so that taxpayers understand the rules and can comply
with them correctly and in a cost-efficient manner. Simplicity in the tax system is
important both to taxpayers and to those who administer the various taxes. Complex
rules lead to errors and disrespect for the system that can reduce compliance. Simplicity
is important both to improve the compliance process and to enable taxpayers to better
understand the tax consequences of transactions in which they engage in or plan to
engage.
8. Neutrality
The effect of the tax law on a taxpayer’s decisions as to how to carry out a particular
transaction or whether to engage in a transaction should be kept to a minimum. That is,
taxpayers should not be unduly encouraged or discouraged from engaging in certain
activities or taking certain courses of action primarily due to the effect of the tax law on
the activity or action. The primary purpose of a tax is to raise revenue for governmental
activities, rather than to influence business and personal decisions.
9. Buoyancy
The tax revenue should have an inherent tendency to increase along with an increase in
national income even if the rate and coverage of taxes are not revised.
10. Flexibility
It should be possible for the authorities, without undue delay, to revise the tax structure,
both with respect to its coverage and rates, to suit the changing environment of the
economy and the treasury.
Before stating the classification of taxes it will be important to give Activity 11.11 as a
starter Activity.

In this activity, students can name out some type of taxes they know, like value added
tax (VAT), Turn overtax (TOT), etc.
After the activity is done you can discuss the classification of taxes as done in the text
book.
If you have some spare time you can also give students a work to calculate the payroll
tax that could be paid by the school for administrative workers or teachers, or even you
can give a group work to prepare a payroll and calculate the taxes.
Problems like the one in Activity 11.12 can help you to see how far they have
understand to calculate taxes.

Ato Dagem’s salary was Birr 1,350 and for this he pays Birr 155. When his salary is
increased from 1,350 to Birr 1,850 for the first 50 Birr he will pay on the tax classified
for Birr 651 − Birr 1,400 which is 15% and for the 50 Birr he will pay 50 15% = Birr
7.50 and for the next Birr 450 he will pay 450 20% = Birr 90 so for the new salary
increment he will pay Birr 7.50 + Birr 90 = Birr 97.50. His new net salary is
Birr 1,850 − (Birr 155 + Birr 97.50) = Birr 1597.50
Assessment
Try to always assess the understanding level of your students on the spot. Use oral
questions, listen to their group discussions, check their class works and homework, give
them project works or assignment, use short quizzes and tests to assess your students
learning. Since this is an end of the course, you can also consider this as part of your
final exam to assess your students. For the assessment of this section you can give
Exercise 11.9 as homework and class work.

1. a. Taxable income = 850 – 150 = 700 Birr
Total tax = 50 + 30 = 80 Birr
b. Taxable income = 2390 – 150 = 2240 Birr
Total tax = 50 + 112.50 + 190 + 10 = 362.50 Birr
c. Taxable income = 5400 – 150 = 5250
Total tax = 50 +112.50 + 190 + 300+435+140 = 1227.50 Birr
2. a. Dividend = 20% of 300,000 = 60,000 Birr
Tax = 10% of 60,000 = 6,000 Birr
b. Dividend = 20,000 Birr
Tax = 2,000 Birr
c. Dividend = 80,000 Birr
Tax = 8,000 Birr
3. Tax = 15% of 150,000 = 22,500 Birr.
Net income = 127,500 Birr
4. Net earnings = 50,000 – 7,500 = 42,500 Birr
5. i. Total prices = 62,500 , 12,000 , 750, respectively
ii. Total VAT = 9,375 +1800 + 112.50 = 11,287.50 Birr
iii. Total price = 75,250 + 11,287.50 = 86,537.50 Birr
iv. a. 2% of 75,250 = 1,505 Birr
b. 75,250 – 1,505 + 11,287.50 = 85,032.50
6. a. 478,261
b. 9565.22
c. 540,434.78
7. a. 8000 + 15% of 8000 = 8000 +1200 = 9,200
12, 000
b. Sales before VAT = = 10,435 Birr
1.15
15% of (10,435 – 8000) = 15% (2435) = 365.15 Birr.
8. 5% of 350,000 = 17,500 Birr.

1. 9:4
2. a. 2:3
b. 1:2
3. 7000, 8400, 6000 Birr respectively.
4. 21 workers
5. 6%
6. 220 Birr
7. 180.20 Birr
8. 35.25%
9. 157.50 Birr
10. 1551.66 Birr
11. 9465.12 Birr and 1185.12 Birr
12. 13,277.84 Birr
13. a. 9406.28 Birr and 40,593.72 Birr
b. 10,156.25 Birr and 30,468.75 Birr
Reference Materials
These days search for a reference is at forefront with authentic supply of electronic references.
However, with the assumption that there will be limitations in some parts to over utilize ICT,
some hard copy reference materials are listed here that can help develop better learning and
teaching of mathematics and these units. These books are selected assuming that they are
available in many schools. For those who have access to the internet, e-resources are offered as
a supplement to those hard copies, if not essentially preferred. You can also access additional
reference materials that are available in you school library. These are simply guides to help you
use them as references. However, they are not the only to be prescribed. You can also use the
web sites given here for reference and demonstration.
A.W.Goodman & J.S.Ratti (1979). Finite Mathematics With Applications.3rd ed., McMillan
Pub.Co.Inc., NewYork
Aufmann, et al (2008). College Algebra and Trigonometry. 6th Ed, John W. Banagan, Houghton,
Mifflin Company, USA.
A.W.Bowman et al (1987). Introduction to Statistics: A Computer Illustrated Text. IOP publishing
Limited, London, UK.
Bryan H. Bunch, et al (1983). Algebra 1: The Language and Skills of Algebra. McDougal, Little
and Company, USA.
Bruce E. Meserve (1983). Fundamental Concepts of Geometry, General Publishing Company,
Ltd, Toronto, Canada.
C. Young (2010). Algebra and Trigonometry, 2nd Ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. USA.
Daniel T. Finkbeiner III (1978). Introduction to Matrices and Linear Transformations. 3rd ed., W.
H. Freeman and Company.
David A Singer (1993). Geometry: Plane and Fancy. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. USA.
David Cohn (2010). Algebra and Trigonometry. Wadsworth Publishers Company, USA.
Demissu Gemeda and Yismaw Alemu (1996). Basic Mathematics for Business and Social
Sciences, Addis Ababa University Press, Addis Ababa.
Ewart Smith (1996). Examples in Mathematics for GCSE Intermediater Tier, 3rd Ed. Stanley
Thornes (publishers) LTD, Great Britain.
Gary. L. Musser and William F. Burger (1988). Mathematics for Elementary Teachers: A
Contemporary Approach, McMillan Publishing Company, New York, USA.
George Woodbury (2002). An Introduction to Statistics. Cengage Learning, BUXBURY,
Thomson Learning, Canada.
Howard Anton (1987). Elementary Linear Algebra. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. USA.
J.E.Kaufmann et al (2009). College Algebra. 7th Ed, Thomson Brooks/Cole publishers, Canada.
J.W.McConnell et al (1996). Algebra. 2nd Ed. Scott Foresman; HarperCollins Publishers, USA.
Kinfegebriel Dessalegn and Zenebe Deneke (1998). The New Guide to Secondary School
Mathematics: Algebra and Geometry. Grades 9 and 10. Aster Nega Publishing
Enterprise, Addis Ababa.
L Bostock, et al (1996). GCSE Higher Mathematics. Stanley Thornes (publishers) LTD, Great
Britain.
R.E. Larson and R.P. Hostetler (). Precalculus, 4th Ed.
391
Kinfegebriel Dessalegn (2001). Alpha problem solver series mathematics: For

Preparatory Program Aster Nega Publishing Enterprise, Addis Ababa.
K.M.Ramachandran (2009). Mathematical Statistics with Applications, Academic Press, USA
M. A. Munem (1982). College Algebra with Applications. Worth Publishers INC. New York,
USA.
M.A. Munem, et al (1986). Algebra and Trigonometry with Applications. 2nd Ed, Worth
Publishers, INC. New York, USA.
M.A. Munem, et al (1988). Intermediate Algebra, 4th Ed. Worth Publishers, INC. New York,
USA.
Marcel Berger (1987). Geometry I. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, France.
Michele Audin (2003). Geometry. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New York, Printed in Italy.
Michael J. Crawley (2005). Statistics: An Introduction using R, John Wiley and Sons Ltd,
England.
M.R.Spigel (1990). Theory and Problems of College Algebra, Schaum’s Outline Series in
Mathematics. McGRAW-HILL Publishing Company, USA.
Morris H.D, et al (2001). Probability and Statistics. Addison Wesley Pub. USA
Morris H.D, et al (1973). School Mathematics of East Africa. Cambridge University Press, USA.
N.J. Pullman (1976). Matrix Theory and its Applications. Marcel Dekker Inc. New York.
Raymond A. Barnett, et al (1999). College Algebra with Trigonometry, 6th Ed. WCB/McGRAW-
HILL Publishing Company, USA.
R. J. Larsen (2009). An Introduction to Mathematical Statistics and Its Application, 4th Ed.
Prinentice Hall, USA
Roger Fenu (2001) Geometry. Springer-Verlag, London Limited, Great Britain.
Roland E. Larson et al (1997). Algebra and Trigonometry, A Graphing Approach, 2nd Ed.
Houghton Mifflin Company, New York, USA.
Ruric E. Wheeler (1984). Modern Mathematics: An Elementary Approach 6th Ed. Cole Publishing
Company, USA
Streeter Hutchison Helzhe (1998). Intermediate Algebra, 3rd Ed. McGRAW-HILL Publishing
Company, USA.
W.A. Wallis et al (2009). Statistics: A New Approach. The Free Press, New York, USA.
Zenebe Deneke and Kinfegebriel Dessalegn (1999). The New Guide Preparatory Program
Aster Nega Publishing Enterprise, Addis Ababa.
http://www.coolmath.com
http://www.mhhe.com
http://www.hot.sra.edu/~matsc
http://www.aaamath.com
http://www.homepage.mac.com
http://www.wordmath.com
http://www.geometersketchpad.com
http://www.purplemath.com/modules/linprog.htm
MINIMUM LEARNING COMPETENCIES (MLCs)
No Content Minimum Learning Competencies (MLCs)
• add complex numbers correctly
• subtract complex numbers correctly
• describe the closure property of both addition and subtraction
• describe the commutative and associative properties of complex
numbers
• identify the additive identity element in ℂ
• determine the additive inverse of a given complex number
• determine the product of two complex numbers
• describe five basic properties of multiplication of complex numbers
1 NUMBER • divide two complex numbers
SYSTEM • give reason for each step in the process of division of complex
numbers
The Set of • determine the conjugate of a given complex number
• find the Modulus of any given complex number
Complex
• write the simplified form of expressions involving complex numbers
Numbers
• describe how to set up the Argand Plane
• plot the point corresponding to a given complex numbers
• identify the complex number that corresponds to a given point in the
Argand Plane
• represent any complex number in the polar form
• determine the modulus and argument of a given complex number
• define rational expression
• identify the universal set of a given rational expression
• show the simplified form and the necessary steps in simplify a given
rational expression
2
[
ALGEBRA
• perform the four fundamental operations on rational expression
• decompose rational expressions into sums of partial fractions
Rational • solve rational equations
Expression • solve rational inequalities by using algebraic method (by considering
all possible cases)
• solve rational inequality by using the sign chart method
— — — — — — —— — —
• define matrix
• determine the sum and difference of two given matrices of the same
order
• multiply a matrix by a scalar
• describe the properties of multiplication of matrices by scalars.
Matrices and
• determine the product of two matrices.
Determinants
393
• describe the properties of the product of two matrices.

• determine the transpose of a matrix
• determine the determinant of a square matrix of order 2.
• determine the minor and cofactor of a given element of a matrix
• calculate the determinant of a square matrix of order 3
• describe the properties of determinants
• determine inverse of a square matrix
• find associated augmented matrix of equations
• describe elementary operations on matrices
• solve systems of equations in two or three variables using the
elementary operations
Introduction • apply Cramer's rule to solve systems of linear equations
to Linear — — — — — — — — — —
◊ For social science stream only
Programming
• draw graphs of linear inequalities
y ≤ mx + c,
y ≥ mx + c, ax + by ≤ c and ax + by ≥ c
• find maximum and minimum values of a given objective function
under given constraints.
• create inequalities from real life examples for linear programming and
solve the problem
Mathematical ◊ For social science stream only (cont.)
Applications in • compare quantities in terms of ratio.
Business
• calculate the rate of increase and the rate of decrease in price of
commodities.
• solve problems on proportional variation in business
• solve problems on compound proportion
• find a required percentage of certain given amount
• compute problems on percentage increase or percentage decrease
• calculate payment by installment for a given simple interest
arrangement.
• calculate the compound interest of a certain amount invested for a
given period of time.
• apply the formula for compound interest to solve practical problems
• compute annuity for a give arrangement in compound interest.
• describe what depreciation means and some of its causes
• compute depreciation by using either of the two methods appropriately.
• list five valid reasons for savings.
• explain how savings become investment.
• list three saving plans.
• identify four kinds of financial institutions.
• describe three main factors in choosing a particular institution for
saving.
Minimum Learning Competencies 395
• identify the four factors that should guide consumers in planning an

investment strategy
• explain the differences between stocks and bond
• describe ways to invest in stock and bond
— — — — — — — — — —
◊For social science stream only (cont.)
• describe the advantages and disadvantages of borrowing money
• identify the usual sources of cash loan..
• compute the amount and time on the return of loan based on the or
given agreement.
• name three types of activities that government performs and give
examples of each
• explain why government collects taxes
• describe the basic principles of taxation
• describe the various kinds of taxes
• give their opinion what "income taxes" mean for them in relation to
their future first job
• calculate different types of taxes based on the "rate of tax" in Ethiopia
• define rational function
Rational • determine the domain of a given rational function
Functions • determine the range of a given rational function
• Sketch the graph of a given rational function
function
• tell the properties of a given rational function from its graph
• use the graphs of rational functions to solve rational inequalities
3 • find out the inverse of a given relation
• sketch the graph of a relation and its inverse
RELATION AND • define power functions
FUNCTION • describe the properties of powers functions in relation to their
exponents
• determine the domains and ranges of power functions
Further on • sketch the graphs of power functions
Relation and • define Modulus Function (Absolute value Function,
Function • determine the domain and the range of modulus function
• sketch the graph of a Modulus function
• define the Signum function
• determine the domain and range of Signum function
• sketch the graph of the Signum function
• define the "Greatest Integer Function"
• determine the domain and range of the Greatest Integer function
• sketch the graph of the Greatest Integer function
• define "one-to-one" function
• identify functions as one-to-one

• define "on to' function
• identify functions as on to
• identify one-to-one correspondence
• define the composition of functions
• determine the composite function given the component functions
• define inverse function
• describe the condition for the existence of inverse function
• determine inverse function for an invertible function
• determine whether two given functions are inverses of each other or
not
• sketch the graph of the inverse of a function
• determine the domain and range of the inverse of a given function
• define rational function
• determine the domain of a given rational function
• determine the range of a given rational function
• sketch the graph of a given rational function
function
• identify the type asymptote that the graph of a given function may have
• tell the properties of a given rational function from its graph
• use graphs of rational functions to solve rational inequalities
— — — — — — — — — —
◊For Natural Science stream only
• define and describe the functions sec x, cosec x and cot x
• sketch graphs of sec x, cosec x and cot x
• define and describe the functions sec x, cosec x and cot x
• sketch graphs of sec x, cosec x and cot x
Further on y = a sin x
Trigonometric y = a sin kx
Functions
y = a sin (kx +b)
y = a sin (kx +b) + c
y = a cos x
y = a cos kx
y = a cos (kx + b)
y = a cos (kx + b) + c
• apply trigonometric functions to solve problems from fields of science,
navigation, engineering, etc
• explain the difference between "statement" and "open statement"

• determine the truth value of a statement
• describe the rules for each of the five logical connectives.
• use the symbols ¬ , ∧ , ∨,⇒ and ⇔ to make compound statements
4 LOGIC • determine truth values of compound statements connected by each of
the logical connectives.
• determine truth values of two or three statements connected by two or
Mathematical three connectives
Reasoning • describe the properties and laws of logical connectives
• determine the equivalence of two statements
• define "Contradiction" and "Tautology"
• determine that a given compound statement is either a contradiction or
tautology or neither of them
• find the "converse" of a given compound statement
• determine the truth value of the converse of a given compound
statement
• find the "contra -positive" of a given statement
• determine the truth value of the contrapositive of a given statement
• describe the two types of quantifiers
• determine the truth value of statements involving quantifiers
• describe what is meant by ‘argument’
• check the validity of a given argument
• use rules of inference to demonstrate the validity of a given argument
• identify qualitative and quantitative data
• describe the difference between discrete and continuous variables
(data)
• identify ungrouped and grouped data
• determine class interval (class size) as required to form grouped data
from a given ungrouped data
5 STATISTICS
• make cumulative frequency table for grouped data (for both discrete
AND and continuous)
PROBABILITY
• described terms related to grouped continuous data, i.e., class limit,
class boundary, class interval and class midpoint.
• determine class limit, class boundary, class interval and class midpoint
for grouped continuous data
Statistics and
• find the mean of a given grouped data
Probability
• find median grouped discrete data
• find median for grouped data (continuous variable)
• determine the mode of a given grouped data
• identify data that are unimodal, bimodal and multimodal
• determine the quartiles for a given grouped data
• determine the required deciles of a given frequency distribution
• determine the required percentile of a given frequency distribution

• describe the dispersion of data values
• find the range of a given data
• compute variance for ungrouped data
• calculate variance for grouped data
• solve problems on variance
• calculate standard deviation for grouped data
• determine the number of different ways of possible selections from a
given sets of objects (by using the multiplication principle)
• find the number of ways of selections of mutually exclusive operations
(by using the addition principle)
• determine the factorial of a given non-negative integer
• find the possible ways of arranging objects by using the principle of
permutation
• compute the possible arrangement of objects around the circle (using
the principle of circular permutation)
• describe the difference between arrangement of objects and selection
of objects.
• describe what is meant by "combination of objects"
• determine the number of different combinations of n objects, taken r at
a time.
• explain the computational relationship between permutation and
combination of objects.
• prove simple facts about combination.
• solve practical problems on combination of objects
• write up to the 6th power of a binomial expression (x + y)n (i.e. when n
= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ) in its expanded form by using direct multiplication
• describe what they observe in the expansion of (x + y)n where
n = 0, 1,2,3,4,5
• describe "Pascal’s Triangle" and its use
th
• apply the "Binomial Theorem" in expanding the n power of binomial
n +
terms i.e. (x + y) , where n∈ℤ
n +
• determine any term in the expanded form of (x + y) ,where n∈ ℤ
• solve problems on binomial expansion
• describe what is meant by "Random Experiment"
• explain what is meant by an outcome of a random experiment
• describe what is meant by sample space of a given random experiment
• list some of the sample points of a sample space for a given experiment
• define "equally likely outcomes" of a given trial in his/her own words.
• define "favorable outcomes/ cases"
• determine events of a given random experiment
• identify sample (elementary) events and compound events
• determine the number of events of a given sample space

• describe the occurrence or nonoccurrence of an event.
• explain an event denoted by "not E" where "E" is a given event
• explain events connected by "or" and "and"
• describe the simplified forms of events by using the properties of
operations on sets
• identify exhaustive events
• identify mutually exclusive events
• describe events that are both exhaustive and mutually exclusive
• identify independent events
• identify dependent events
• describe the axiomatic approach of probability
• interpret basic facts in the theory of probability
• find probabilities of events based on “Axiomatic” approach
• describe the odds in favour of an event or the odds against an event
• Find the probability of E1 ∪ E2 where E1 and E2 are events in a
random experiment
• determine the probability of mutually exclusive events.
• find probability of the joint occurrence of independent events (by
using rule of multiplication)
• describe the outcomes of events using tree diagram
• determine the probability of the joint occurrence of dependent events
(using multiplication rule)
• describe the outcomes of events using tree diagram to determine their
probability
• identify whether a given events are independent or dependent (by
comparing the equation for probability of joint occurrence of
independent events)
• write different forms of equation of a line
• determine the slope, x-intercept and y-intercept of a line from its
equation
• determine the angle between two intersecting lines on the coordinate
plane whose equations are given
6 GEOMETRY • determine the distance between a point and a line given on the
Coordinate coordinates plane
Geometry • name the different types of conic sections
• explain how the conic sections are generated (formed)
• define circle as a locus and write equation of a circle
• find the radius and center of a circle from its equation.
• determine whether a given line and circle have a point of intersection
• determine the coordinates for the intersection point(s) (if the given line
and the given circle intersect)
• write equation of a tangent line to a given circle. (where the point of

tangency is given)
• write the standard form of equation of a parabola
• draw different types of parabolas
• describe some properties of a given parabola
• define "ellipse" as a locus (set of points on the plane which satisfy a
certain given condition)
• write the standard form of equation of an ellipse and sketch ellipse
• describe some terms related to ellipses ( such as latus rectum,
eccentricity, major and minor axes...)
• define hyperbola as a locus
• write the standard form of equation of a hyperbola
• describe related terms to hyperbola (foci, centre, transverse axis,
asymptotes, conjugate axis...)
• sketch hyperbola based on its given equation
• give eccentricity of a given hyperbola
• solve problems on hyperbola
• define a scalar quantity
• identify the everyday application of scalars
• define a vector quantity
Vectors and • identify the everyday application of vectors
Transformation • describe the difference between vector and scalar quantities
of the Plane • represent vector by different notations
• determine the sum of two or more vectors
• determine the difference of two vectors
• multiply a vector by a scalar
• resolve a given vector in to two components
• use unit vectors to determine the column representation of a given
vector
• determine the magnitude of a vector
• find the scalar product (inner product) of two vectors
• describe some properties of scalar product of vectors
• apply vectors to solve problems on geometry, algebra, mechanics and
other related problems
• write the parametric equation of a line
• write equation of a circle by applying vectors
• determine the equation of the tangent line to a circle using vectors
• explain what is meant by transformation of the plane
• describe the main properties of rigid motion
• translate points, lines and circles using vectors
• reflect points, lines and circles and some other plane figures
• determine the images of a given plane figure when rotated through an
angle θ.
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
Ministry of Education
Mathematics Syllabus
Grade 11
2009
401
General Introduction
Mathematics learning at the second cycle of secondary education (Grades 11 and 12) should
contribute to the students' growth into good, balanced and educated individuals and
members of society. At this cycle, they should acquire the necessary mathematical
knowledge and develop skills and competencies needed in their further studies, working
life, hobbies, and all-round personal development. Moreover the study of mathematics at
this level shall significantly contribute to the students' lifelong learning and self
development throughout their lives. These aims can be realized by closely linking
mathematics learning with daily life, relating theory with practice; paying attention to the
practical application of mathematical concepts, theorems, methods and procedures by
drawing examples from the fields of agriculture, industry and sciences like physics,
chemistry and engineering.
Mathematics study in grades 11 and 12 should be understood as the unity of imparting
knowledge, developing abilities and skills and forming convictions, attitudes and habits.
Therefore, the didactic-methodical conception has to contribute to all these sides of the
educational process and to consider the specifics of students' age, the function of the
secondary school level in the present and prospective developmental state of the country,
the pre-requisites of the respective secondary school and the guiding principles of the
subject mathematics.
In determining the general methodical approach of topics or special teaching methods for
single periods, due consideration has always to be given to the orientation of the main
objectives:
- acquisition of solid knowledge on mathematical concepts, theorems, rules and
methods assigned in the syllabus.
- acquisition of reliable capability in working with this knowledge more
independently in the field of problem solving.
The main activity for achieving these objectives includes engaging student in mental
activity during classroom learning.
• Teaching has to consider students' interest that is related to their range of experience,
actual events of the country and local reality so as to help them answer questions
originating from daily life
• Problem solving is a suitable means for engaging students in mental activity. This has
to be understood as a complex process, including the activities of the teachers and
students. A teacher can be engaged in selecting or arranging the problems, planning
their use in the classroom and organizing the process of solving problems while the
students are engaged in solving the problems and in checking the results gained.
• While planning and shaping classroom learning the teacher has to observe that the
application of newly acquired knowledge and capability is a necessary part in the
process of complete recognition and solid acquisition of the new subject matter.
Thus, application has to be carried out during presentation and stabilization.
• Introduction to a new topic and presentation of new subject matter have to be carried
out using knowledge and experiences of students by encouraging students to actively
Mathematics Syllabus: Grade 11 403
participate in the teaching learning process by familiarizing students with the new
subject matter and help them to understand and appreciate its use.
• Stabilization has to be understood as the fundamental process of mathematics
learning. It has to be regarded as a principle of shaping in all stages of teaching and
as precondition for mental activity of students and the enhancement of capabilities
applying knowledge more independently.
• Within the total process of stabilization, exercising (in relation with revision,
deepening and systematization) hold a central position. In mathematics, exercising is
to be understood in a wider sense. In the first place, it is aimed at the formation of
skills; but it is also oriented towards fixing knowledge (including subject matter dealt
with previously) and habituating to certain modes of working and practicing behavior.
Furthermore last exercising has to facilitate the development of definite strategies of
problems solving, being relatively independent of subject matter. Shaping of
exercises has to be concentrated on assigning sufficient time, analyzing the real
performances of students overcoming weak points of knowledge and capability, using
all fundamental forms of exercises (daily activity, miscellaneous and complex
exercises) systematically.
• Under the aspect of Students' preparation for Tertiary Education, it is necessary to
prepare them step by step for mastering these demands. So, in shaping the teaching-
learning process priority has to be given to methods which promote students'
activities of cognition and reduce their mechanical rote learning. Students have to be
asked, for instance, to report ways of solving a problem they have used with
explanation and reason. Students have to be acquainted with forms of cooperative
work between peer groups, with the application of the deductive approach, with
preparation of project papers, with seminary instruction and discussion forums about
special themes.
The teacher has to observe the following peculiarities of grades 11 and 12 (as compared
with mathematics learning of grades 9 and 10).
• deeper penetration into modern and general mathematical theories,
• higher level of abstraction and generalization,
• higher demands with regard to logical strictness in the treatment of subject matter and
the exactness of mathematical language (including terminology and symbolism)
• closer relations to neighboring disciplines and ranges of application, especially to
Physics, Technology and Agriculture.
• The time allotment for grades 11 and 12 is made for 33 weeks (165 periods). The
remaining weeks have to be used for revision, systematization and evaluation.
• Units 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 of Grades 11 and units 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 of Grades 12 are
common to both natural science and social science stream students, While units 8 and
9 of Grade 11 and units 6 and 7 of Grade 12 are to be offered only to natural science
stream students and units 10 and 11of Grades 11 and units 8 and 9 of Grade 12 are
only for social science stream students.
Cycle Objectives
Objectives of Mathematics Learning in the Second Cycle of Secondary Education
(Grades 11 and 12)
At the end of the second cycle of secondary education, students should be able to:
• apply the mathematical knowledge and capabilities gained to solve problems
independently.
• develop mental abilities and high skills and competencies in calculations,
especially, in the field of logical thinking, reasoning, proving, defining and use
of mathematical language, terminologies and symbols correctly.
• develop an appreciation for the importance of mathematics as a field of study
by learning its historical development, scope and its relationship with other
disciplines.
• develop scientific outlook and personality characteristics such as working
activities with algorithms, exactness, neatness, honesty and carefulness
according to self prepared plans for solving problems in line with the needs of
the society.
Allotment of Periods
for Units and Sub-units of Mathematics
Grade 11
Number of Periods
Unit Sub-unit
Sub-unit Total
Unit 1: Further on 1.1 Revision on Relation and Inverse of a 2 15
Relations and Relation
Functions 1.1.1 Inverse of a relation
1.1.2 Graphs of inverse relations
1.2 Some Additional Types of Functions 4
1.2.1 Power Functions with their Graphs
1.2.2 Modulus Functions (Absolute
Value Functions)
1.2.3 Signum Function
1.2.4 Greatest Integer Function
1.3 Classification of Functions 2
1.3.1 One-to-one Functions
1.3.2 Onto Functions
1.4 Composition of Functions 3
1.5 Inverse Functions and their Graphs 4
Unit 2: Rational 2.1 Simplification of Rational Functions 4 12
Expressions 2.1.1 Operations with rational
and Rational expressions
Functions 2.1.2 Decomposition of rational
expressions into partial fractions.
2.2 Rational Equations 3
2.3 Rational Functions and their Graphs 5
2.3.1 Rational Functions
2.3.2 Graphs of Rational Functions
Unit 3: Coordinate 3.1 Straight Lines 3 21
Geometry 3.1.1 Angle between two lines on the
coordinate plane
3.1.2 Distance between a point and a
line on the coordinate plane
3.2 Conic Sections 18
3.2.1 Cone and sections of a cone
3.2.2 Circles
3.2.3 Parabola
3.2.4 Ellipses
3.2.5 Hyperbolas
Number of Periods
Unit Sub-unit
Sub-unit Total
Unit 4: Mathematical 4.1 Logic 13 16
Reasoning 4.1.1 "Statements and Open
Statements"
4.1.2 Fundamental Logical Connectives
4.1.3 Compound Statements
4.1.4 Properties and Laws of Logical
Connectives
4.1.5 Contradiction and Tautology
4.1.6 Converse and Contra positive
4.1.7 Quantifiers
4.2 Argument and Validity 3
- Rules of Inference
Unit 5: Statistics and 5.1 Statistics 14 31
Probability 5.1.1 Types of data
5.1.2 Introduction to Grouped data
5.1.3 Measures of Location for Grouped
Data
5.1.4 Measures of Dispersion
5.2 Probability 17
5.2.1 Permutations and Combinations
5.2.2 Binomial Theorem
5.2.3 Random Experiment and its
outcomes
5.2.4 Events
5.2.5 Probability of an event
Unit 6: Matrices and 6.1 Matrices 4 22
Determinants 6.2 Determinants and their properties 6
6.3 Inverse of a square matrix 4
6.4 Systems of equations with two or three 5
variable
6.5 Cramer's Rule 3
Unit 7: The set of 7.1 The concept of Complex Numbers 2 13
Complex 7.2 Operations on Complex Numbers 3
Numbers 7.3 Conjugate and Modulus of Complex 2
Numbers
7.4 Simplification of Complex Numbers 3
7.5 Argand Diagram and Polar 3
Representation of Complex Numbers
Number of Periods
Unit Sub-unit
Sub-unit Total
Unit 8: Vectors and 8.1 Vectors and Scalars 3 20
Transformation 8.2 Representation of Vectors 1
of the Plane 8.3 Scalar (inner or dot) Product 3
8.4 Application of Vectors 5
8.5 Transformations of the plane 8
Unit 9: Further on 9.1 The Functions sec x, cosec x, and cot x 5 20
Trigonometric 9.2 Inverse of Trigonometric Functions 4
Functions 9.3 Graphs of Some Trigonometric Functions 5
9.4 Application of Trigonometric Function 6
Unit 10: Introduction 10.1 Revision on Linear Graphs 2 15
to Linear 10.2 Graphical solution of system of Linear 2
Programming inequalities
10.3 Maximum and Minimum Values 5
10.4 Real life linear programming problems 6
Unit 11: Mathematical 11.1 Basic Mathematical Concepts in 3 18
Application in Business
Business Ratio
Rate
Proportion
Percentage
11.2 Compound Interest and Depreciation 4
11.2.1 Compound Interest
11.2.2 Depreciation
11.3 Saving, Investing and Borrowing 7
Money
11.3.1 Saving Money
11.3.2 Investment
11.3.3 Borrowing Money
11.4 Taxation (4 periods) 4
Introduction
In relation to the general objectives of the subject matter for this cycle, mathematics study
at Grade 11 level should link mathematical theory with practice, paying attention to the
applications of mathematical concepts, theorems, methods and procedures in real life
situations, by taking application problems and activities in examples from agriculture,
industry, business, and other sciences like physics, chemistry, technology etc.
Students' fundamental knowledge and skills and competencies developed unto Grade 10
with regard to relations and functions, working in different number systems, geometry,
mathematical reasoning, statistics and probability is stabilized and deepened so that
students can apply the knowledge, skills and competencies to solve problems confidently.
New content matters like matrices and determinants, transformation of the plane, linear
programming and financial applications of mathematics are introduced and dealt with in
relation to prior acquired knowledge and developed competencies. While most of the
units are common to natural science and social science streams, two units are special to
each of the two streams, Namely Vectors and transformation of the plane and further on
trigonometric functions to students of natural science, while linear programming and
financial applications of mathematics to social science stream students.
Objectives of Mathematics Learning in Grade 11
After studying Grade 11 Mathematics, students should be able to:
stabilize the fundamental knowledge and competencies acquired and developed up to
Grade 10 with regard to:
• calculating in different number systems and working with quantities and variables.
• logic, mapping and functions.
• equations of lines, circles, parabolas, etc.
• mathematical reasoning.
• statistics and probability.
• have deep understanding of functions through learning polynomial, rational,
power, modulus, signum, trigonometric functions and how to sketch the graphs of
selected representatives of these functions.
• know the concept of vectors, operations on vectors and their rules.
• know the component and co-ordinate representation of vectors and their
applications.
• set up vector equations for straight lines and for circles and apply these equations
to solve problems from natural science and technology.
• understand the concepts of matrices and determinants and apply these concepts to
solve systems of equations.
• use linear programming concept to solve simple maximization problems.
• solve problems involving savings, investment, borrowing, taxation, etc.
Unit 1: Further on Relation and Function (15 periods)

Unit outcomes: Students will be able to:
• know specific facts about relations.
• know additional concepts and facts about functions.
• understand methods and principles in composing functions.
Competencies Contents Teaching / Learning Activities and Assessment
Resources
Students will be 1. Further on • You may start the lesson by revising • Asking oral
able to: Relation and important concepts about a relation such as questions
Function its domain, range, graphical representation, • Ask students
1.1 Revision and given graph of a relation, how to write to give
on Relations its formula for the relation. examples of
(2 periods) • You can proceed with the lesson by taking relation and
• find out the 1.1.1 Inverses a relation with some finite elements, for their inverses
inverse of a of a relation instance you may take • Give students
given relation R = {(a, 1), (b, 2), (c, 3) (d, 4)} an
and ask students to reverse the order of the opportunity to
entries of each ordered pair in R and get sketch the
another set of ordered pairs. After some graphs of the
similar activities encourage the students to inverses of
generalize that the inverse of a given by relations
relation R, denoted by R-1, is given by
R-1{(y, x): (x, y) ȏ R} themselves.
• Let the students practice on how to • Give students
determine inverses of relations through an
exercises, in doing so it is better to opportunities
consider relations that have been expressed to discuss the
by not more than three formulae and they inverses of a
should be selected from relations and given relation
function that have been discussed so far. both
e.g. R = {(x,y): 2x + 3y = 4} individually
∴ R-1 = {(y,x) : 2x +3y = 4} or and in small
R-1 ={(x,y): 2y + 3x = 4} groups
• After taking several relations, discuss with
students how to determine their respective
domain and ranges as well as the domains
and ranges of their inverses.
• Encourage students to point out the
relationship between the domain of a given
relation R and range of R-1 and also
between range of R and domain of R-1
i.e., let them come to the conclusion that:
Domain of R = Range of R-1
Range of R = Domain of R-1

Resources
• Sketch the 1.1.2 Graphs • You may consider a relation (expressed • Give class
graph of a of Inverse by not more than three formulae) and let activities and
relation and its Relations the students draw the graph of the relation home work
inverse. and its inverse on separate coordinate exercises on
planes and then from these graphs let them drawing
determine the domains and ranges of both graph of
the relation and its inverse and assert what inverses of
they concluded, in the previous discussion some given
about their relationship. relations and
• By using several examples and exercises check their
let the students practice on drawing graphs work.
of inverse relations.
• Now let the students draw the graphs of a
given relation and its inverse on the same
coordinate plane and ask them to fold the
coordinate plane along the line y = x.
•
By considering such kind of similar
activities let the students generalize that,
folding the graph of a relation along the
line y = x (reflecting the plane on the line
y = x) yields the graph of the inverse of the
relation.
1.2 Some • You may start the lesson by stating / • Give
Additional revising the main points about "Function" exercise
types of that the students had learnt in Grade 9, and problems on
Functions then let the students identify functions identifying
(4 periods) from a given list of relations. The relations functions
can be given pictorially (Venn-Diagram) or from a list of
as sets of ordered pairs or using set builder relation and
notation (expressed by formula) also allow let them
students to give their own examples of justify their
relations which are functions. answer.
Note: So far the students know functions • Homework'
expressed by one formula and whose • Test/ Quiz
domain (except logarithms) is the set of
real number and the graphs are continuous
but now it is required to introduce
functions that are expressed or described
by piece wise formula and whose graphs
are discontinuous or have jumps or not
smooth curve

Resources
• define power 1.2.1 Power • You may begin the lesson with revision of • Ask students to
functions Functions important points about exponential give you
with their functions and polynomial functions in examples of
• describe the graph relation to the exponents. power functions
properties of • Introduce the power function by stating its • Ask students
powers definition as to summarize
functions in f (x) = axn where n is a rational number the fundamental
relation to properties of a
and a∈ ℝ.
their power function
• By considering different cases for the
exponents • Ask students to
exponent, i.e. for positive integral
sketch graphs
exponents, for n = 1, for 0 < n < 1, for
of power
n = 0 and for negative integral exponents
functions
and discuss with your students about the • Give students
properties of the function. an opportunity
• determine the • Based on the above discussion encourage to discuss the
domains and the students to determine the domains and behaviour of
ranges of ranges of power functions. power
power • Assist students to make tables of values by functions at
functions considering functions as described in the some points
• sketch the following way • Give exercise
graphs of f (x) = axn where n ȏ Z+, f (x) = axn where problems on
power power function
n=1
functions
f (x) = axn where n = 0, f (x) = axn where and their graph
0 < n <1 and f (x) = axn where n ȏ Z- as class activity
• Encourage the students to sketch the graph or homework
of each power function whose table of and then check
values are prepared above. their work.
• define 1.2.2 • You may start the lesson by revising the • Ask students
Modulus Modulus concept of absolute value of a number, to define the
Function Functions using examples, that the students had learnt absolute value
(Absolute (Absolute in Grade 9, following this define the function
value Value modulus function (absolute value function) • Ask students
Function, Function) as to sketch
f (x) = | x | = x if x ≥ 0 graphs of
absolute value
-x if x < 0
functions
either
individually of
in small
groups

Resources
• determine the • With the help of the definition allow • Give
domain and students to determine the domain and the students some
the range of range of modulus function class
modulus • Guide students to make table of values of x activities
function (say some values between - 4 and 4) and • Home work
• sketch the corresponding values of y = f(x) = x and
graph of a assist them to sketch its graph on the
Modulus coordinate plane and then encourage the
Function
students to list main properties of the graph
such as: it is continuous in the domain, it
passes through and has a sharp corner at
the origin, and it is symmetrical with
respect to the y-axis.
• define the 1.2.3 Signum • You may begin the lesson with the discussion • Ask students
signum Function of a piece wise-defined function that is, to define the
function 1 for x > 0 signum
y = f(x) = 0 for x = 0 function
-1 for x < 0 • Ask students
and introduce this as a definition of the to determine
"signum function" the domain
and its notation, i.e., "sgn x" and range of
• you may also state the definition in the the signum
alternative way as function.
x
 for x ≠ 0
y = f ( x) =  x
0 for x = 0

• determine the
• Assist students in determining the domain
domain and
and range of signum function i.e., guide them
range of signum
function to describe that the domain is the set of all
real numbers and the range is the {-1, 0, 1}
• Sketch the • Guide the student to make table of values • With the help
graph of the of x (say some values between -4 and 4) of the graph
signum and the corresponding values of you may ask
function y = f(x) = sgn x and encourage them to students to
sketch its graph on the coordinate plane. describe what
y peculiar
3 property/prop
2 erties of
f (x) = sgn x
1
x signum
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 function that
−1
they observe.
−2

Resources
• define the 1.2.4 Greatest • You may start the lesson by stating the • Ask students
"Greatest integer definition of "Greatest Integer Function", to define the
Integer Function. with its notation, as: greater integer
Function" f (x) = x or f (x)= [x] where, [x] is defined function
• determine the as
domain and "the greatest integer less than or equal to x." • Ask students
range of the • Assist the students in finding the value of to find out the
Greatest the function for some numbers x (taken values of the
Integer greater integer
from the domain) by using sufficient
Function
examples (like: [3.7] = 3, [-8] = -8, function for
[-2.8] = -3,...) until they familiarize some real
themselves with the concept. numbers
• Discuss with the students how to determine • Ask students
the domain and range of this function, and to sketch the
through the discussion guide them to the graph of
• Sketch the conclusion that the domain of the greatest f (x) = -[x]
graph of the integer is the set of all real numbers R and • Home work
Greatest its range is the set of all integers Z ∗ For able (above
Integer • Assist students to make table of values for average)
Function the greatest integer function as follows. students you
x -3 ≤ x < -2 -2 ≤ x <-1 -1≤x< 0 may introduce
f(x) =[x] the. Smallest
or -3 -2 -1
Integer
y = [x]
Function as,
f (x) = [x] or
x 0 ≤ x< 1 1≤ x <2 2≤ x < 3
f(x) =[x]
f (x) = [x]
or 0 1 2 where [x] is
y = [x] defined as the
and encourage them to sketch the graph of smallest
this function. integer greater
y than or equal
to x. e.g.
[1.3] = 2 and
ask them to
draw its graph
x and describe
its domain,
range and
some of its
properties.

Resources
1.3 • You may begin the lesson with the formal • Ask students
Classification definition of one-to-one function, and by to give
of Functions using several examples let the students be examples of
(2 periods) well acquainted with the concept and one-to-one
• define "one- 1.3.1 one-to- encourage them to identify whether a given functions
to-one" one function function is one-to-one or not. • Ask students
function • Also introduce using examples and to determine
• identify
discuss the horizontal line test as a method whether a
functions as
of identifying whether a given graph is the give function
one-to-one
graph of a one-to-one function or not. is one-to-one
• Allow students to give their own or not using
examples of one-to-one functions from vertical line
their real life (like: marriage relations, test on its
usage of tooth brush, etc.) graph.
• define "onto' 1.3.2 onto • After stating the formal definition of • Give
function functions "onto function", and by using several exercises on
examples let the students be familiarized one-to-one
• identify with the notion of onto function. and onto
functions as • Assist students to identify a given functions
onto function as onto function • Ask students
• identify • Finally introduce the definition of one-to- to determine
one-to-one one correspondence and discuss with whether a
correspondence students about this concept with the help of given
example function is
one-to-one
corresponden
ce and check
their works.
• Give home
work
• define the 1.4 • You may begin this lesson with a brief • Give
composition Composition revision of (using several examples) exercise
of function. of functions combination of functions (i.e., how to find problems on
(3 periods) their sum, difference, product and quotient) addition,
that the students had learnt in Grades 9 and subtraction,
10, in doing so it is better to take sufficient multiplication
examples for each operation and the and division
functions should be the ones that the of functions.
students already know

Resources
• You can proceed with the lesson by • Ask about the
considering examples like: f (x) = x2 + 1 relationship
and asking students to write expressions between the
for f (k), f (m), f (t), f (u), etc. and let them domains and
observe each of their steps in doing these. ranges of
functions and
that of their
respective
results after
combining
them.
• determine the • Discuss one more example by considering • Give exercise
composite two simple functions like: h (x) = x3 and problems on
function g (x) = 2x then assist student in writing
given the determining the composition of these expressions
component functions say h(g (x)), first by evaluating for a given
functions different values for h(x) as follows function by
3 3 3
• determine the h(-2) = (-2) , h(½) = (½) , h(m) = m and considering
domain and then for different
3 3
the range of a h(g(x)) = (g (x)) = (2x) and guide variables.
composite students to state the formal definition of e.g. if
function of composite function of two functions say g f (x) = x2+1
two given and f (with its notation) as: then give
functions. (gof)(x)= g (f(x)) expression of
f (a), f (-m),
f (w)...
• Allow students to practice in determining • Give exercise
the composite function given the component problems on
functions by using several exercises. You determining
may also ask students to determine one of the
the component functions, given the composition
composite function and the other of two
component by taking appropriate functions. functions, the
• Encourage the students to determine the domains and
domain and range of a composite function ranges of the
of two given functions. With active component
participation of students discuss about the functions and
relationship between the domains and their
ranges of the given component functions composition.
and their composite function.

Resources
• define inverse 1.5 Inverse • You may begin the lesson with revision of • Ask students
function Functions and important points about inverse of a relation to find the
• describe the their graphs discussed in the first topic of this unit, inverses of
condition for (4 periods) following this you may consider a linear functions.
the existence function, for example:
of inverse f = {(x, y): y = 2x + 3}
function and ask students to express their opinion
on how to form the inverse of f.
• determine • After stating the formal definition of • Ask oral
inverse "Inverse of a function" and introducing its questions
function for notation, let the students express what they during the
an invertible observe in the connection between inverse process of
function. of a relation and inverse of a function. finding the
• determine • With active participation of students and inverse of a
whether two a) by using examples discuss that not every given
given function has an inverse. Take examples function.
functions are like: • Ask students
inverses of f (x) = x3- x + 1 questions
each other or b) define "Inverse function" by using the like "Does
not. concept of composition of function and the inverse of
discuss the condition for the existence a function
of inverse function. always
define a
function?"
and let them
justify their
answer by
giving
examples.
• Sketch the • Encourage and assist the students to • Ask students
graph of the determine the inverse of functions by to formulate
inverse of a considering several examples. functions and
function • After introducing the "Identity Function" find their
namely f (x) = x and explaining why it is inverses.
called an identify function, discus with
students how the knowledge of
composition of functions helps in
determining whether two given functions
are inverses of each other or not, use
several examples during your discussion.

Resources
• After revising what the students had learnt • Give
in the first topic of this unit about graphs of students
a relation and its inverse, once more opportunities
consider a linear function and assist your to explain to
students to draw the graph of the function the class
and the graph of its inverse using the same about
coordinate axes. graphing the
inverse of a
function.
• By considering different examples of • Give
graphs of several functions and the graphs exercises
of their corresponding inverses let the problems on
students generalize how the graph of an sketching the
inverse of a function is obtained from the graphs of
graph of the function. inverses of
functions
either
individually
or in small
groups.
• determine • Assist students in determining the domain • As this is the
the domain and range of the inverses of several end of unit 1
and range of functions by using examples and exercises you can give
the inverse of and ask them what kind of connection they quiz/Test.
a given observe between the domain and range of a
function. function and that of its inverse.
• Ask the opinion of the students on matters

like "Is the inverse of a function always a
function?"
Unit 2: Rational Expressions and Rational Functions (12 periods)

• know methods and procedures in simplifying rational expressions.
• understand and develop efficient methods in solving rational equations and inequalities.
• know basic concept and specific facts about rational functions.
Competencies Contents Teaching / Learning Activities and Resources Assessment
Students will 2. Rational • You may start the lesson by taking list of • Ask students to
be able to: Expressions different expressions that the students had identity rational
• define and Rational known so far and with active participation of expressions
rational Functions the students discuss the peculiar properties of from a given list
expression each expression and its universal set (i.e. the set of different
• identify the 2.1 under which it is defined) expressions.
universal Simplificatio • Proceed the lesson by introducing the definition • Ask students to
set of a n of Rational of a rational expression and elaborate on the determine the
Expressions stated definition by using several examples of
given universal set of
(4 periods) rational expressions. Assist and encourage
rational a given rational
students to determine the universal set of a
expression expression.
given rational expression that is the set under
• show the 2.1.1 • Give exercise
which the given rational expression is defined.
simplified Rational problems on
• By considering several examples of rational
form and Expression simplification
expressions whose numerators and
the denominators are factor able and have common of rational
necessary factor(s), discuss with students on how to write functions.
steps in such expressions in their simplified form, in
simplify a doing so give great emphasis on the fact that
given the:
rational 1. The universal set of the expression should be
expression. determined before any simplification is done.
2. cancellation of common factor can be meaningful
and correct if and only if it is done under the
assumed universal set and hence the universal set
should be given alongside the simplified form (i.e.
the end result)
• Perform the 2.1.2 • By using the rules of addition, subtraction, • Give exercise
four Operations multiplication and division of rational problems on
fundamenta with rational numbers discuss these operations on rational each of the four
l operations expressions expressions using several examples. In your operations and
on rational discussion emphasize on how to find the least let the students
expressions. common multiple (LCM) of the denominators determine the
of the expressions which should be factorized universal set first
into prime polynomials (specially into linear and then give the
expression) result in its
simplified form.

• decompose 2.1.3 • In order to make students familiarize • Ask students to
rational Decompositi themselves with the rules for the operations, show the validity
expressions on of let them mention the rule for the of the properties
into sums of rational corresponding operation alongside each step by using
partial expression of their workout, in addition to this let them examples.
fractions. into partial give the universal set at the beginning and at • Ask students
fractions. the end of the workout and let them give the questions like:
result in its simplified form. "Is every
• With active participation of students discuss polynomial
the closure, commutative and associative function a
properties of addition and multiplication of rational
rational expression and the existence of the function?
identify element and inverse of an expression • Give exercise
with respect to each of these operations. problems on
decomposition
Note: In all the above activities it is better to of a given
consider simple expressions to handle for the rational
students, as acquisition of the basic knowledge expression into
is essential here. partial fractions.
• Assist students in decomposing rational
expression as a sum of partial fractions using
several examples.
• solve 2.2 Rational • You may begin the lesson with example of • Ask students
rational Equations … simple rational equation and with active questions like:
equations (3 periods) participation of the students discuss the steps Solve
in finding solutions under the set in which x +1
the equation is defined e.g. =1
x− 2
(a) 1 = 4 ( x ≠ 0 ) and let them
x give reason for
(b) x + 1 = x − 3 ( x ≠ 0 , 2 ) : their answers.
x − 2 x
Use sufficient examples similar to the above
ones and encourage the students to solve
them.
• Let the student check their answer is in the
universal set and check it by substitution.
• Assist students in solving equations • Give exercise
involving rational expressions, in this case problems on
you may set up exercise problems from real solving rational
life situations that lead to rational equations. equations.

• define 2.3 Rational • You may start the lesson by setting an • Give exercise
rational Functions activity in which list of functions, that the problems on
function. and their students studied so far, are given and ask identifying
• determine graphs students to assign name to each function in rational
the domain (5 periods) the list. functions
of a given • Introduce a new function that is defined by • Ask students, to
rational 2.3.1 rational expression and which is known as determine the
function. Rational "Rational Function" and then state its formal value(s) for
• determine Functions definition and following this with active which a rational
the range of participation of the students, discuss the function is
a given definition using several elaborate examples. undefined; to
rational In this discussion assist and encourage the give its domain
function. students to determine the domains and ranges and range.
of the rational functions under consideration.
• Sketch the • Graphs of • You may start the lesson by giving activities • Ask students to
graph of a rational to students to prepare table of values and to prepare table of
given functions plot the corresponding points on the value for a
rational coordinate plane for some simple rational given rational
function. functions like: function first
1 1 x +1 and then let
f (x) = , f (x) = and f (x) =
x x+ 4 x−3 them sketch the
• Assist students in sketching the graphs of graph.
these functions and encourage them to • Ask oral
identify the intercepts as well as the questions in
symmetry of the graphs they draw. your discussion
• After a brief description of the meaning of to check
asymptotes and their types let the students whether the
determine the vertical or horizontal or oblique students follow
asymptote that the graph of a given rational or understand
function may have. the lesson.
• Determine • With active participation of the students
the discuss how to determine the type of
intercepts asymptote that a function may have, nature
and of the functions near the asymptote and any
symmetry other property .
of the graph • That function may have (in this discussion
of a given you may use the graph of the function taken
rational as an example above and encourage the
function. students to determine the domain and range
of the function from its graph.

• identify the • By considering functions of the form • Give exercise
type 1 problems on the
f (x) = n
asymptote (x − 4) determination
that the assist students to generalize the nature of the of the
graph of a graphs of these functions when n is odd and asymptotes of
given when n is even. the graph of a
function • In addition to the method discussed in section given rational
may have. 2.2 of this unit, discuss with students how function.
• tell the the graphs of rational functions are used in • Ask students to
properties solving rational inequalities and encourage describe the
of a given students to practice and use this method. nature of the
rational graph of a given
function rational
from its function near its
graph. asymptotes.
• use graphs
of rational
functions to
solve
rational
inequalities.
Unit 3: Coordinate Geometry (21 periods)

• understand specific facts and principles about lines and circles.
• know basic concepts about conic sections.
• know methods and procedures in solving problems on conic sections.

Resources
Students will 3. • You may begin the topic with a brief • Ask students
be able to: Coordinate revision of equation of a straight line, its to give
• write Geometry slope and intercepts. You can also give examples of
different 3.1 Straight activities for the students on identifying linear
forms of line parallel, intersecting and perpendicular equations
equation of a (3 periods) lines by carefully examining their • Give
line. • Revision equations (without drawing). exercises on
• determine on writing
the slope, x- equation different
intercept and of a line equations for
y-intercept a line which
of a line is shown on
from its the
equation coordinate
• determine 3.1.1 Angle • You may start the lesson by discussing plane through
the angle between two the angle between two non-vertical and two given
between two lines on the two non-perpendicular lines. points.
intersecting coordinate • Assist students to practise in determining
lines on the plane the angle between two lines by using the
coordinate slopes of the lines.
plane whose
equations are
given.
• determine 3.1.2 • Encourage students to practice is • Ask students
the distance Distance determining the distance between a point to use the
between a between a and a line through different examples and formula and
point and a point and a exercises. (i.e. the distance(d) of a point find the
line given on line on the (x1, y1) from the line ax + by + c = 0 is distance
the coordinate given by: between a
coordinates plane a x1 + b y1 + c given point
d =
plane. 2
a + b 2
and a given
line on the
coordinates
plane.

Resources
• name the 3.2 Conic • You may start the lesson by discussing • Ask students
different sections how conic sections are generated, i.e. the oral
types of (18 periods) formation the four famous curves when questions to
conic 3.2.1 Cone two right circular cones (with common state the
sections and sections vertex and whose altitudes lie on the definition of
• explain how of a cone same line) are sliced or intersected by a a conic
the conic plane at different angles. section.
sections are • With active participation of the students, • Ask students
generated consider the different cases of the to give some
(formed) intersection of the plane and the pair of examples
cones (arranged as explained above) and from real life
discuss on how the conic sections (circle, (or their
ellipse, parabola and hyperbola) are environment)
generated or formed. Recall that the that look like
name "conic section" comes from the each of the
"cone" used to generate the curves. conic
sections.
• define circle 3.2.2 Circles • You may begin with the introduction of • Ask students
as a locus • lines and the notion of "Locus" as a system of to define the
• write circles points, lines or curves which satisfies one general
equation of a or more given condition(s). Let the equation of a
circle students realize it as a set of points circle by the
• find the consists of those points (and only those method of
radius and points) whose coordinates satisfy a given completing
center of a equation, then the set of points is the the square
circle from locus of the equation. and ask them
its equation. to interpret
• determine this equation
whether a of a circle
given line
and circle
have a point
of
intersection
or not.
• determine • Equation • Let students do revision work on writing • Give exercise
the of a equations of a circle and determining the problems on
coordinates tangent center and the radius of circles through finding the
for the line examples and exercises. equation of a
intersection • Assist the students to calculate the tangent line

Resources
point(s) (if perpendicular distance between the center to a given
the given of a circle and a line, where equations of circle.
line and the both the circle and the line are given. • Give exercise
given circle • Based on the result they obtained above problems on
intersect) guide them to determine the number of finding the
• write intersection point(s) of the given circle common
equation of a with the given line. point(s) for
tangent line • Let the students determine(find) the point lines and
to a given (i.e., its coordinates) of intersection for a circles that
circle. circle and line (if they intersect). are
(where the • Help the students in writing equation of a intersecting.
point of tangent line to a given circle at the given
tangency is point.
given)
• write the 3.2.3 • You may start the lesson by defining a • As a locus or
standard Parabolas parabola as a locus (i.e. a plane curve a set of
form of which is the set of all points equidistant points
equation of a from a fixed point (called focus) and a equidistant
parabola. fixed line (called directrix) in the plane. from a fixed
• draw • With the help of the graph of a given point (called
different parabola discuss the related terms focus) and a
types of a (directrix, focus, axis, vertex and latus fixed
parabolas rectum). line(caused
• describe • Help the students in writing the standard directrix) on
some form of equation of a parabola. the plane.
properties of • Let students practise in drawing the • Ask students
a given graphs of parabolas by recalling the to define a
parabola. students’ knowledge of some groups of parabola and
parabolas. its different
• Help students in identifying the parts.
orientation of the graph of a parabola • Ask students
(open upward, downward, to the right or to write the
to the left) from the equation. standard
form of the
equation of a
parabola.
• Assist students in the investigation of the • Give class
properties of parabola through different activities
examples and exercise. that deal with
sketching
parabolas.
• Give students

Resources
opportunities
to discuss
about some
properties of
parabola
depending up
on the
coefficients
of the highest
powers.
• Home work
• define 3.2.4 • You may start the lesson by defining an • Ask students
"ellipse" as a Ellipses ellipse as a locus (i.e. A plane curve to define an
locus (set of which is the set of all points (x,y) the sum ellipse and
points on the of whose distances from two distinct name its
plane which fixed points (called foci) is constant) parts.
satisfy a • With the help of the graph of an ellipse • Ask students
certain given discuss the related terms (foci, vertex, to write the
condition). major axis, minor axis, eccentricity and equation of
• write the latus rectum) an ellipse in
standard • Help the students in finding the equation the standard
form of of an ellipse based on the given form
equation of conditions (with the help of examples and • Ask students
an ellipse. exercises). to sketch
• sketch • Let students practise drawing the graphs graphs of
ellipse. of ellipses. ellipses given
• describe • Assist student in finding the coordinates certain
some related of the foci, the vertices, length of major conditions
terms (latus and minor axis, eccentricity and length of • Give students
rectum, latus rectum of an ellipse. opportunities
eccentricity, • Let students describe some properties of to discuss
major and ellipse. about graphs
minor of ellipses
axes,...) • Home work
• define 3.2.5 • You may start the lesson by defining a • Ask students
hyperbola as Hyperbolas hyperbola as a locus (i.e., the set of all to state the
a locus points (x,y) for which the absolute value definition of
• write the of the difference between the distances a hyperbola
standard from two distinct fixed points (called
form of foci) is constant) • Ask students
equation of a • Encourage the students to find the to sketch

Resources
hyperbola equation of a hyperbola based on the hyperbolas.
• describe given information with the help of • Ask students
related terms examples and exercises. to name parts
to hyperbola • With the help of the graph of a hyperbola of a
(foci, centre, discuss the related terms (focus, centre, hyperbola
transverse transverse axis, conjugate axis, vertex, and describe
axis, eccentricity and latus rectum). terms related
asymptotes, • Guide the students to practise in drawing to it.
conjugate the graphs of hyperbola and discuss • Ask students
axis...) related terms with their friends in a group. to give
• sketch examples of
hyperbola hyperbolas
based on its from their
given environment
equation
• give • Assist students in finding the lengths of • Ask students
eccentricity the transverse and conjugate axes, the to distinguish
of a given coordinates of the foci and vertices, the type of the
hyperbola eccentricity and length of the latus conic
• solve rectum. sections
problems on • Let students practice describing represented
hyperbola. properties of hyperbola through different by a given
examples and exercises. equations
• Ask students
to give
examples of
conic
sections from
real life.
Unit 4: Mathematical Reasoning (16 periods)

• know basic concept about mathematical logic.
• know methods and procedures in combining and determining the validity of statements.
• know basic facts about argument and validity.
Resources
Students will be 4. • You may start the lesson by introducing • Ask students to
able to: Mathematical the concepts "statement" and "open give examples of
• explain the Reasoning statement" using different examples statements and
difference 4.1 Logic (13 from real life situations and then guide open statements
between periods) the students come to the definition of • Ask students to
"statement" "statement" and "open statement". completed the
and "open 4.1.1 • Assist students to give different truth values of
statement" "Statement" examples of "statements" and "open table with
• determine the and "Open statements" from their daily life. compound
truth value of statement" • Guide students to change open statements
a statement. statements to statements by substituting
numbers or names in place of variables
or pronouns and let them determine the
truth values of these statements.
• describe the 4.1.2 • You may begin the lesson with • Give for students
rules for each Fundamental statements that are taken from real life opportunities to
of the five Logical situations and connected by the words discuss the
logical Connectives "and", "or", "if...., then ....." and "--- if validity of
connectives. (operators) and only if---and let the students arguments
• use the - Negation determine the validity of the combined • Home work
symbols¬, ∧, - Conjunction statement. • Quiz/ Test
∨, ⇒ and ⇔ - Disjunction • Based on the above discussion introduce
to make - Implication the five logical connectives (sometimes
compound and they are also called logical operators)
statements - Bi- and tables that define/ describe the rule
implication for the respective connective, in doing
so assist students to use the symbols for
the connectives that is, ¬ , ∧ , ∨, ⇒ and
⇔accordingly
Note: In fact the word "not" denoted by
"¬" is applied to a single statement and
does not connect two statements, and as a
result of this the collective name "logical
operators" can also be used in place of
"logical connectives"

Resources
• determine • Encourage students to determine the • Let students form
truth values of truth values of different component compound
compound statements and of their compound statements using
statements statements connected by each one of the logical
connected by these connectives based on the operators from
each of the corresponding rule, the statement that real life situation
logical you take, as an example, should reflect and analyse their
connectives. good ethical and civic values such as feedback so as to
patience, obedience, love of work, evaluate their
productivity as well as issues like logical thinking.
environmental protection, gender
equality HIV/AIDS etc. and statements
from geometry and algebra too.
• Allow students to give their own similar
examples from their day to day
activities.
• determine 4.1.3 • By considering up to three component • Give exercise
truth values of Compound statements assist students to determine problems on
two or three statements the truth values of their compound combining
statements statements connected by two or more statements and
connected by connectives (use tables of truth values) determining their
two or three truth values.
connectives.
• describe the 4.1.4 • You may start the lesson by discussing • Give exercise
properties and Properties what is meant by "two statements are problems on
laws of and laws of logically equivalent" using examples. determining
logical logical • Guide the students to come to the logical
connectives. connectives conclusion about properties of logical equivalence of
• determine the connectives (properties like: the statements.
equivalence commutative and associative properties • Ask students to
of two of both conjunction and disjunction, give examples
statements. distributive property, De-Morgan's Law) that justify the
• Encourage the students to determine validity of the
whether two given compound statements properties of
are equivalent or not by using (applying) logical operators
the properties of connectives (connective)

Resources
• define 4.1.5 • You may start the lesson by defining • Ask students to
"contradiction Contradiction "contradiction" and "tautology" and rewrite (restate)
and and discuss with the students about the the definition of
"tautology" Tautology application of the definitions in "contradiction"
• determine that determining whether a given compound and "Tautology"
a given statement is a contradiction or tautology in their own
compound or neither of them by using several words
statement is examples (using tables of truth values) • Give exercise
either a problems on
contradiction contradiction and
or tautology tautology.
or neither of
them
• find the 4.1.6 • You may start the lesson by discussing • Give exercise
"converse" of Converse and with students what is meant by problems on
a given contra "converse of a given compound determining the
compound positive statement and using several examples converse of a
statement explain how to make the converse of a given statement
• determine statement. and its truth
the truth value • Assist students how to find the converse value.
of the of a given statement and encourage them • Ask students
converse of a to determine its truth value (i.e. the truth what relation, if
given value of the converse) there is any, do
compound • Let students observe the truth values of a they observe
statement given statement and its converse in such between the truth
• find the a way that they draw their own values of a given
"contra - conclusion. statement and its
positive" of a • By using several examples discuss with converse.
given the students what is meant by contra • Give exercise
statement positive of a given compound statement problems on how
• determine the and how to make the contrapositive the contrapositive
truth value of • Encourage your students to determine of a given
the contra- the truth values of the contrapositive of a statement is
positive of a given compound statement and let them determined and
given observe any relation, if it exists, between give exercises on
statement the truth values of the given compound determining the
statement and its contrapositive, so that truth value of the
they can draw conclusion from their contrapositive
observation. of a statement.

Resources
• Ask students
what connection,
if there is any, do
they observe
between the truth
values of a
statement and its
contrapositive.
• describe the 4.1.7 • You may start the lesson by revising • Ask students first,
two types of Quantifiers important points about "statement" and to give statements
quantifiers. "open statements" from the lesson of the using only one
• determine the previous topic. quantities and
truth value of • After introducing "existential then to give its
statements quantifier" (∃x) and "universal respective truth
involving quantifier" (∀x) discuss with students value.
quantifiers. how each of these quantifiers can change • Give exercise
open statements to statements and hence problems on
encourage students to determine the truth changing open
value by using sufficient examples. statements to
• By taking several examples let the statements by
students determine the truth values of using both
statements involving both quantifiers. quantifiers and
determining their
truth values.
• describe what 4.2 Arguments • You may start the lesson by considering • Give
is meant by and validity simple examples from daily life and group/individual
"argument". (3 periods) explain what is meant by "argument" activity on setting
• check the "hypothesis or premises" and up a sensible
validity of a "conclusion". You may take examples argument from
given like: their real life
argument. S1: If he runs fast, he will win the race situation.
S2: He did not win the race
S : Therefore he did not run fast.
• use rules of • Rules of • Thus the above three statements taken • Give exercise
inference to Inference together form an argument in which S1 problems on
demonstrate and S2 are hypothesis (or premises) and identifying the
the validity of S is the conclusion premises and the
a given conclusion of an
argument. argument and its
validity
• Give either class
work or home
work or quiz (as
required)
Unit 5: Statistics and Probability (31 periods)

• know specific facts about types of data.
• know basic concepts about grouped data.
• know principles of counting.
• apply facts and principles in computation of probability.

Students will be 5. Statistics • You may begin the lesson with a brief • Ask students to
able to: and revision of the major concepts that the give their own
probability students had studied in Grade 9 statistics example of
• identify • By supporting with sufficient and appropriate qualitative data
qualitative 5.1 Statistics examples discuss with students what is meant and quantitative
and (14 periods) by "qualitative data" and "quantitative data.
quantitative data" and let the students explain the • Let students
data difference between these types of data describe the
5.1.1 Types of • Discuss what is meant by "variable" in difference
• describe the data statistics i.e. the characteristic which can be between
difference • Qualitative measured and expressed in quantitative or qualitative and
between and numerical terms, since a variable, in quantitative
discrete and quantitative statistics, can be either discrete or data with their
continuous data continuous, with the help of sufficient and own words.
variables • Discrete and elaborate examples introduce the ideas of • Let students
(data) continuous "Discrete Variable" and " Continuous describe the
variables variable", in doing so, with their active difference
(data) participation let the students come to the between
conclusion that a "discrete variable" can only discrete data
have observed values at isolated points along and continuous
a scale of values. These values are generally data and let
expressed as an integer (whole numbers) them give their
only. own example
Examples of discrete data are (a) the number for each kind.
of persons per households (b) the units of an
item in inventory (c) the number of
assembled components which are found to
be defective.
Likewise let the students conclude that a
"continuous variable” assume a value at any
fractional point along a specified interval of
values and hence "continuous data" are
generated by the process of measuring.
Examples of continuous data are: (a) the
weight of each shipment of exported coffee
(b) the length of time between successive
landings of airplane at Bole Airport.

• identify 5.1.2 • You may begin the lesson with a brief
ungrouped Introduction description of "frequency distribution"
and grouped to grouped which is a table in which possible values for
data data a variable are grouped into "classes" and the
• determine number of observed values which fall into
class interval each class is recorded.
(class size) as • Following this introduce "grouped data" as
required to those data which are organized in a
form grouped frequency distribution. You may also
data from a explain that we use grouped frequency
given distribution for the purpose of summarizing
ungrouped a large sample of data.
data
• make
cumulative
frequency
table for
grouped data
(for both
discrete and
continuous)
• Consider for instance, the number of patients • Give students
that a doctor visits per day for 150 working project work to
• Grouped days is given by: collect and a
discrete data 3 2 6 2 6 5 22 3 1 10 classify,
5 9 7 2 5 1 5 4 9 7 quantitative data
25 19 8 2 5 8 10 16 15 5
based on issues
7 8 3 6 6 21 6 9 4 5
6 6 22 8 11 23 8 5 9 6 taken from real
8 7 5 10 16 11 13 1 7 3 life and let them
2 18 0 16 4 9 8 5 9 17 construct and
7 9 5 19 12 1 10 3 5 7
13 18 8 7 8 7 7 13 0 5
present it in a
14 7 20 1 9 4 6 24 9 6 cumulative
11 5 6 28 7 7 22 1 17 4 frequency
11 8 1 4 12 13 9 23 14 5 distribution.
2 6 6 11 3 14 6 8 4 4
6 8 29 18 5 8 8 17 4 4 • This data can be
5 18 7 3 11 23 20 10 6 6 obtained from
As the above list of data is ungrouped, guide the class, the
students to present it in a grouped frequency school, the
distribution or cumulative frequency Education
distribution, and also help them in finding Bureau, the
the cumulative frequency as shown below. statistics office,
newspaper etc.

Note that: It is required to present the • Also ask
frequency distribution consists of five classes, students to they
whose approximate interval is given by: find from just
 Largest valuein   Smallest valuein  what inter
  − 
 approximate   ungrouped data   ungrouped data 
  = present
 interval  Number of class required
presented in
29 − 0
= = 5.8 their data the
5
R the closest convenient class size is thus frequency
6 distribution
Table 1 table.
No of No. of Cumulative
patients visiting days frequency
(class) (f) (cf)
0-5 49 49
6-11 66 66+49 = 115
12-17 16 16+115 = 131
18-23 15 15+131 =146
24-29 4 4+ 146 =150
Total 150
Note that the above cumulative frequency
distribution is for discrete data.
• described • Grouped • Now consider examples of a frequency
terms related continuous distribution like the one given below in
to grouped data which we use continuous data.
continuous E.g. on a certain construction site the weekly
wages (in Birr) of 100 labourers taken from
data, i.e., class a list (i.e. ungrouped data) in which the
limit, class highest observed wage was 258 birr and the
boundary, lowest was 142 birr are required to be given
class interval in 6 categories (classes) of a frequency
and class distribution as follows (Note that the
midpoint. approximate class interval
258 − 142
= = 19.33 Birr
6
R The closest class size is 20 birr)
Table 2:
Weekly wage Number of labourers
(in Birr) (f)
140 - 159 7
160 -179 20
180 - 199 33
200 - 219 25
220 - 239 11
240 - 259 4
Total 100

• determine • With active participation of the students • Give students a
class limit, discuss the terms and the corresponding frequency
class concepts conveyed in these terms related to distribution
boundary, each class in a frequency distribution of (like Table 2)
class interval continuous data. So that the students can and ask them to
and class differentiate and solve any problem on these find the
midpoint for concepts. following
grouped Thus explain terms like: (a) lower and
continuous - The lower and upper class limits which upper class
data. indicate the values included within the class. limits and
- The lower and upper class boundaries or class
exact limits that are the specific points along boundaries
the measurement scale (Birr, in our (b) class interval
example above) which serve to separate (c) class
adjoining classes and also describe how they midpoint and
can be determined. lastly let
- The class interval which indicates the range of them form
values included within a class, and can be table like
determined by subtracting the lower class Table 3.
boundary from the upper class boundary for
the class.
- The class midpoint which can be determined
by adding one half of the class interval to the
lower boundary of the class. Explain that, for
certain summary purposes the values in a class
are often represented by this class midpoint.
- By using the frequency distribution of the
example taken above (Table 2) you may
summarize what has been discussed so far on
a table as follows.
Table 3
Weekly Class Class Number of
wage Boundaries midpoint Labourers
(class limits) (Birr)
Birr 140-159 139.59 -159.50 Birr 149.50 7
160 - 179 159.50 -179.50 169.50 20
180 - 199 179.50 -199.50 189.50 33
200 - 219 199.50 -219.50 209.50 25
220 - 239 219.50-239.50 229.50 11
240 - 259 239.50-259.50 249.50 4
Total 100
Note: In general, only one significant decimal digit is
expressed in class boundaries as compared with
class limits. However, because with monetary units
the next more precise unit of measurement after
"nearest birr" is usually defined as "nearest cent," in
this case two decimal digits are expressed as shown in
Table 3 above.

• find the 5.1.3 • You may begin the lesson with a brief • Give exercise
mean of a Measures of revision of the measures of location for problems on
given grouped Location for ungrouped data (which the students had computation of
data. Grouped learnt in Grade 9) Mean for data
Data • After defining the concept of "Mean" or given like the
• Mean for "Arithmetic Mean" and clarify it with the following on
grouped data help of several examples, discuss with
students how to find the "mean" for x 2 6 7 8 10
ungrouped data. Following this, let the f 3 4 9 2 6
students clearly understand that when data
have been grouped in a frequency • Give exercise
distribution, the midpoint of each class is problems on
used as an approximation of all values computation of
contained in the class. "Mean" for a
• Based on the formal definition of "Mean" you grouped data
already stated and with the help of examples (both discreet
encourage the students to come to the formula and continuous
for Mean of a grouped data that is given by: variable)
Σ ( fx C ) or, more simply • Check whether
X =
∑ f they correctly
Σ ( fx ) apply the
X =
n formula in their
• In your discussion emphasize on the fact that, computation
operationally, both formulas indicate that • Give
each "class midpoint" denoted by XC or
Homework
simply X is multiplied by the associated
"class frequency (f)", and all these products exercises.
are summed up ( ∑ fX )c and then this
sum is divided by the total number of
observations ( ∑ f ) or (n for sample data)
represented in the given frequency
distribution.
• The following example summarizes what has
been said so far. It is taken from the
frequency distribution presented in section
5.1.1 (Table 2)
Example: The mean of the weekly wages
(rounded to the nearest Birr) of 100 labourers
can be found as follows. It is assumed that
the group of the labourers be a sample from a
larger population of labourers.

Table 4
Weekly Class Number of fx
wage midpoint labourers Birr
(class) (X)Birr (f)
Birr
140-159 149.50 7 1,046.50
160-179 169.50 20 3,390.50
180-199 189.50 33 6,253.50
200-219 209.50 25 5,237.50
220-239 229.50 11 2,524.50
240-259 249.50 4 998.00
Total 100
∑f X =Birr
19,450.00
Σ( fxC ) Σ( fx ) 19, 450
∴ Mean = X = = = =194.50 birr
Σf n 100
• find median • The Median • After stating the formal definition of • Ask students to
for grouped for grouped "Median" and by using examples, give brief find Median of
discreet data data revision of median for ungrouped data (like ungrouped data
the one discussed in Grade 9) with both odd
• With active participation of the students and even
discuss the method and procedures that are number of
used to find "median" of a grouped data. observations.
• During the discussion guide the students so • Give data as
that in order to find median for grouped data follows
they should follow the procedures very x 2 5 7 8 10
carefully by emphasizing on the following. f 3 4 9 2 6
• find Median a) The data should be given in a cumulative • Give exercise
for grouped frequency distribution. problems on
data b) Then the class which contains the median determining the
(continuous value has to be determined first (that means, Median for
variable) the class which contains the median is the grouped data
first class for which the cumulative (both discrete
frequency equals or exceeds one-half of the and continuous
total number of observations.) variable) and
c) Once this class (which contains the median check whether
value) is identified, the specific value of the
they apply the
median is determined by the formula.
formula
 n  correctly.
Median = BL +  2 − cf B 
 i
 fC 
 
 
where:
BL= Lower boundary of the class containing
the median
n = total number of observations in the
frequency distribution (N for a population)

cfB = the cumulative frequency in the class
preceding ("coming before") the class
containing the median
fC = the number of observations (frequency) in
the class containing the median.
The following example summarizes what has
been discussed so far. This example is taken
from Table 4 above (i.e., the frequency
distribution presented for weekly wage of 100
labourers)
Note: Let the students observe how the
cumulative frequencies are determined.
Example:
(a) consider the following cumulative
frequency distribution taken from Table 4. • Ask oral
Table 5 question during
No. of Cumulative the discussion
Weekly wage
labourers frequency • Give Home
(class) Birr
(f) (cf) work exercises.
Birr 140-159 7 7
160-179 20 20 + 7 = 27
180-199 33 33 + 27= 60
200-219 25 25 + 60 = 85
220-239 11 11 + 85 = 96
240-259 4 4 + 96 =100
Total 100
(b) The class containing the median is the
100
class with = 50th value, and hence the
2
first class whose cumulative frequency
equals or exceeds 50 is the class with
limits Birr 180 - 199.
(c) Thus to determine the specific value of the
median the calculation is done within the
class 180 - 199.
Hence put
BL = 179.50, n = 100, cfB = 27, fc = 33
and i = 20 in the formula to get:
 n 
 − cf B 
M ed = B L +  2 i
 fc 
 
 50 − 27 
=179.50 +   20 = 193.44
 33 
R Median = Birr 193.44

• determine the • The Mode for • You may begin the lesson about "mode" • Give class
mode of a a grouped with its formal definition followed by activity to
given grouped data examples that explain how to determine the determine the
data. mode of a given ungrouped data. This can mode of
be taken mainly as a revision work of what ungrouped data.
had been discussed in Grade 9. • Ask student to
determine the
mode of the
following data
• identify data • By using sufficient examples introduce the x 2 5 7 8 10
that are distributions known as "unimodal", f 3 4 9 2 6
unimodal, "bimodal" and "multimodal"
biomodal and • With active participation of the students,
multimodal. discuss how to determine the "mode" for a
given grouped data by using appropriate and
sufficient examples
• In the discussion, emphasize that for a data
grouped in frequency distribution, of course,
with equal class interval, the class containing
the mode is determined first, by identifying
the class with the greatest number of
observations (or largest frequency) which is
also know as "the modal class". Then
within this modal class, the mode can be
determined with the help of the following
formula:
Mode = BL +  d1 
 d + d  i
 1 2 
where: • Give exercise

BL = lower boundary of the modal class (the problem on
class containing the mode) determining the
d1 = the difference between the frequency in mode of a given
the modal class and the frequency in the grouped data
preceding class (discrete and
d2 = the difference between the frequency in continuous
the modal class and the frequency in the variable)
following (or next) class
i = the size of the class interval

Example: Refer to the grouped data given in
Table 5 above
The modal class is the class with limits Birr
180 - 199
Thus put BL = 179.50, d1 =33 − 20 = 13, d2 =
33 − 25 = 8
and i = 20 in the formula to get:
 d1   13 
Mode = BL =   i = 179.50 +   ( 20 )
 d1 + d 2   13 + 8 
= 191.88 birr
• determine the • Quartiles, • In relation with the median (which divides a • Give exercise
quartiles for a Deciles and given distribution into two halves) introduce problem on
given grouped Percentiles the other measures of locations, i.e., computing
data for Grouped "quartiles" which divide the data into four quartile, decile
Data. quarters, "the deciles" which divide it into and percentile
10 tenths and "the percentile" which divide for ungrouped
it into 100 parts. data.
• determine the • With active participation of the students and
required with the help of several examples from
deciles of a ungrouped data let the students realize that,
given the quartile, deciles and percentiles are very
frequency similar to the median in that they also
distribution subdivide a distribution of measurements
recording to the proportion of frequencies
observed.
• determine the • For the case of grouped data, discuss with • Ask student to
required students how the formula for the median is apply the
percentile of a modified to the fractional point of interest. formula for
given In your discussion emphasize that first quartile and
frequency determining the appropriate class containing compute the
distribution. the point of interest is important before using first, second,
the modified formulas, and guide students to third and fourth
come to the formulas. Therefore, formulas quartile for
in this case are: grouped data
n  and ask them
 4 − cf  what they find
Q1 ( first quartile ) = BL +  i
 f c  about the
  second quartile
 6n  in relation to
 10 − cf B  the median.
D6 ( sixth decile ) = BL +  i
 f c  • Give exercise
  problems on
 70n  computing
 thirtieth   100 − cf B  certain given
P30   = BL +  i
 percentile   fc  decile of
  grouped data.

You may consider examples like:
Example:
Referring to Table 5 above determine the
values at the (a) third quartile (b) sixth
decile and (c) fortieth percentile.
Solution • Give exercise
 3n  problems on
(a) Q3 = BL +  − cf B  i
 4  computing
 fc 
  some given
 
75 − 60 percentile of a
= 199.50 + 20 = 211.50 birr grouped data.
25
3n • Ask students
Note: the class containing the or 75th
4 what they
measurement is the class with number of found in their
observations (or frequency fC = 25 and limits calculation
200 - 219 Birr, and hence its lower boundary about the
(BL) is 199.50. relation among
the 5th decile,
(b) D6 = BL +  6n  i 50th percentile
 − cf B 
 10  and the median.
 fc 
 
 
= 179.50+  60 − 27  20 = 199.50 birr

 
 33 
 40 n 
(c) P40 = BL  − cf a  i
 100 
 fc 
 
 
= 179.0 +  40 − 27  20 = 187.38 birr
 
 33 
• describe the 5.1.4 • You may begin with introductory discussion
dispersion of Measures of on what is meant by "dispersion" among
data values Dispersion values of a given data and precede the
discussion by answering question like why
we study dispersion. How many types of
measures of dispersion are there?
• find the range • Range • With active participation of students and • Give exercise
of a given considering first example of ungrouped data problems n
data. define "range" viz, the difference between computing the
the highest and lowest values for items range of
which have not been grouped in a frequency grouped data.
distribution. and discuss how to compute it.
Let students describe what information
"range" gives them about the data.

• With active participation of students and • Ask them what
considering first example of ungrouped data information
define "range" Viz, the difference between does "range"
the highest and lowest values for items give about the
which have not been grouped in a frequency data.
distribution. and discuss how to compute it.
Let students describe what information
"range" gives them about the data.
• Following this with the help of appropriate
examples of grouped frequency distribution
for both discrete and continuous data discuss
with students how to compute "Range" in
doing so guide them to come to the formula,
i.e., Range = R = BU(H) - BL(L) where
BU(H) = upper boundary of the highest class • Ask students to
and BL(L) = the lower boundary of the compute the
lowest valued class. range as well as
• Compute • Variance • With the help of example of ungrouped data the variance of
variance for and with active participation of students data like the
ungrouped • For ungrouped introduce and discuss the methods and ones given
data data procedures in computing "variance". below.
Guide students to come to the formula for x 2 5 7 8 10
variance of ungrouped data i.e. variance = f 3 4 9 2 6
Σ( xi − x) 2
n
where, xi = the value of the ith item as i = 1,
2, 3,... ,n and x = the mean of the data,
n = the total number of items in the data..
• Considering exercise problems, encourage
and assist student in calculating variance of
ungrouped data by using the above formula
correctly.
• calculate • for grouped • Consider examples for both discrete and • Give exercise
variance for data continuous grouped data, and discuss with problems on
grouped data. students the methods and procedures (steps) calculation of
• solve in computation of variance. In the variance for
problems on discussion guide students to come to and grouped data
variance understand the formula. (continuous
Σ fi ( xi − x) 2 variable)
Variance =
Σfi
where xi = mid value of the ith class as
i = 1, 2, …K (if there are K class intervals)
x = the mean of the data
fi = the frequency of the ith class interval

For example you can take like the following • Ask oral
grouped data of discrete variable. question
Class Frequ Mid fixi xi-6 (xi-6)2 fi(x-6)2 regarding the
ency Val steps in
ue
0-4 4 2 8 -4 16 64
computing
4-8 8 6 48 0 0 0 variance and
8-12 2 10 20 4 16 32 what kind of
12-16 1 14 14 8 64 64 information
Σ fi Σfixi Σ[fi(xi-6)2] they get about
=15 =90 =160
the data from
Mean = Σ [ f i ( x i )] = 90 = 6 computing
Σfi 15 variance.
2
∴ The required variance = Σ [ f i ( x i − 6) ]
Σ fi
160 32 = 10.67
= =
15 3
(correct to two decimal places)
• Like wise you can also discuss variance of
grouped data of continuous variable (series)
• Encourage and assist students in the
application of the formula and the steps in
calculating variance for grouped data by
giving exercise problems to the students.
• Calculate • Standard • Start the lesson by defining "standard • Ask students to
standard deviation Deviation" as the positive square roof of the explain their
deviation (S.D) variance. For its computation first consider opinion about
for grouped examples of ungrouped data and discuss the statement
data. with students the procedures (steps) in the given below "If
computation. Encourage students to solve the standard
problems on standard deviation by giving deviation is
them exercise problems. small, there is
• Introduce the notation ( δ ) for "standard high degree of
deviation" and guide them to come to and uniformity in
apply the formula Viz the observed
• Standard Deviation for ungrouped data values (data)".
2 • Give exercise
Σ( xi − x )
=δ problems on
n computation of
• in short = δ Variance standard
• Note xi, x and n are as given for variance deviation of
• Discuss with students about what standard grouped data
deviation tells them about the given data by and assert the
using appropriate examples from practical statement given
situations. above.

• Calculation of • Take examples of both types of data, i.e.,
S.D. for discrete and continuous variables and
Grouped Data discuss with students about the steps in
computation of the variance and using the
definition of standard deviation assist the
students to calculate the standard deviation
(δ) and guide them to the formula.
δ =
Σ[ f i ( xi − x ) 2 ] where, xi, x and fi
Σfi
are as defined in the variance
• By using exercise problems assist students to
apply the formula correctly.
5.2 • You may start the lesson by revising • Ask oral
Probability important ideas about probability discussed question on
(17 periods) in Grade 9. In the revision work you may some basic
• Revision raise issues like experimental and theoretical ideas of
approaches of probability and determining probability.
probability of simple events. In doing so
emphasize on how to find the number of
outcomes favourable to the event and total
number of possible outcomes.
5.2.1 • With active participation of the students, • Ask students to
Permutation discuss that finding probability of an event give number of
and by counting is practical only if the outcomes possible
combination favourable to the event and the total number outcomes of an
of possible out comes are possible to count. experiment by
• With the help of simple day-to-day counting where
• Fundamental activities, introduce the idea of "fundamental 3 dies are
principle of principle of counting" which is used to find thrown and let
counting the number of ways of occurrence them explain
(selections) of events in a given order. For why it is
the introduction, you may take several necessary to
examples like the following one: have an
Example: Suppose Nuria wants to go from efficient
Harar via Dire Dawa to Addis Ababa. There methods of
are two Minibuses from Harar to Dire Dawa counting.
and 3 Buses from Dire Dawa to Addis
Ababa. How many possible ways of
selection of cars are there for Nuria to go
from Harar to Addis Ababa? Let M stands
for Minibus and B stands for Buses.

M1 B1 • Give exercise
Dire
problems on
Harar B2 Addis
Dawa Ababa finding the
number of
M2 B3 possible ways
The possible selection are M1B1, M1B2, M1B3, of selection
M2B1, M2B2, M2B3 using the
fundamental
principle of
counting (using
the principle of
multiplication
and Addition
Principle)
• determine the • Multiplication • Discuss with students that: (a) As the
number of principle number of objects to be selected from, gets
different ways very large, then finding the possible ways of
of possible selection one after the other by the method of
selection from listing them is tedious and in some cases may
a given sets of not even be possible ( b) In most cases we
objects (by do not want to know the types of selections
using the but what we need is their number only. So
multiplication state the multiplication principle as "If an
principle) event can occur in m different ways and for
every such choice another event can occur in
n different ways, then both the event can
occur in the given order in m × n different
ways". Help students to extend this principle
to any number of finite events.
• find the • Addition • By using examples introduce "The principle
number of principle of Addition" viz if an operation can be
ways of performed in m different ways and another
selection of operation in n different ways and the two
mutually operation are mutually exclusive (i.e., the
exclusive performance of one excludes that of the
operations (by other) then either of the two can be performed
using the in m + n ways. For example, A question
addition paper has two parts where one part contains 4
principle) questions and the other 3 questions. Suppose
a student has to choose only one question
from either part. He can do so in 4 + 3 = 7
ways. Encourage the students to solve
problems on the matter discussed.

• determine the • Permutation • Define "factorial n", where n ∈N and
factorial of a introduce its notation (n!) and use examples
given non- to explain how to compute factorial of a • Ask students to
negative given natural number. compute
integer • By considering examples of situations that factorial for
• find the involve large and complex outcomes explain some small
possible ways that it is necessary to have efficient methods values of n ∈N
of arranging of counting one of which is "permutation". like 4!, 5!, 7!
objects by With the help of several examples introduce and also to
using the the principle of permutation. evaluate
principle of • Discuss with students about "permutation" expression like
permutation as a means of finding number of 5! 5!× 6!
,
arrangements of objects taken some or all 3!2! 12!3!
objects at a time and introduce its notation
• Give exercise
i.e., P(n,r) ornPr for the number of
problems on
permutation of n distinct objects taken r at a
computing
time and which is given by n! where 0 < r ≤ permutation of
n in this case consider some practical objects.
problems/ examples on permutation that the
students can easily understand and proceed
to relatively complex cases accordingly. So
you may consider examples like
Example 1. Five students are contesting an
election for 5 places in the executive
committee of environmental protection club
in their school. In how many ways can their
names be listed on the ballot paper.
Solution: We have to arrange 5 names in 5
places
∴ The number of ways of listing their names
on the ballot paper = P(5,5) = 5! = 120
Example 2. Find the number of permutation
that can be made out of the letters of the
word "MATHEMATICS". In how many of
these permutations.
i) do the words start with C?
ii) do all the vowels always occur together?
iii) do the vowels never occur together?
iv) do the words begin with H and end with
S?

Note: You may consider two or three or all of
the above four questions given in Example 2
and discuss the solutions thoroughly.
• compute the • Circular • You may begin the lesson with a discussion • Ask students to
possible Permutations about the difference in arranging objects in explain the
arrangement straight line and along the circumference of difference
of objects a circle and allow students to perform simple between
around the activity in this regard and let them find the arrangements
circle (using difference. objects in a
the principle • Assist students in determining the number of straight line and
of circular arrangements of (n) objects along the around a circle.
permutation) circumference of a circle and introduce this
as "circular permutation" which depends
on the relative positions of the objects after
we fix the position of one object and then
arrange the remaining objects in (n-1)!
possible ways.
• Encourage students to come to the formula • Give exercise
i.e. The number of circular permutation problems on
of n objects = (n-1)! and let them apply it in computing
solving problems like the following. number of
Example: In how many ways 6 boys and 5 arrangements of
girls dine at a round table, if no two girls are objects on a
to sit together. circle.
Solution: First let allot the seats to boys.
Now 6 boys can have (6-1)! circular
permutation, i.e. the number of permutation
in which boys can take their seats = 5! = 120
Next the 5 girls can occupy seats marked
(G). There are 6 such seats. This can be
done in 6P5 = 720 ways
∴ The required number of ways = 120 × 720
= 86,400
B G
B
G
G
B
B
G
G
B
G B

• describe the • Combination • You may begin the lesson with the help of • Ask students
difference simple examples and discussing with students to explain about
between on some revision activities about permutation the principle of
arrangement of objects in which order of arrangements are permutation and
of objects and important and following this consider that of
selection of situations (if possible from examples you combination
objects. have taken above) in which the order of and their
• describe what arrangement is not important and let the difference.
is meant by students explain why they are different, how
"combination the numbers of these two kinds of
of objects" arrangements can be determined. You may
consider examples like the following one.
Example: Five researchers say A, B, C, D and
E presented 5 different papers on the strategy • Ask student to
of poverty reduction and it is required that find the
only three of them allowed to make speech different
for national conference on the issue, so in number of ways
how many different ways can we form a team of selecting a
of 3 speakers. certain number
Note: To begin with what the students already of objects out of
know, you may list some of the 60 a given objects.
arrangements obtained by permutation, i.e.
P(5,3) = 60 for instance (ABC, ABD, ABE,
ACB, ACD, ACE, ADB, ADC,ADE, AEB,
AEC, AED,...)
Solution: In the question above arrangements,
like: ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB and CBA
all consists of the same team of speakers A, B
and C and hence should not be considered as
different teams, that means order of the
speakers of will not change the teams.
Thus the required different teams of speakers
asked in the question are ABC, ABD, ABE,
ACD, ACE, ADE, BCE, BCE BDE and
CDE. Therefore, there are 10 different ways
of forming a team which consists of 3
speakers.
With the help of examples like the one shown
above introduce the concept of
"combination" as, "the ten groups of
speakers listed above are called the
combination of 5 speakers taken 3 at a time."
In this case emphasize on the fact that

(1) When we speak of combination, we don't
consider the order.
(2) To determine the number of combinations
for large number of objects by listing them
all (as in the example above) is difficult
and boring so it is necessary to have
efficient method.
• determine the • After stating the formal definition of • Give exercise
number of "combination" and its denotation as either problems on the
different C(n, r) or nCr for combination of n objects principle of
combination of taken r at a time where 0 < r ≤ n, assist combination of
n objects taken students in solving exercise problems on objects.
r at a time. combination based on the stated definition.
• explain the • Encourage students to describe the
computational mathematical (computational) relationship-
relationship between P(n, r) and C(n, r) by using
between appropriate and sufficient examples and
permutation guide them to come to the relation,
and C(n,r) = P(n,r) , where 0 < r ≤ n
combination of r!
objects.
• prove simple • Help students to prove some simple facts
facts about about combination like:
combination. 1) C (n, n) = 1,
2) C (n, 0 ) = 1,
3) C (n, r) = C (n, n-r),
4) C(n, r) + C (n, r-1) = C(n+1,r)
• solve practical • Practical • Assist students in their effort to solve • Give several
problems on problems on practical or real life problems on real life
combination of combination combination. You may give exercise problems on
objects. problems (beginning with the simpler one to the application
a relatively complex one) on combination of the principle
like the following ones. that the
Note: for the following Examples, "Hint" for students have
the solution and the last results are given for learnt so far.
checking while the remaining steps are left
out for the teacher and students to show.
Example 1: In an exam paper there are 12
questions. In how many ways can a student
choose eight questions in all if two questions
are compulsory.
Solution: Since 2 questions are compulsory,
the student is left with a choice of choosing
6 questions from the remaining 10 questions
and this he can do in (C (10, 6) = 210 ways.

Example 2: In how many ways can Bekele
invite at least one of his friends out of 5
friends to an art exhibition?
Solution: Hint: He can invite either one or
two or three or four of five
∴ Total number of ways in which he can
invite at least one of his friends
= C(5,1)+C(5,2)+C(5,3)+C(5,4)+C(5,5)
= 5 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 = 31
Example 3: A bag contains 5 black and 6 red
balls. Determine the number of ways in
which 2 black and 3 red balls can be selected
Solution: 2 black balls can be selected in
C(5,2) = 10 ways and 3 red balls can be
selected in C(6,3) = 20 ways
∴ Total number of selecting 2 black and 3 red
balls = 10 × 20 = 200
Example 4: A committee of 7 students has to
be formed from 9 boys and 4 girls. In how
many ways can this be done when the
committee consists of (i) exactly 3 girls (ii)
at least 3 girls (iii) at most 3 girls.
Hint for the solution
(i) When exactly 3 girls are included in the
committee, the remaining members will be
4 boys
∴ Total number of ways of forming the
committee = C (4,3) × C (9,4) = 504
(ii) At least 3 girls are included means, the
committee will consist of either 3 girls and
4 boys or 4 girls and 3 boys
∴ Total number of ways of forming the
committee
= [C(4,3) × C(9,4)] + [C(4,4) × C(9,3)]
= 504 + 84 = 588
(iii)When at most 3 girls are included, the
committee may consist of 3 girls and 4
boys or 2 girls and 5 boys or 1 girl and 6
boys or 7 boys (all are boys)
∴The required number of ways of forming the
committee
= [C(4,3)×C(9,4)]+C[(4,2)×C(9,5)]
+[C(4,1)+C(9,6)]+[C(9,7)] =1632.

• write up to the 5.2.2 Binomial • You may start the lesson by revising how the • Give exercise
6th power of a Theorem expanded form of the square and cube of a problems on
binomial given binomial expression is written, using Bionomia
expression (x the distributive property of multiplication expansion (the
+ y)n (i.e. over addition. You may consider examples application
when n = 0, 1, like: Binomial
2 2 2
2, 3, 4, 5) in (a + b) = (a + b) (a + b) = a + 2ab + b and theorem)
its expanded (m + n)3= (m + n) (m + n) (m + n) = (m + n)
form by using (m2+ 2mn + n2) = m3 + 3m2n + 3mn2 + n3
direct Following this with active participation of
multiplication the students discuss the expanded form of
. the following expressions in such a way that
students can observe and describe the pattern
in the expansions and the corresponding
coefficients.
• describe what (x + y)0 = 1
they observe ( x + y)1 = x + y
in the (x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
expansion of (x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x + y)n where • By using the same method (i.e., actual
n = 0, multiplication) discuss the expanded forms
1,2,3,4,5 of (x + y)4 , ( x + y)5 and (x + y)6 and
encourage the students to list down all what
they observe in the expanded forms such as:
1) The number of terms in the expansions in
relation to the index of the binomial
2) The index of the first term in relation to
that of the binomial.
3) How the indices in successive terms of the
expansion change uniformly
4) The index of the last term of the expanded
form in relation to that of the binomial.
5) What the sum of the indices in each term
gives
6) How the coefficients of terms equidistant
from the beginning and last terms are
related
7) If the coefficient of one term is known,
how to determine that of the next term

• describe • With the help of the examples discussed above • Ask students to
"Pascals" introduce "Pascal's triangle" and discuss with write the pattern
Triangle" and students how it is formed and for what it is of rascal's
its use used for. triangle up to
• apply the • State the "Binomial Theorem" for non- few rows
"Binomial negative integral index (n), i.e. correctly.
Theorem" in (x + y)n = nC0 xn + nC1 xn-1y + nC2xn-2y2 +---
expanding the +nCrxn-ryr +---+ nCnyn
nth power of and then discuss with students by considering
binomial terms some values for n how the list of their
i.e. (x + yn, observation which they wrote previously are
where n ε Z+ asserted by this theorem and also how the • Give exercise
• determine any coefficients satisfy conditions described by problems on
term in the Pascal's Triangles and how the principle of writing the
expanded form permutation is applied in determining them. expand form of
of (x + y)n • Encourage students to find any term in the a given binomial
where n ε Z+ binomial expansion and guide them to state the with non-
• solve problems formula of the "General term" which is used negative integral
on binomial to determine any term of the expansion. exponent.
expansion • Help students in solving problems on binomial
expansion and on the application of "Binomial
Theorem" as well as application of the formula
for the "General Term".
• describe what 5.2.3 Random • You may start the lesson with brief revision of • Ask students to
is meant by Experiments the concept of probability that the students had explain what is
"Random and its learnt in Grade 9. meant by
Experiment". outcomes • Proceed the discussion with the introduction of Random
• Explain what the concept of "Random Experiment," as an Experiment with
is meant by an experiment, when repeated under identical their own words.
outcome of a conditions does not produce the same result or
random outcomes or as an operation (activity) which
experiment produced some well defined results, in doing
so from Grade 9 topics use some experiments
as an example.
• Guide the students to describe what is meant
by "an outcome" of a random experiment in
their own words, and let them come to the
conclusion that, when a random experiment of
some kind is performed, then associated with
this experiment is the set of possible results
which are known as outcomes of the random
experiment.
• With the help of several examples and active

participation of the students discuss on how
to list the possible out comes (finite in
number) of a given random experiments. As
an example you may consider like the • Ask students to
following one. list possible
Example: It pair of dice are thrown then find outcomes of an
the possible outcomes. experiment
Solution: Here are few out comes of this using free
experiment and the other can be easily diagram (the
determined from the pattern. experiment
(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6) should have
(2.,1) (2,6) few out comes).
(3,1) (3,3) (3,6)
(4,1) (4,5) (4,6)
(5,1) (5,2) (5,6)
(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)
• describe what • Based on the example (like the above one) • Call on the
is meant by you discussed, then define what is meant by students for
sample space "sample space" i.e. when a random explanation of
of a given experiment is performed then the set terms like
random consisting of all the possible outcomes of the "sample space"
experiment. experiment is called a sample space which "sample point",
• list some of is often denoted by (S). Similarly introduce "equally likely
the sample that, each element or member of a sample outcomes" and
points of a space is called a "sample point" and give "favourable
sample space some examples of sample points from your outcomes" with
for a given examples. their own
experiment. words.
• define • In the class discussion by using examples,
"equally explain some important concepts which the
likely student may come across in his/her study for
outcomes" of instance
a given trial in (a) outcomes of a trial (performing a random
his/her own experiment) are said to be equally likely
words. outcomes when there is no reason to
expect any one of the outcomes in
preference to another.
Example: If a fair die is thrown, then any one
of the outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 can be
considered to be equally likely
• define (b) with the help of appropriate examples

"favourable explain what is meant by "Favourable
outcomes/ Cases" i.e. in a trial, the outcomes which
cases" insure the happening of a particular case
are said to be cases favourable to that
particular result we are interested in. You
can take examples like.
Example: In throwing a die, the number of
favourable cases for getting an even number
is 3 viz. 2, 4 and 6 or simply 2, 4 and 6 are
favourable outcomes.
5.2.4 Events • You may begin the lesson by revising the • Ask students to
concept of sample space of a given random define "event in
• determine • Revision on experiment and then using simple examples probability" by
events of a events consider situations which ensure the their own
given random happening of particular condition as a result words.
experiment. among the members of the sample space of
an experiment. Based on this, define "an
event" that is, any subset of a sample space
and which is commonly denoted by "E" and
by using this definition encourage your
students to list some (if possible all) events
of a given random experiment. You may
consider examples like the following one.
• identify Example: The four faces of a regular • Give exercise
sample tetrahedron are numbered 1, 2, 3 and 4, if it problems to list
(elementary) is thrown, and the number on the bottom some events of
events and face (on which it stands) is registered then a given set of
compound list the events of this experiment. outcomes of an
events. Solution: experiment.
The sample space = {1, 2, 3, 4}
the possible events are
{1}, {2}, {3} and {4}
• Encourage students to give their opinion (or let
them imagine and say), about events known as
"simple or elementary events" and "compound
events" and then consolidate their opinion and
guide them to come to the conclusion that
"elementary event (or simple event)" consists
of one sample point whereas "compound
event" has more than one sample point. For
example the events in the above example are
simple events, but if we are interested in the
event "getting even numbers", then the event
will be compound events, i.e., {2, 4}.
• determine the • In order to determine the number of events • Ask students to
number of associated with an experiment whose sample give exhaustive

events of a space is S, you can use the formula from the number of
given sample topic on sets discussed in Grade 9 (i.e., events in an
space number of subsets of a given set) thus: if n experiment
(S) = m then the number of events = 2m. whose
This number can also be referred as the outcomes are
exhaustive number of events, since it is the finite and let
total number of possible out comes them explain
associated with the random experiment. what this
You may use tree diagram to list the sample reminds them
space of an experiment and encourage your from set theory.
students to practise this method specially to
identify compound events of the experiment.
• describe the • Occurrence or • With active participation of the students • Ask students
occurrence or non- discuss what is meant by "an event orally to
non occurrence of occurred" using examples like: explain when to
occurrence of an event. Example: If a die is thrown, then S = {1, 2, 3, say an event
an event. 4, 5, 6,}. Let E be event of getting an odd occurred or not
number, then E = {1,3,5}. Now, in trial, if occurred.
the outcome is 3, and as 3 ∈ E then we say
• explain an that E has occurred. If in another trial, the
event denoted
by "not E" outcome is 4, then as 4 ∉ E we say the event
where "E" is a E has not occurred (i.e. not E) 'You can use
given event the notion of "complement of a set" in order
define the event "not E" as : if w is a sample
point in S (sample space) then "not E" =
that is E' = S - E = {w: w ∈ S and w ∉ E.
You may also ∉ use the Venn - diagram to
illustrate the situation pictorially.
• explain events • Algebra of • Based on the definition of operations of sets • Give exercise
connected by events and their properties from the lesson of the problems on
"or" and "and" previous grades and with active participation finding an
of students discuss some condition which event which is
can also be used in the study of probability obtained by
of events such as: if E1, E2 and E3 are three combining two
events of a sample space S, then:: or more events.
1. (E1 or E2) or (E1 ∪ E2) is the event
"either E1 or E2 or both"
2. (E1 and E2) or (E1 ∩ E2) is the event "both
E1 and E2"
c
3. E′2 or E 2 or ∼ E2 or E 2 is the event not E2"
• describe the In addition to the above results you should • Let the students
simplified discuss with student events described with list some basic
forms of a) Commutative and associative properties properties of

events by of both the "union" and "intersection" of combination of
using the sets (events) events (by
properties of b) De-Morgan's Law (for both union and using a set
operations on intersection) theory)
sets c) Distributive property of union over
intersection and vise-versa.
• identify • Exhaustive • After defining "Exhaustive Events" viz a • Ask the
exhaustive Events set of events where at least one of them must students to
events necessarily occur every time the experiment describe
is performed, discuss with students by exhaustive
considering examples. For instance, if a die events in an
is thrown then the events {1}, {2}, {3}, {4}, experiment.
{5}, {6} are exhaustive events. More
generally, the events E1 E2, E3…En form a
set of exhaustive events of a sample space S
where E1∪E2∪E3...∪ ∪En=S and E1, E2,
E3...En are subsets of S.
• identify • Mutually • Following the definition of "Mutually • Let the students
mutually Exclusive Exclusive Events" (when events E1 and E2 give mutually
exclusive Events. are disjoint, i.e., E1∩E2=φ φ, which means that exclusive events
events E1 and E2 have no sample point in common), of an experiment
encourage your students to give some and let them
examples of their own and consider more justify their
simpler events which elaborate the definition answers.
very briefly. For example, if a die is thrown,
then the sample space S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}.
Let event E1 (odd numbers) = {1, 3, 5} and let
event E2 (even numbers) = {2, 4, 6}, thus E1
and E2 are mutually exclusive because E1∩
E2= φ . You may use the Venn diagram as a
pictorial representation of the situation
• describe Exhaustive and • By considering sufficient and appropriate • Give exercise
events that are Mutually examples and active participation of students problems on
both Exclusive discuss about events that are both exhaustive identifying
exhaustive and Events. and mutually exclusive and guide student to Exhaustive
mutually the generalization that. If S is the sample space events, mutually
exclusive associated with a random experiment and if Exclusive events
E1, E2, E3... En are subsets of S such that: and both
(i) Ei ∩ Ej = φ for i ≠ j and Exhaustive and
(ii) E1 ∪ E2 ∪ E3 ∪ ----- ∪ En = S then the mutually
collection of the events E1 E2, E3,… En exclusive events
forms a mutually exclusive and exhaustive from a list of
system of events. different events.
• identify • Independent • State the definition of "Independent • Give exercise
independent Events Events" which means that, the occurrence or problems on
events. non-occurrence of one event does not affect identifying

the probability of the occurrence of the "independent
other. For instance, in a simultaneous throw events" and
of two coins, event of getting a tail on the "dependent"
first coin and the event of getting a tail on events" from a
the second coin are independent events. given list of
Consider similar examples and discuss with events of an
students until they understand the idea. experiment.
• identify • Dependent • Proceed the lesson with introduction of
dependent Events "Dependent Events" in relation with
events independent events by taking examples like:
"If a card is drawn from a well shuffled pack
of cards and it is replaced before drawing the
second card, then the result of the second
draw is independent of the first draw. On the
other hand, if the first card is not replaced
before drawing the second card then the
second draw is dependent on the first draw".
5.2.5 • You may start the lesson with a brief revision • Ask oral question
Probability of "Probability" that the students had learnt in about approaches
of an event. Grade 9, i.e. with students discuss "the of finding
empirical approach" and "the Classical probability that
• Revision on approach" of probability and by using several the students had
probability examples describe how to find the probability learnt in Grade 9.
of a given event based on the two approaches.
• describe the • Axiomatic • Introduce the modern theory of probability • Let the students
axiomatic Approach of known as "Axiomatic approach of explain about
approach of Probability probability" and let the students realize that "Axiomatic
probability this approach includes both the Empirical approach of
• interpret basic and Classical definitions of probability and probability" in
facts in the overcome the limitation of these two. You their own
theory of should also make students sit up and take words.
probability. notice that in axiomatic approach, no
precise definition of probability is given.
Here probability calculations are based on
some axioms or postulates.
• Guide students to come to the conclusion
and interpret the following basic three facts
With each event E we associate a real
number P(E) called the probability of E with
properties

(a) 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
(b) P(S) = 1... where E = S (the sample space)
(c) P(Ei or Ej) = P(Ei) + P(Ej) if Ai ∩ Aj = ∅
(i.e. Ei and Ej are mutually exclusive events)
• By considering P as a function encourage
students to conclude that its domain is the
set of subsets of S(sample space) and its • Give several
range is the set of real numbers between 0 problems on
and 1 (both inclusive) and concepts of
1) if E = ∅, then P(E) = 0 and if E = S, then probability
P(E) = P(S) = 1. based.
Therefore, 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1
2) if x is the probability of the occurrence and
y is the probability of non-occurrence of
that event, then x + y = 1
• You may consider examples like the
following one
Example: Which of the following cannot be
valid assignments of probabilities for
outcomes of sample space
S = {w1, w2, w3, w4, w5, w6, w7} where wi ∩ wj
=∅, if i ≠ j
w1 w2 w3 w4 w5 w6 w7
a 0.1 0.001 0.05 0.03 0.01 0.2 0.6
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
b
7 7 7 7 7 7 7
c 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
d -0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 -0.2 0.1 0.3
1 2 3 4 5 6 13
e
14 14 14 14 14 14 14
Solution: The answer and its justification (as
a hint) is given for each but further
explanation is expected to be given by the
teacher.
a) Valid because all the 3 properties are
satisfied
b) Valid " " " " " " "
c) not valid, because the sum of all the
probabilities is 2.8 which is greater than 1
i.e., 0 ≤ P(E) ≤ 1 is not satisfied.
d) not valid, because probabilities of w, and w5
are negative and hence 0≤P(E)≤1 is violated
e) not valid, because the sum of all the
probabilities, 17 , is greater than 1.
7

• find • You should also give exercise problems on
probabilities computation of probabilities of either simple
of events events or compound events in which any one
based on or more of the principles of counting
Axiomatic (Fundament counting or permutation or
approach combination) are applied to find the number
of favourable outcomes of the event in
question and the number of total outcomes in
the respective sample space.
• describe the • Odds in • With active participation of the students • Ask student to
odds in favour Favour of and discuss about the meaning of "odds in compute odd
of an event or the Odds favour of an event" and "odds against an in favour or the
the odds Against an event" by using several examples, let odd against an
against an Event students describe how to find these two event and
event expressions and let them also explain the let them
relationship between these expressions of an explain the
event and the probability of that event, that relation
means, if m and n are probability of the between these
occurrence and non occurrence of an event two ratio.
respectively, then the ratio m: n is called the
odds in favour of the event and the ratio n:
m is called the odds against the event.
Example: The odds against a certain event are
5:7. Find the probability of its occurrence.
Solution: Let E be the event. Then we are
given that
n(not E) = 5 and n(E) = 7
∴ n(S) = n(not E) + n(E) = 5 + 7 = 12
n(E) 7
∴ P(E)= =
n(S) 2
• Find the • The rules of • With the help of set theory, theory of • Give exercise
probability of Addition probability and by considering several problems on
E1 ∪ E2 Probabilities examples discuss with students how to find computation of
where E1 and the probability of the union of two events, so probability by
E2 are events that the students come to the conclusion that; using the rule
in a random for two event E1 and E2, P(E1 or E2) = P(E1) of addition.
experiment + P(E2) - P(E1 ∩ E2) ….(-1)
• determine the • Probability of • During the discussion it is better to use the • Give exercise
probability of a mutually Venn diagram in order to describe the problems on
mutually exclusive situation very easily computing
exclusive events. • With the help of a few examples discuss probability of
events. with students about the extension of this rule mutually
for three events: E1 , E2 and E3 exclusive
events.

• After reminding students of mutually
exclusive events, discuss with them how to
find the probability of the union of these
events by using the rule of addition (above)
and several examples. Let students come to
the conclusion that P(E1 ∪ E2) = P(E1) +
P(E2) ------- (2) Where E1 and E2 are
mutually exclusive events.
• The Rule of • Before discussing "The Rules of

Multiplicatio Multiplication on Probability" briefly revise
n of the situations of "independent events" and
Probabilities. "dependent events" by using several
examples (as much as possible)
• find • Probability of • Following this, introduce "The Rule of • Give exercise
probability of independent Multiplication" which is concerned in problems on
the joint events determining the probability of the joint probability of
occurrence occurrence of events E1 and E2, since this is independence
independent the intersection of the events E1 and E2; the events.
event (by probability is denoted by
using rule of P(E1 ∩ E2). The rule of multiplication for
multiplication) independent events is given by:
P(E1 and E2)=P(E1∩E2)=P(E1)×P(E2)…(3)
• To show the application of this rule use
several examples like the following one. (if
• describe the possible use the tree diagram as a method of
outcomes of portraying the possible events related with
events using sequential trials)
tree diagram. Example: If a fair coin is tossed twice find the
probability that both outcomes will be "heads"
Solution: Let E1 = {H} and E2 = {H}. Since
E1 and E2 are independent events.
The required probability is then,
P(E1 and E1)=P(E2∩E2)=P(E1)=½×½=¼
Outcomes of Outcomes of Joint
first toss second toss event
½ H H and H
H H and T
½ ½ T
T and H
½ ½ T
T
T and T
½
H

• Proceed the lesson by introducing the
concept of "conditional probability" which
is employed to designate the probability of
occurrence of the related event when two
events are dependent and also introduce the
expression probability for dependent events,
i.e., P(E2  E1) which indicates the
probability of the occurrence event E2
given that event E1 has already occurred.
• determine the • Probability of • Discuss with students that, for dependent Give exercise
probability of dependent event the probability of the joint occurrence problems n
the joint events of events E1 and E2 is the probability of E1 computing
occurrence of multiplied by the conditional probability of probability of
dependent E2 given E1 has occurred, and also explain dependent
events (using that an equivalent value is obtained if the events.
multiplication two events are reversed in position. Then
rule) guide students to come to the conclusion
that, the rule of multiplication for dependent
events is given by:
P(E1 and E2) = P(E1 ∩ E2) =
P(E1) × P(E2E1) ----- (4)
P(E1 and E2) = P(E1 ∩ E2) = P(E2) × P(E1
E2) -----(5)
• Introduce that, either formula (4) or (5)
above is often the general rule of
multiplication on probability
• To show the application of this rule you may
use tree diagram and simple examples like
the following one.
Example: Suppose that a group of 10
students contain eight boys (B) and two girls
(G). If two students are chosen randomly
with out replacement, then( based on the
multiplication rule for dependent events)
find the probability that the two students
chosen are both boys.
Note: The sequence of possible choice and
the probabilities are portrayed by the tree
diagram below (the subscripts indicate
sequential position of out comes)

• describe the Solution: The probability that both are boys is • Ask students to
outcomes of P(B1 and B2 ) = P(B1 ) × P(B2  B1) show an
events using = (
8 7
)× ( ) =
56
=
28 outcome of a
tree diagram 10 9 90 45 given
to determine experiment
their using tree
probability diagram (to
compute
probability)
Outcomes Outcomes Joint Probabil
of of event ity
first toss second toss of joint
event
7 56
8
/10 B2 B1 and B2 /90
/10 B1
2 16
/9 G2 B1 and G2 /90
8
/9 B2 16
2 G1 and B2 /90
/10 G1
1
/9 G2 G1 and G2 2
/90
90
/90
• identify • Discuss with students that, with out the use

whether a of the multiplication rules if the probability
given events of joint occurrence of two events is available
are directly, then the independence of the two
independent events E1 and E2 can be tested by comparing:
or dependent ?
P(E1 and E2) = P(E1) . P(E2)
(by
comparing the i.e. If they are equal the two events are
equation for independent, but if
probability of they are not equal the two events are
joint dependent.
occurrence of
independent
events.
Unit 6: Matrices and Determinants (31 periods)

• know basic concepts about matrices.
• know specific ideas, methods and principles concerning matrices.
• perform operation on matrices.
• apply principles of matrices to solve problems.
Resources
Students will be 6. • Assist students to grasp the concept, • Different
able to: Matrices and notation, order, equality, types of exercise
Determinants matrices, zero matrix, elaborating row problems are
6.1 matrix, column matrix, square matrix, unit given and the
• define Matrices or identity matrix, diagonal matrix, square solutions are
matrix (4 periods) matrix, upper triangular, lower triangular checked.
• The and comparable matrices by using • Ask students
concept appropriate examples. to construct
of matrix matrices by
• determine • Addition • Define and illustrate the sum and taking real
the sum and and difference of matrices by taking life
difference of subtractio appropriate examples. examples.
two given n of Example of Addition of Matrices
matrices of matrices Let M = Male F = Female
the same C = Child Ad = Adult
order. Matrix A below shows how many shoes of
each type the shop has in stocks.
Matrix B below shows the number of shoes
of each type it sells in a particular week.
A B
C  65 42  C  15 21 
   
Ad  111 154  Ad 19 28 
M F M F
Calculate the number of each type of shoe
still in stock by the end of the week
 65 42   15 21   50 21  C  50 21 
Ans  − = =  
 111 154   19 28   92 126  Ad  92 126 
M F
2× 2 2× 2 2× 2
• Properties • Discuss the main properties of addition of

of addition matrices like commutativity, associativity,
of matrices identity and additive inverse properties
through different examples.
• Multiply a • Multiplica • Show how to multiply matrices by scalars by • Give
matrix by a tion of a taking appropriate real life example like sufficient
scalar matrix by • The marks obtained by Mamo and Nigist number of
• Describe the a scalar. (out of 50) in their home examination are exercise

Resources
properties of given below by a matrix. problems on
multiplicatio Mamo Nigist multiplicatio
n of matrices Amharic  31 37  n of matrices
by scalars. English  40 46 
 by scalars.
Science  28 25 
Now, we want to find their marks in each
subject out of 100, then we have:
Mamo Nigist
Amharic  31× 2 37 × 2 
English  40 × 2 46 × 2 

Science  28 × 2 25 × 2 
and this can be represented in the matrix
form as follows:
 64 74 
 
 80 92 
 56 50 

We observe that this new matrix is obtained
by multiplying each element of the original
matrix by 2.
• Determine • Multiplicati • Discuss the main properties of scalar
the product on of two multiplication of matrices with the help of
of two matrices (of sufficient number of examples.
matrices. order 2×2 • Discuss the product of two matrices with
the help of sufficient number of examples.
• Describe the and 3×3) Examples:
properties of Paulos and Meti have a choice of shopping at
the product one of the two supermarkets X and Y.
of two Matrix A shows the type and quantity of
matrices. certain foods they both wish to buy.
Matrix B shows the cost of the items at each
of the supermarkets.
A B
C L Po X Y
P 2 4 5  120 110 C 
M  1 7 3  P
55 60 L 

M  
 35 30 Po 
C = Cereal packets L = Loaves of bread
Po = Potatoes (kg)
(i) Calculate the shopping bill for items at
each supermarket
(ii) Where should they buy at X or Y?

Resources
(i) Multiply A by B
 120 110 
2 4 5    635 610 
  55 60  = 
× 
1 7 3     610 620 
 35 30 
2×3 3× 2 2× 2
P  635 610 
=  
M  610 620 
X Y
NB 635 = (2×120) + (4 × 55) + (5 × 35)
Ans: Paulos should shop at Y
Meti should shop at X
• Assist students to describe the major
properties of the product of two matrices
from sufficient number of examples and
exercises
• Determine • The • Define the transpose of a matrix using • Give exercise
the transpose transpose of examples. problems
of a matrix a matrix and • Discuss the properties of the transpose of (including real
its properties a matrix and give examples and exercises life) and check
on their applications. solutions.
6.2
Determinants
and their
properties
(6 periods)
• Give some square
• determine the • Determinant • Define determinant of a square matrix and matrices of order
determinant of s of order 2. assist students to determine the 2 and ask students
a square matrix determinant of square matrices of order 2 to calculate the
of order 2. with sufficient examples. determinants.
• determine the • Minors and • Define the minor and cofactor of elements • Ask students to
minor and cofactors of of a matrix and assist students on how to determine the
cofactor of a the elements get them using sufficient examples. minor and
given element of matrices. cofactor of
of a matrix elements of a
matrix.
• calculate the • Determinant • Define the determinant of order 3 using
• Ask students to
determinate of of order 3 co-factors and assist students to apply it calculate the
a square matrix through sufficient examples and exercises. determinants of
of order 3. some square
matrices of order
3.
• describe the • Properties of • Discuss the major properties of determinants • Ask students to
properties of determinants with the help of examples and allow students describe the
determinants. to apply them in exercises. properties of
determinants.

Resources
• Determine 6.3 Inverse • Define the inverse of a matrix and discuss • Give various
inverse of a of a square the uniqueness of the inverse and the exercise
square matrix invertibility of the transpose of a matrix. problems on
matrix (4 periods) Assist students in determining the inverse of determining the
a matrix with sufficient examples and inverses of
exercises. matrices and on
checking
whether a given
matrix is
invertible or
not.
• Find associated 6.4 Systems • Define augmented matrix and assist students • Give exercise
augmented of equations to determine the augmented matrix for problems on
matrix of with two or equations of two or three variables. determination
equations three • Define elementary operations on matrices of the
• Perform variables (5 with row and column operations and discuss augmented
elementary periods) some notations of these operations. matrices
operations on • Augmented associated with
matrices matrix equations of
• Elementary two or three
operations variables.
of matrices.
• Solve systems • Solutions of • Encourage and assist students to solve • Let students
of equations in systems of systems of equations in two or three exercise
two or three equations variables with the help of sufficient number describing
variables using of examples and exercise problems. elementary
the elementary operations on
operations. matrices and
their notations.
• Various exercise
problems on
solving systems
of equations in
two or three
variables using
elementary
operations are
given and
solutions are
checked.
• Apply Cramer's 6.5 • Discuss Cramer's rule for solving systems of • Various exercise
rule to solve Cramer's linear equations and give examples on how problems on the
systems of Rule to apply the rule. Let students exercise and application of the
linear equations. (3 periods) applying the rule to solve problems. rule are given.
Unit 7: The Set of Complex Numbers (13 periods)

• know basic concepts about complex numbers.
• know general principle of performing operation on complex numbers.
• understand facts and procedures in simplifying complex numbers.
• show the geometric representation of complex numbers on the Argand plane.
Resources
Students will be 7. The Set of • You may start the lesson by asking oral • Ask students to
able to: Complex questions about set of real numbers then ask give examples
Numbers them to solve simple quadratic equations: of complex
7.1 The x2 - 1 = 0 and x2 + 1 = 0 and let them say numbers.
concept of some thing about the solutions of the • Give students
complex equations. an opportunities
numbers • Also ask them to draw the graphs of y = x2 - 1 to discuss about
(2 periods) and y = x2 + 1 on the same coordinate plane the solutions of
• define complex • Definition and assist them to explain for the class about some quadratic
numbers. of complex the points of intersections of the graphs with equations
numbers the x - axis. whose roots are
• identify the real • Equality of • As x2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ x2 = -1 and there is no real into real
and imaginary complex number whose square is negative 1, explain numbers.
parts of a given numbers the necessity of extension of the set of real • Ask students to
complex number number to a bigger set, by introducing a new identify the real
• determine the element (number). Introduce "imaginary and imaginary
equality of two number" namely parts of same
complex − 1 = i (read as iota). So with active complex
numbers participation of students discuss show the numbers.
introduction of i = − 1 helps in writing • Ask them to
numbers like: write
−2 = 2 × ( − 1) = 2 × −1 = 2 i = −16
expressions i5,
i10, i100
= 16 × ( − 1) = 16 × −1 = 4 i
without a
powers of i
• Give class
activities to
find the
unknowns in
x-3i = 2+12yi
and
7+2yi = r-10i

Resources
• Let the students compute some powers of i
such as
i2, i.3, i.0 = 1 i6, i12 and i23 and ask them
what they find and let them describe it with • Ask students to
their own words. describe the
• describe the set • Define "complex number", i.e. a number relationship
of complex which is written in the form a + bi where between the set
number ℂ and a, b ∈ ℝ and i − 1 = is called a complex of real number
its relation to the number. Introduce what is meant by the real ℝ and the set of
set of real part and the imaginary part of a given complex
numbers ℜ. complex number. Following this allow numbers ℂ
students to determine the equality of two
complex number using several examples.
Then guide them to come to the conclusion
that: z1 = a1 + b1i and Z2 = a2 + b2 i are
two complex numbers, z1 = z2 iff a1 = a2
and b1 = b2
• Introduce the set of complex numbers which
is denoted by ℂ and given by
ℂ = {z: z = a + bi where a, b∈ ℝ and
i= −1}
7.2
Operations • With the help of several examples and active
on participation of students discuss how to find • Give exercise
Complex the sum and difference of complex number. problem on
Numbers Through the discussion guide students to addition of
• add complex (3 periods) come to the conclusion that: complex
numbers 7.2.1 "if z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i number like:
correctly Addition then (a) z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2) i a) to separate the
and (b) z1 - z2 = (a1 - a2) + (b1 - b2) i real and
subtractio imaginary part
n of of the sum of
complex two complex
numbers numbers
b) to find the sum
i.7 + i.10 - i13
• subtract complex • Encourage students to prove some of the
numbers basic properties addition and subtraction of
correctly. complex numbers such as:

Resources
• describe the i) Closure properties of both addition and
closure property subtraction of complex numbers
of both addition ii) Commutative property of addition
and subtraction. iii) Associative property of addition
• describe the iv) The existence of additive identity (i.e., 0 + 0i)
commutative and v) The existence of additive inverse
associative (if z = a + bi then
properties of -z = - a + (-b)i is the additive inverse of z)
complex
numbers.
• identify the
additive identity
element in ℂ .
• determine the
additive inverse
of a given
complex number.
7.2.2 • With the help of multiplication of binomial • Give exercise
Multiplicat expression that the students had learnt and problems on
ion and using several examples discuss how to multiplication
Division of multiply two complex numbers. During the of complex
Complex discussion guide students to come to the number and let
Numbers conclusion that if them give the
• determine the • Multiplicati z1 = a1 + b1i and z2 = a2 + b2i then product in the
product of two on z1.z2 = (a1 + b1i) (a2 + b2i) form a + bi
complex = a1a2 + a1b2 i + b1a2i + i2b1b2
numbers. = a1a2 + (a1b2 + b1a2) i - b1b2 ... ( ∵ i2 = -1)
= (a1a2 - b1b2) + (a1b2 + a2b1) i
• describe five • With active participation of the students • Ask students to
basic properties describe the validity of the following facts write the squares
of multiplication about multiplication of complex numbers and cubes of
of complex a) The closure property sums and
numbers. b) The commutative property differences of
c) The associative property two complex
d) The existence of multiplicative identity number as well
(i.e. 1 + 0i as the difference
e) The existence of multiplicative inverse of the squares of
the complex
numbers.

Resources
Note: for every non-zero complex number
Z = a + bi there is a complex number
 a   −b  i denoted
 2  +  2
2  2

a + b  a +b 
by 1/z or z -1 which is called the
multiplicative inverse of z such that
1
z. = 1 (multiplicative identify in ℂ
z
• divide two • Division • Before discussing the division of complex • Give exercise
complex numbers introduce the conjugate of a given problems on
numbers complex number that is, if Z = a + bi is a division of
complex number then the complex number complex
denoted by z which is given by z = a - bi numbers and
is called the conjugate of Z check their
• Allow students to find the conjugate of some works.
given complex numbers to practice and
understand the concept.
Note that z=a + bi ⇒ z = a+(-b)i=a-bi
Discuss, with active participation of students,
on how to perform division on complex
number. Let the students observe and
practice the application of conjugate in the
process of division by using several
examples and let the students come to the
fact that: if Z1 = a + bi and Z2 = c + di ≠ 0
are two complex numbers then
1 a + bi a + bi c − di
z1 ÷ z 2 = z1 × = = ×
z 2 c + di c + di c − di
 ac + bd   bc − ad 
= 2 2 + 2 2 i
 c +d   c +d 
• give reason for • By giving several exercise problems • Ask students to
each step in the encourage the students to divide complex justify each
process of numbers and give the results in the form step in the
division of "a + bi" and assist in their work. process of the
complex division.
numbers.

Resources
• determine the 7.3 • As it is defined above (in section 7.2 of • Ask students to
conjugate of a Conjugate this unit) revise what is meant by "conjugate prove the
given complex and of a given complex numbers" and allow properties of
number. Modules of students to determine the conjugate of some conjugate of
Complex given complex numbers. complex
Numbers • With active participation of the students numbers.
(2 periods) discuss some basic properties of conjugate • Give exercise
• Conjugate of a complex number such as: problems on the
of complex if z = a + bi is any given complex number application of
number then the properties
a) z + z = 2a c) ( z ) = z of conjugate of
2 2 complex
b) z. z = a + b
and encourage the students to prove the numbers.
above properties by themselves and allow • Ask students to
them to express or justify each of their steps prove
in the proof. 1) z1+z2= z2+ z1
2) z1.z2 = z2. z1
• find the Modulus • Modulus of • Define the "Modulus of a complex Number" • Given z1 and z2
of any given a Complex i.e. if z = a + bi, then the modulus of z where z2 ≠ 0
complex Number denoted by z is defined by non-negative • Ask students to
number. real number a 2 + b 2 i.e.z= a 2 + b 2 find z1,z2,
z1.z2,z1÷ z2,
• By giving exercise problems encourage the
z1+z2, z1÷z2
students to practice and understand the
• Ask students to
concept of Modulus of a complex numbers,
prove
for instance: given z1 and z2, let the students
z1.z2=z1.z2
find z1 , z2, z1 + z2, z1 - z2 and
compare what they obtain.
• Write the 7.4 • With the help of the concepts discussed so • Give exercise
simplified form Simplificat far, encourage students to simplify problems on
of expressions ion of expressions involving complex (or simplification
involving Complex imaginary) numbers, for example you may of expressions
complex Numbers consider expression like: involving
numbers. (3 periods) a) z = ( 3 − 2 i ) ( 2 + 3 i ) , then find z complex (or
(1 + 2 i ) ( 2 − i ) imaginary)
b) Simplify [2+ − 25 ]-[3- − 216 ]+[1- − 9 ] numbers.
c) Write the following expression in the form

a + bi
(3 + 5 i ) (3 − i 5 )
(3 + i 2−( 3 −i 2)

Resources
7.5 Argand • Start the lesson by introducing "Argand • Ask students to
Diagram Diagram" which is the representation of plot the point
and Polar complex numbers as points in the plane. corresponding
Represent to a given
ation of complex
Complex number.
Numbers
(3 periods)
• describe how to • Argand • Set up the Argand plane (the plane • Given a point
set up the Plane representing the complex numbers as points) on the Argand
Argand Plane. and with active participation of students plane, ask
discuss that there is a one-to-one students to
correspondence between the set of complex determine the
numbers ℂ and the set of points on the complex
Argand plane and then describe terms Number that
related to the representation of complex corresponds to
numbers on the complex plane such as Real the given point.
axis, Imaginary axis,
• Plot the point • Encourage students to plot points • Ask students
corresponding to corresponding to a given complex numbers questions like
a given complex after showing them through several "show that the
numbers. examples. Similarly let the students points
• identify the determine the complex number which representing the
complex number corresponds to a given point in the Argand complex
that corresponds plane. Allow students to interpret the numbers,
to a given point physical meaning of Modulus of a complex 1 + i, -1 -i and
in the Argand number by using its representation in the - 3 + i 3 in
Plane. Argand plane the Argand
plane are the
vertices of an
equilateral
triangles.
• represent any • Polar • Discuss the methods and Procedures in • Give exercise
complex number Representat representing a given complex numbers on the problems like
in the polar form ion of a polar coordinate system. During the "To which
complex discussion define terms related to this second quadrant each
Number. type of representation i.e., terms like "Polar of the following
coordinates", and the "principal argument of complex
z(i.e., the value of θ in the interval -π < θ ≤ π) numbers
or simply "argument of z" belong.

Resources
• determine the • Guide the student to come to the conclusion • Give exercise
modulus and that: problems like
argument of a - The argument of all positive real number is "To which
given complex Zero. quadrant each
number. - The argument of all negative real number is of the following
π complex
- The argument of all positive imaginary numbers belong
numbers is π a) 3 + 5i
2 b) -2 + 3i
- The argument of all negative imaginary c) -3i + 4
numbers is − π d) -4i - 6
2
• Encourage students to solve problems on • Ask students to
polar representation of complex number and find the
assist them in their activities. You may modulus and
consider exercises like argument of the
Example: Convert the complex number -1 -i complex
in the polar form and plot it on the polar number
coordinate plane. 1 + i
1 − i
Unit 8: Vectors and Transformation of the Plane (20 periods)

• know basic concepts and procedures about vectors and operation on vectors.
• know specific facts about vectors.
• apply principles and theorem about vectors in solving problems involving vectors.
• know basic concepts about transforming of the plane.
• apply methods and procedures in transforming plane figures.
Students will be 8. Vectors and • You may start the lesson by revising important • Ask students to
able to: Trans- points that the students had learnt about scalars list out many
formation of in Grade 9. examples of
the Plane • You may proceed with an activity which deals scalar quantities.
• define a scalar 8.1 Revision with the 'concepts' of "scalar quantity" so that
quantity. on vectors students can define scalar as a quantity with
• identify the and scalars size or magnitude only.
everyday (3 periods) • Assist students to realize every day examples
application of of scalars like:
scalars. • Scalars Example: mass 10 kg, time 5 sec, distance 5 km,
money 100 Birr, etc. • Ask students list
• define a vector • Vectors • You may start the topic by reminding the out many
quantity. students about vectors that they had learnt in examples of
• identify the Grade 9. vector
everyday • You may proceed with an activity which deals quantities.
application of with the 'concept of vector quantity' so that • Ask students to
vector.. students can define vector as a quantity with describe the
• describe the size or magnitude and direction included. difference
difference • Assist students give to everyday examples of between a vector
between a vector vectors. Example Weight, (direction is and a scalar
and a scalar towards the centers of the earth and whose quantity through
quantities. magnitude is given in Newton(N)). examples.
• represent vector • Representatio • Discuss the different ways of representing • Ask students to
by different n of a vector vectors. determine the
notations. • Assist students to exercise the different way of different ways
representing vectors (Coordinate, column) of representation
of vectors.
• determine the • Addition and • You may start by discussing the addition of • Ask students to
sum of two or subtraction vectors using the "triangular law of determine the
more vectors. of vectors. addition" of "vectors and proceed" with sum and
• determine the the parallelogram law of addition of difference of
difference of vectors. some pair of
two vectors. vectors.

• Discuss the commutative and associative
properties of addition of vectors with active
participation of students.
• Using the concept of addition of vectors
discuss the difference of two vectors.
• Multiplicatio • Help students to practice through different
• multiply a n of vectors examples and exercises. • Give exercise
vector by a by scalars • You may start the lesson by introducing problems on
scalar multiplication of a vector a by a scallar k as scalar
ka where ka is a parallel vector with the multiplication
same direction for k > 0 and with opposite of vectors.
direction for k < 0.
a ka, k > 0 a ka, k<0
• resolve a given 8.2 • You may start the lesson with an activity of
vector in to two Representati resolving some force vectors given as a • Ask students to
components. on of vectors position vector using its X and Y resolve some
(1 period) components on the coordinate plane. vectors in to
• Components • Help students to practice component their
of vectors representation of vectors. components
• Introduce the unit vectors i and j on the and check their
• use unit vectors • Unit vectors coordinate plane and explain how a given work.
to determine vector is expressed as a sum scalar multiples
the column of them.
representation • Assist students to show how a vector
of a given P = xi + yj can be resolved into its horizontal
vectors. and vertical components
H = xi and V = yj i.e.
x 0
()
H= 0 and V= y ( ) where the unit vectors
0
are i = ( ) and j = ( )
1
0 1
• determine the • Norm of a • You may start the lesson by discussing on • Ask students to
magnitude of a vectors how to determine the magnitude (or the determine the
vector length) of a given vector P = xi + yj which is length of some
given by P = x 2 + y 2 and allow vectors.
students to practice through exercises.


• find the scalar 8.3 Scalar • You may start by stating the definition of • Give exercise
product (inner (inner or scalar product as: problems on
product, of two dot) product i) a.b = a  b cos θ for vectors a and b and scalar product of
vectors of vectors angle θ between them and vectors and the
• describe some (3 periods) ii) a.b = a1, b1, + a2 b2 where a = a1 + a2j and application.
properties of b = b1 + b2 j
scalar product • scalar product • Discuss some of the properties of scalar
of vectors. of vectors. product of vectors.
• application of
scalar product
of vectors
• apply vectors to 8.4 • with active participation of the students discuss • Give exercise
solve problems Application on the proof of some theorems from geometry problems on the
on geometry, of vector using vector algebra. application of
algebra, (5 periods) • Assist students to observe the application of vector algebra.
mechanics and the concept of vector algebra in calculating
other related work done, angle between two vectors and its
problems. application to real situations. • Ask students to
• write the • Vectors and • With students' active participations derive the write the
parametric lines. parametric vector equation of a line and then parametric
equation of a assist students in writing the parametric vector equation of a
line. • Vectors and equation of a line through different examples line.
• write equation circles and exercises.
of a circle by • With the help of sufficient examples discuss • Give problems
applying • Equations of on the use of vectors in writing equation of on writing
vectors. tangents to circles. equations of
• determine the circles. • Assist students in writing equations of tangent to a give
equation of the different circles. circle and check
tangent line to a • Help students to writ the equation of a tangent their work.
circle using line to a given circle through examples and
vectors. exercises.
• explain what is 8.5 • You may start the lesson by defining
meant by Transformat transformation of the plane and rigid motion as
transformation ions of the a special type of transformation.
of the plane. plane (8
• describe the periods) • With the help of several examples discuss the
main properties main properties of rigid motions.
of rigid motion.
• Translate • Translation • Discuss the effect of translation on the • Give exercise
points, lines coordinate system. problems on
and circles • Assist students to translate points, lines and translating
using vectors. circles with sufficient examples. some points,
lines, circles
with given
translation.

• Reflect points, • Reflection • You may start the lesson by asking students • Ask students to
lines, circle and to express their ideas about reflection while reflect, points,
some other they use plane mirrors. lines, and some
plane figures. • Discuss the effect of reflection on the plane figures
coordinate plane. along given
• Assist students in reflecting points, lines, lines.
circles and some other plane figures along a
given line through examples and exercises.
• Determine the • Rotation • You may star the lesson by defining the • Give exercise
images of a concept of rotation and with the help of problem on
given plane examples discuss rotation of points through rotating points
figure when 900, 1800 and through any angle θ about the lines and some
rotated through origin. plane figures
an angle θ • Discuss the effect of rotation of some plane through
figures through 900, 1800 clockwise and anti- different angles
clockwise directions about the origin and in either
then proceed with rotation through a given direction about
angle about the origin. With active a given point.
participation of students set up the relation
between the coordinates of a point and that
of its image.
• Assist students to determine the images of
plane figures after rotating through a given
angle θ about a given point (a, b).
Unit 9: Further on Trigonometric Functions (20 periods)

• know basic concepts about reciprocal functions.
• sketch graphs of some trigonometrical function.
• apply trigonometric functions to solve related problems.
Students will be 9. Further on • You may start the lesson by revising the • Ask students to
able to: Trigonometr trigonometric function sin x, cos x and tan x re-state the
• define and ic Functions and define sec x, cosec x and cot x using a definition of
describe the 9.1 The right angled triangle. sec x, cosec x,
functions functions and cot x.
sec x, cosec x y = sec x,
and cot x. y = cosec x • Give exercise
and y = cot x problem on
(5 periods) sketching the
• Sketch graphs • Graphs of • Let students revise graphs of sin x and cos x graph of sec x,
of y = sec x, y = sec x, first. cosec x, and
y = cosec x and y = cosec x • Assist students to practice sketching graphs of cot x.
y = cot x and y = cot x sec x, cosec x, cot x for different intervals.
• Assist students to determine domain and
ranges of these functions
• define the 9.2 Inverse of • Let students revise about the inverse of • Ask students to
inverse trigonometri function through examples and then introduce re-state the
trigonometric c functions and define the inverse trigonometric function. definition of
functions. (4 periods) • Allow students distinguish between inverse
1 trigonometric
• Sketch the sec x = and the inverse of cos x function.
cos x
graph of the -1 • Give exercise
denoted by cos x
inverse problems on
1
trigonometric csc x = and the inverse of sin x which is sketching graph
function. sin x of inverse
sin-1x trigonometric
1 function.
cot x = and the inverse of tan x that is
tan x
tan-1x
• After revising how reflection along the line
y = x helps us to obtain the graph of an
inverse from the graph of the function.
• Let students practice sketching the graph of
the inverse trigonometric functions through
reflection in the line y = x.
• Help students to determine domain and
ranges of for the inverse trigonometric
function.

• Sketch the 9.3 Graphs • You may start the lesson with an activity in • Give exercise
graphs of of some which students are expected to draw graph problems of
y = a sin x, trigonometri of y = sin x, y = 2 sin x and y = ½ sin x and sketching the
y = a sin kx, c functions observe that the graphs of y = 2 sin x and y = graphs of
y = a sin (kx +b) (5 periods) ½ sin x are some transformations of the y = a sin x for
and • graphs of graph of y = sin x. different values
y =a sin(kx +b)+c y = a sin x • Assist students on sketching graphs of of a.
y = a sin kx (i) y = a sin x, where a = 1, 2, 3, and 4 and
y= a sin(kx+b) some simple fractions such as ½ and ¼ .
y= sin(kx+b)+c (ii) y = a sin kx where a and k = 1, 2, 3 and 4 • Give exercise
and simple fractions such as ½ and ¼. problems on
(iii) y = a sin (kx + b) where a, b and k = 1, 2, sketching the
3 and 4 and simple fractions such as ½ and graphs of
¼. as well as y = a sin (kx + b)+ c y = a sin kx
where c = 1, 2, 3, -3, -2, and -1 y = a sin (kx + b)
• List the • With active participation of students for different
properties of generalize the properties of y = a sin x, values of a, b
these graphs. y = a sin kx and y = a sin (kx + b) and k.
• Sketch the • graphs of • You can follow the same method used above
graphs of y = a cos x (as used for sine function) • Ask students
y = a cos x, y = a cos kx sketch the
y = a cos kx, y=acos(kx+b) graphs of
y = a cos (kx + b) y=acos(kx+b)+c y = a cos x,
y = a cos(kx+ b)+ c y = a cos kx
• List the y = a cos (kx + b)
properties of for different
these graphs. values of a, b
and k.
• Apply 9.4 • Discuss the practical application of • Give exercise
trigonometric Application trigonometric functions in sciences such as problems on the
functions to of optics, Navigation, Wave motion etc. with application of
solve problems trigonometri active participation of students through trigonometric
from fields of c functions sufficient examples. functions and
science, (6 periods) check their
navigation, works.
engineering
etc.
Unit 10: Introduction to Linear Programming (15 periods)

• identify regions of inequality graphs.
• create real life examples of linear programming problems using inequalities and solve
them.
Students will be 10. • Describe what linear programme is: A field
able to: Introduction of mathematics that deals with the problem
to Linear of finding the maximum and minimum value
Programming of a given linear expression, where the
(4 periods) variables are subject to certain conditions • Give different
expressed as linear inequality. exercise
10.1 Revision • Draw linear graphs y = mx+ c and problems and
on Linear ax + by = c and vary the values of m, a, b, drawing
Graphs and c. graphs of
(2 periods) • Draw 2 linear graphs of the type linear
• draw graphs of 10.2 Graphical y = mx + c and /or ax + by = c using the inequalities
linear Solutions of same axes and vary the values of m, a, b and check
inequalities System of and c. their works.
y ≤ mx + c and Linear • Draw and shade boundaries and identify
y ≥ mx + c and Inequalities regions of inequalities starting with
ax + by ≥ c and (2 periods) x < a, x > a, (broken lines) x ≤ a, x ≥ a and
ax + by ≤ c similarly for y.
• Revise and draw, shade and mark boundaries
(broken or unbroken lines) of linear graphs y
≤ mx + c and y ≥ mx + c and /or ax + by ≥ c
and ax + by ≤ c and vary the values of m, a,
b, and c.
• find maximum 10.3 • Define objective function, and constraints • Give different
and minimum Maximum using simple and appropriate example. exercise
values of a and • Let students exercise on finding maximum problems on
given objective Minimum or minimum values given an objective finding
function under value function and constraints. maximum and
given (5 periods) E.g. Find the maximum and minimum values minimum
constraints. of w = 2x + 3y under the constraint x ≥ 0, values.
y ≥ 0, 2y + x ≤ 16 and x - y ≤ 10.

• create 10.4 Real life • Give real life linear programming problems • Give various
inequalities linear and show how to solve them with active linear
from real life programming participation of the students. programming
examples for problems Worked example 1 The number of fields a problems as
linear (6 periods) farmer plants with wheat is w and the exercises and
programming number of fields with corn is c. follow up
and solve the students
problem. activities.
The restrictions are that •
(i) there must be at least 2 fields of corn
(ii) there must be at least 2 fields of wheat
(iii) not more than 10 fields are to be sown
with wheat or corn.
a) Construct 3 inequalities from the
information given.
b) On one pair of axes graph the inequalities and
leave unshaded the region which satisfies all
the 3 inequalities simultaneously.
c) Give two possible arrangements how the
farmer should plant.
Answers a) c ≥ 2, w ≥ 2 and c + w ≤ 10
(b)
w
10
0 2 10 c
c ) (4,4) or (5,5)
Worked example 2 Mohammed is employed
by a company to do 2 jobs. He repairs cars
and also electrical goods.
His terms of employment are listed:
i) He must be employed up to 40 hours but
not 40 hours.
ii) He must spend at least 16 hours repairing

cars.
iii) He must spend at least 5 hours repairing
electrical goods.
iv) He must spend more than twice as much
time mending cars as repairing electrical
goods.
Let c represent hours working with cars and e
represent hours working with electrical goods.
(a) Express the above information using
inequalities.
(b) Graph the inequalities shading the region
which satisfies all the inequalities.
(c) Give two possible combinations within
the shaded region.
Answers
(a) c + e < 40, c ≥ 16, e ≥ 5, c > 2e
(b)
c
60 c = 2e
50
40
30
20 c = 16
10
e
30 −20 −10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
−10
c+e= 40
−20
−30 e=5
• Any part of the shaded region except the

dotted line would satisfy the inequalities, for
example, 8 hours as an electrician and 20
hours mending cars i.e. (8, 20).
• Assist and encourage students in solving
similar linear programming problems.
Unit 11: Mathematical Applications in Business (18 periods)

• know common terms related to business.
• know basic concepts in business.
• apply mathematical principles and theories to practical situations.
Resources
Students will be 11. • You can start the lesson by revising
able to: Mathematical important ideas about ratio, proportion and
Applications in percentage
Business • After reminding students about "ratio" i.e., • Give various
as an expression used to compare two exercise
11.1 Basic quantities that have the same unit, and problems on
Mathematical explaining how it is written in its simplest calculations of
Concepts in form, then discuss with students about its ratio, rate
Business application by using several examples from proportion.
(3 periods) the field of business.
• compare • Ratio • Introduce the concept of "rate" which is
quantities in used to compare two quantities that have
terms of ratio. different unit and expressed as a fraction and
• calculate the • Rate introduce the concept of "unit rate" as well.
rate of increase With the help of several examples taken
and the rate of from daily activities of selling a buying
decrease in goods, discuss about “the rate of increase"
price of and "the rate of decrease" in the price of
commodities. goods (commodities).
• Encourage and assist students to solve
problems range from Local to National
current situations involving rate of change in
the business sector (or marketing)
• solve problems • Proportion • With the help of examples revise the
on proportional concept of "simple proportion" that the
variation in students had learnt in the previous grades.
business Since it is an expression of the equality of
two or more ratios or rates where the degree
or comparison is equal, assist the students to
determine whether a given proportion is
true or not and then encourage them to solve
• solve problems problems on proportion by considering
on compound examples from business activities like
proportion. proportional variation in price and supply of
goods to a market.

Resources
• find a required • Percent • Following this introduce the notion of
percentage of "compound proportion" in which one
certain given quantity is proportionate to each of several
amount other quantities. You may consider • Give exercise
examples which involve units such as problem on
• compute time, money, measurements etc. to be expressing a
problems on introduced into the calculation certain percent
percentage proportionate to other quantities some a given
increase or directly and others inversely. Example: quantity.
percentage If a man earns 240 birr in 3 weeks
decrease working 8 hours per day, how long will it
take him to earn 1800 birr working 10
hours per day?
Ans. 19 weeks (the work out is left for the
teacher to discuss with students)
• By using several example from business
revise the notion "percent" and its
calculation such as, to find "Amount"
when the "Base" and "percent" are given,
like wise to find the "Base" when
"Amount" and "percent" are given as well
as to find "percent" when "Base" and
"Amount" are given.
• With active participation students discuss
different examples of business
phenomenon in which the idea of
"percent" plays significant role, such as in
calculation and expression of "Discount"
(i.e. Trade discount, cash discount, Note
price") of "Profit and Loss" (Gross profit,
Net profit). In doing so describe the
meanings of related terms such as "Mark
up, Margin" and introduce their formula".
Assist students in describing and
computing "percentage increase or
decrease" in business sector, population,
production, industrial development, health
etc.

Resources
11.2 • You may begin the lesson with a brief
Compound revision of "simple interest" that the
• calculate Interest and students had learnt in the previous grade ;
payment by Depreciation in doing so give emphasis on the notions
installment for (4 periods) conveyed by terms like "principal" "rate of
a given simple interest" and "interest period" or simply
interest 11.2.1 "Time". Use several examples to clarify
arrangement. Compound and remind students about them. Introduce
Interest the notion of "Payment by Installment" (or
deferred terms) and by using examples
discuss how this arrangement of payment is
• calculate the carried out and assist students to solve
compound related problems.
interest of a • Proceed the lesson by introducing the
certain amount concept of "compound interest" and by
invested for a considering simple exercise problems
given period of encourage students to calculate and explain
time. the advantages and disadvantages of
• apply the lending money by comparing "simple
formula for interest" and "compound interest"
compound arrangements.
interest to • Assist students in computing "Interest" and
solve practical "Amount" by using exercise problems and
problems in guide them to apply the formula that is
business. used for solving problems on compound
interest, i.e.
n
 r 
A = P 1 +  where
 100 
A = the amount of principal plus interest
invested after n
years
P = the principal sum invested
r = the Rate per cent per annum
n = the number of years for which the
principal is invested
• After defining "present value" discuss with
students how to compute this value by
using examples. During the calculation of
compound interest emphasise on how the
concept of logarithm is used.

Resources
• compute • Define "Annuity" viz, a series of payments • Give exercise
annuity for a at a regular interval and then encourage problems on
give students to compute annuities for a given computing
arrangement in compound interest arrangement. You may - Amount
compound show to the students a sample of "Account - Principal
interest. Book" issued for customers/ client by - Rate
governmental or private bank and let them - Period
see and appreciate the application and of a
importance of the concept of "compound compound
interest" in real life situation. You can also interest
take some examples and exercise problems arrangements.
for the students to solve from the sample
account book that you brought.
• describe what is 11.2.2 • You may begin the lesson with the • Give real life
depreciation Depreciation definition of "Assets" in business and then problems
mean and some introduce "fixed Assets". As fixed assets, involving
of its causes however, are not fixed in value since they compound
wear out at varying rates according to their interest.
use over a period of time, discuss with
students about the concept of "Depreciation"
• compute and let them list some of the causes for it.
depreciation by • As depreciation is known as the fall in
using either of value, discuss with students how to calculate
the two it. Though there are different ways by
methods which depreciation may be calculated, the
appropriately. most commonly used methods are "reducing
balance method" and "fixed installment or
on-cost method". So by considering several
examples to see the application of each
method, encourage and assist students in
computation of depreciation based on the
two methods accordingly and appreciate the
application of the notion of geometric
progression of depreciation.
• list five valid • You may begin the lesson with a discussion
reasons for on the concept of "saving" and its
savings. importance and misconception about
saving i.e. unfortunately, many people
think of saving as "money left over after
expenses." Savings are, however, probably
the most important item (activity) in the
personal or family budget. One can be
successful at saving money if she/he
resolves to set aside part of her/his income
for saving first and then live on what is left.

Resources
• explain how 11.3 Saving, • Assist student in realization of the fact that, • Give various
savings Investing and when one plan for saving, she/he is exercise
become Borrowing planning for her/his dream; and help problems on
investment. Money students to find out that there are two kinds computation of
(7 periods) of saving viz "short - term" and "Long - depreciation by
term" savings. any of the
• list three 11.3.1 Saving • Allow student to explain on the following methods
saving plans. Money matters regard to savings with their own discussed.
words Let the students
(a) Reasons for saving discuss in class
• identify four - special goals (planning to go to college, about saving.
kinds of after that setting • Give simple
financial up a business, then marriage...) exercise
institutions. - emergencies problem on
- expensive purchases computation
- recurring expenses saving.
• describe three (b) Planning a saving programme
main factors in (c) Saving as investment
choosing a (d) Saving institutions (save in financial
particular institution to get the
institution for most out of saving) and how they work
saving in saving that makes
• compute and each preferable
solve - Commercial Bank
numerical - saving and Loan Associations
problems on - Credit Union
saving • Consolidating the students’ opinion and
give a summary of the above mentioned
items in saving.
• Give the students some numerical examples
and exercises so that they can compute and
solve problems on saving.
• identify the 11.3.2 • You may start the lesson by discussing with • Ask students to
four factors Investment students about events of investment that discuss about
that should take place in their environment (if there is the type
guide any) and in the country. Following this investment that
consumers in discuss with students about important they know
planning an situation to be considered during
investment "investment" such as:
strategy. (a) Investment Strategy
- Investment goal
- Knowledge of investment option
- Risk
- Professional advice

Resources
• explain the (b) Types of securities
differences - Stocks (stock holder), capital gain
between stocks - Bond (maturity date)
and bond. (c) How to invest
• describe ways - Direct sales of stock
to invest in - Mutual Fund
stock and - Stock broker
bond. - Stock exchange
• compute and • In the above discussion by considering
solve numerical appropriate examples, exercise problems
problems on encourage students to do some computation
investment accordingly.
• describe the 11.3.3 • You may start the lesson by explaining how
advantages and Borrowing "borrowing money" has a long history with
disadvantages Money human economical development and let
of borrowing students explain their opinion about the
money advantages and disadvantages of borrowing
and then let them come to some important
situations to be considered during
"borrowing" such as:
a) Why to borrow cash
. identify the purpose
• identify the b) When to borrow cash • Let the
usual sources . identify the time to borrow and how and students
of cash loan. when it will be returned. discuss the
c) From where to get loan advantages and
- saving institutions as a sources of Loan disadvantages
- commercial bank of borrowing
• compute the - saving and loan associations money.
amount and - credit union
time on the other sources
return of loan - consumer finance companies
based on the - insurance companies
given - private loan (family members)
agreement. ▪ Give the students some numerical examples
and exercises so that they can problems on
“borrowing money” so that they can
understand the concept
• With active student participation discuss in
detail each of the items mentioned above,
in doing so, use tangible examples which
also involve some calculation on return of
cash loan.

Resources
• give name 11.4 Taxation • Before describing the concept of "Tax" Ask students to
three types of (4 periods) discuss with students about "What list some types
activities that Government Does” in public services, and of taxes they
government business activities and guide them to the know
performs and major three activities, viz.
examples of (1) Government provide public service, • discuss on
each such as, National defense, police and fire "Why we pay
• explain why protection, Health services, street and park tax?"
governments maintenance, sanitation services, High way
collect taxes. and bridge construction, public education,
• describe the Mental hospital, water, gas, and electric
basic principles system, environmental protection, public
of taxation transportation etc.
(2) Government regulate business activity
- Protecting consumers,
- Making Monetary Policy
(3) Government redistribute income
• describe the • Let the students answer question, "to do all
various kinds the above things from Where Government • Give exercise
of taxes. Gets its Money?" after analysing the problems on
students response to the question, introduce computing
the concept of "Taxation" and emphasize taxes based
on the fact that any responsible person who real tax rate
• give their earns money should pay "tax" to the that applied in
opinion about government based on the law of taxation Ethiopia.
"income taxes" and this is one of the duties and
mean for them responsibilities of a citizen and discuss the
in relation to three types of "Principles of Taxation" viz,
their future (a) Taxpayers Identification Principles
first job. (b) Tax Rate Principles
(c) Payment Principles.
• calculate • Let the students give some types of taxes
different types they know and then guide them to come to
of taxes based the conclusion that, the most commonly
on the "rate of known types are: income tax, sales tax,
tax" in Ethiopia property taxes, excise taxes, business and
license taxes custom duties and tariffs,
value added tax (VAT) and let students
explain what income taxes mean to them
and their future first job.
• With a help of examples from each type
mentioned above encourage students to
calculate "Tax" with appropriate "Rate of
Tax" in Ethiopia.

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MATHEMATICS

Authors, Editors and Reviewers:

Rachel Mary Z. (B.Sc.)

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

© 2010 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education. All

Developed and Printed by

STAR EDUCATIONAL BOOKS DISTRIBUTORS Pvt. Ltd.

ASTER NEGA PUBLISHING ENTERPRISE

Under GEQIP Contract No. ET-MoE/GEQIP/IDA/ICB/G01/09.

• apply the mathematical knowledge and capabilities gained to solve problems

One of our teaching goals is particularly fostered by the student-oriented approach. We

For example, student-oriented teachers encourage students’ self-confidence and their

Teamwork is also emphasized in a student-centered classroom. For example, the

Unit 1 Further on Relations and Functions ...... 7

1.1 Revision on relations ................................... 8

Unit 2 Rational Expressions and Rational

Unit 3 Coordinate Geometry ..................................... 71

3.1 Straight lines ............................................... 72

Unit 4 Mathematical Reasoning ............................... 109

4.1 Logic .......................................................... 110

Unit 5 Statistics and Probability.............................. 133

5.1 Statistics ................................................... 134

Unit 6 Matrices and Determinants ......................... 179

6.1 Matrices .................................................... 180

Unit 7 The Set of Complex Numbers..................... 227

7.1 The concept of complex numbers ............. 228

Unit 8 Vectors and Transformation of the Plane ... 251

8.1 Revision on vectors and scalars ................ 252

Unit 9 Further on Trigonometric Functions ...... 293

9.1 The functions y = sec x, y = csc x and

Unit 10 Introduction of Linear Programming ...... 343

10.1 Revision on linear graphs.......................... 344

Unit 11 Mathematical Applications in Business ... 363

11.1 Basic mathematical concepts in business....364

i. observe and monitor students’ learning.

Competency 2 - Students will calculate percentiles.

How often to assess

Reporting students’ progress and marks to parents

Suggested Teaching Aids in unit 1

1.1 REVISION ON RELATIONS

Answers to Activity 1.1

c. R −1 = {( y, x) : y < −3x and y ≥ x − 4} = {( x, y ) : x < −3 y and x ≥ y − 4}

1.1.2 Graphs of Inverse Relations

Figure 1.4 Figure 1.5

Figure 1.9 Figure 1.10

Figure 1.11 Figure 1.12

1.2. SOME ADDITIONAL TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

The concept of a function is undoubtedly the most important concept in mathematics.

1.2.1 Revision on Function

Answers to Activity 1.3

Answers to Exercise 1.3

1.2.2 Power Functions

d. Since f (–x) = 4(–x)3 = –4x3 = –f (x), then f is odd.

e. Since f is even, the graph of f is symmetric with respect to y-axis

d. Since f (–x) = 2(–x) –3 = –2x–3 = –f (x). ⇒ f is odd

Answers to Activity 1.5

Answers to Exercise 1.4

Answers to Activity 1.6

Answers to Exercise 1.5

Figure 1.23 Figure 1.24

Answers to Activity 1.8

Answers to Exercise 1.6

Figure 1.27 Figure 1.28