Leadership theories

 Behavioral Theories

 Role Theory
 The Managerial Grid

 Participative Leadership

 Lewin's leadership styles

 Likert's leadership styles

 Situational Leadership

 Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership

 Vroom and Yetton's Normative Model
 House's Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

 Contingency Theories

 Fiedler's Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC) Theory

 Cognitive Resource Theory
 Strategic Contingencies Theory

 Transactional Leadership

 Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory

 Transformational Leadership

 Bass' Transformational Leadership Theory

 Burns' Transformational Leadership Theory
 Kouzes and Posner's Leadership Participation Inventory

Leadership Models

Leadership models help us to understand what makes leaders act the way they do. The ideal is not to
lock yourself in to a type of behavior discussed in the model, but to realize that every situation calls
for a different approach or behavior to be taken. Two models will be discussed, the Four Framework
Approach and the Managerial Grid.

1) Four Framework Approach

In the Four Framework Approach, Bolman and Deal (1991) suggest that leaders display leadership
behaviors in one of four types of frameworks: Structural, Human Resource, Political, or Symbolic.

This model suggests that leaders can be put into one of these four categories and there are times
when one approach is appropriate and times when it would not be. That is, any style can be effective
or ineffective, depending upon the situation. Relying on only one of these approaches would be
inadequate, thus we should strive to be conscious of all four approaches, and not just depend on one
or two.
 For example, during a major
organization change, a
Structural leadership style
may be more effective than
a Symbolic leadership style;
during a period when strong
growth is needed, the
Symbolic approach may be
better. We also need to
understand ourselves as
each of us tends to have a
preferred approach. We
need to be conscious of this
at all times and be aware of
the limitations of just
favoring one approach.

Structural Framework
In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a social architect whose leadership style is analysis
and design. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a petty tyrant whose leadership
style is details. Structural Leaders focus on structure, strategy, environment, implementation,
experimentation, and adaptation.

Human Resource Framework

In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a catalyst and servant whose leadership style is
support, advocating, and empowerment. while in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a
pushover, whose leadership style is abdication and fraud. Human Resource Leaders believe in people
and communicate that belief; they are visible and accessible; they empower, increase participation,
support, share information, and move decision making down into the organization.

Political Framework
In an effective leadership situation, the leader is an advocate, whose leadership style is coalition and
building. While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a hustler, whose leadership style is
manipulation. Political leaders clarify what they want and what they can get; they assess the
distribution of power and interests; they build linkages to other stakeholders, use persuasion first,
then use negotiation and coercion only if necessary.

Symbolic Framework
In an effective leadership situation, the leader is a prophet, whose leadership style is inspiration.
While in an ineffective leadership situation, the leader is a fanatic or fool, whose leadership style is
smoke and mirrors. Symbolic leaders view organizations as a stage or theater to play certain roles
and give impressions; these leaders use symbols to capture attention; they try to frame experience by
providing plausible interpretations of experiences; they discover and communicate a vision.
 2) Managerial Grid
Country Club
High   Team management
management
Concern for Middle of the road
Medium    
People management
Impoverished Authority-
Low  
management compliance
Low Medium High
 
Concern for Production (Task)

 Impoverished management

Minimum effort to get the work done. A basically lazy approach that avoids as much work as
possible.

Authority-compliance

Strong focus on task, but with little concern for people. Focus on efficiency, including the
elimination of people wherever possible.

Country Club management

Care and concern for the people, with a comfortable and friendly environment and collegial style.
But a low focus on task may give questionable results.

Middle of the road management

A weak balance of focus on both people and the work. Doing enough to get things done, but not
pushing the boundaries of what may be possible.

Team management

Firing on all cylinders: people are committed to task and leader is committed to people (as well as
task). 

Leadership styles

 Lewin's leadership styles

Autocratic

In the autocratic style, the leader takes decisions without consulting with others. The decision is
made without any form of consultation. In Lewin's experiments, he found that this caused the most
level of discontent.

An autocratic style works when there is no need for input on the decision, where the decision would
not change as a result of input, and where the motivation of people to carry out subsequent actions
would not be affected whether they were or were not involved in the decision-making.
Democratic

In the democratic style, the leader involves the people in the decision-making, although the process
for the final decision may vary from the leader having the final say to them facilitating consensus in
the group.

Democratic decision-making is usually appreciated by the people, especially if they have been used
to autocratic decisions with which they disagreed. It can be problematic when there are a wide range
of opinions and there is no clear way of reaching an equitable final decision.

Laissez-Faire

The laissez-faire style is to minimize the leader's involvement in decision-making, and hence
allowing people to make their own decisions, although they may still be responsible for the outcome.

Laissez-faire works best when people are capable and motivated in making their own decisions, and
where there is no requirement for a central coordination, for example in sharing resources across a
range of different people and groups.

Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership

Leaders should adapt their style to follower development style (or 'maturity'), based on how ready
and willing the follower is to perform required tasks (that is, their competence and motivation).

There are four leadership styles (S1 to S4) that match the development levels (D1 to D4) of the
followers.

The four styles suggest that leaders should put greater or less focus on the task in question and/or the
relationship between the leader and the follower, depending on the development level of the
follower.

Style
 Leadership style in response Follower development level
 high low
R4 R3 R2 R1
to follower development
level Task / directive behavior

Low High
 
S2
  S3  
Selling
High Partici-
Relationship
pating
/ supportive
   
behavior Low
S1
S4    
Telling
Dele-
gating  

 S1: Telling / Directing

Follower: R1: Low competence, low commitment / Unable and unwilling or insecure

Leader: High task focus, low relationship focus

When the follower cannot do the job and is unwilling or afraid to try, then the leader takes a highly
directive role, telling them what to do but without a great deal of concern for the relationship. The
leader may also provide a working structure, both for the job and in terms of how the person is
controlled.

The leader may first find out why the person is not motivated and if there are any limitations in
ability. These two factors may be linked, for example where a person believes they are less capable
than they should be may be in some form of denial or other coping. They follower may also lack
self-confidence as a result.

If the leader focused more on the relationship, the follower may become confused about what must
be done and what is optional. The leader thus maintains a clear 'do this' position to ensure all
required actions are clear.

S2: Selling / Coaching

Follower: R2: Some competence, variable commitment / Unable but willing or motivated

Leader: High task focus, high relationship focus

When the follower can do the job, at least to some extent, and perhaps is over-confident about their
ability in this, then 'telling' them what to do may demotivate them or lead to resistance. The leader
thus needs to 'sell' another way of working, explaining and clarifying decisions.

The leader thus spends time listening and advising and, where appropriate, helping the follower to
gain necessary skills through coaching methods.
Note: S1 and S2 are leader-driven.

S3: Participating / Supporting

Follower: R3: High competence, variable commitment / Able but unwilling or insecure

Leader: Low task focus, high relationship focus

When the follower can do the job, but is refusing to do it or otherwise showing insufficient
commitment, the leader need not worry about showing them what to do, and instead is concerned
with finding out why the person is refusing and thence persuading them to cooperate.

There is less excuse here for followers to be reticent about their ability, and the key is very much
around motivation. If the causes are found then they can be addressed by the leader. The leader thus
spends time listening, praising and otherwise making the follower feel good when they show the
necessary commitment.

S4: Delegating / Observing

Follower: R4: High competence, high commitment / Able and willing or motivated

Leader: Low task focus, low relationship focus

When the follower can do the job and is motivated to do it, then the leader can basically leave them
to it, largely trusting them to get on with the job although they also may need to keep a relatively
distant eye on things to ensure everything is going to plan.

Followers at this level have less need for support or frequent praise, although as with anyone,
occasional recognition is always welcome.

Note: S3 and S4 are follower-led.

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

The Path-Goal Theory of Leadership was developed to describe the way that leaders encourage and
support their followers in achieving the goals they have been set by making the path that they should
take clear and easy.

In particular, leaders:

 Clarify the path so subordinates know which way to go.

 Remove roadblocks that are stopping them going there.
 Increasing the rewards along the route.

Leaders can take a strong or limited approach in these. In clarifying the path, they may be directive
or give vague hints. In removing roadblocks, they may scour the path or help the follower move the
bigger blocks. In increasing rewards, they may give occasional encouragement or pave the way with
gold.
This variation in approach will depend on the situation, including the follower's capability and
motivation, as well as the difficulty of the job and other contextual factors.

House and Mitchell (1974) describe four styles of leadership:

Supportive leadership

Considering the needs of the follower, showing concern for their welfare and creating a friendly
working environment. This includes increasing the follower's self-esteem and making the job more
interesting. This approach is best when the work is stressful, boring or hazardous.

Directive leadership

Telling followers what needs to be done and giving appropriate guidance along the way. This
includes giving them schedules of specific work to be done at specific times. Rewards may also be
increased as needed and role ambiguity decreased (by telling them what they should be doing).

This may be used when the task is unstructured and complex and the follower is inexperienced. This
increases the follower's sense of security and control and hence is appropriate to the situation.

Participative leadership

Consulting with followers and taking their ideas into account when making decisions and taking
particular actions. This approach is best when the followers are expert and their advice is both
needed and they expect to be able to give it.

Achievement-oriented leadership

Setting challenging goals, both in work and in self-improvement (and often together). High standards
are demonstrated and expected. The leader shows faith in the capabilities of the follower to succeed.
This approach is best when the task is complex.

The Top 10 Leadership Qualities

By David Hakala

Leadership can be defined as one's ability to get others to willingly follow. Every organization needs
leaders at every level. Leaders can be found and nurtured if you look for the following character
traits.

A leader with vision has a clear, vivid picture of where to go, as well as a firm grasp on what success
looks like and how to achieve it. But it’s not enough to have a vision; leaders must also share it and
act upon it. Jack Welch, former chairman and CEO of General Electric Co., said, "Good business
leaders create a vision, articulate the vision, passionately own the vision and relentlessly drive it to
completion."

A leader must be able to communicate his or her vision in terms that cause followers to buy into it.
He or she must communicate clearly and passionately, as passion is contagious.
A good leader must have the discipline to work toward his or her vision single-mindedly, as well as
to direct his or her actions and those of the team toward the goal. Action is the mark of a leader. A
leader does not suffer “analysis paralysis” but is always doing something in pursuit of the vision,
inspiring others to do the same.

Integrity is the integration of outward actions and inner values. A person of integrity is the same on
the outside and on the inside. Such an individual can be trusted because he or she never veers from
inner values, even when it might be expeditious to do so. A leader must have the trust of followers
and therefore must display integrity.

Honest dealings, predictable reactions, well-controlled emotions, and an absence of tantrums and
harsh outbursts are all signs of integrity. A leader who is centered in integrity will be more
approachable by followers.

Dedication means spending whatever time or energy is necessary to accomplish the task at hand. A
leader inspires dedication by example, doing whatever it takes to complete the next step toward the
vision. By setting an excellent example, leaders can show followers that there are no nine-to-five
jobs on the team, only opportunities to achieve something great.

Magnanimity means giving credit where it is due. A magnanimous leader ensures that credit for
successes is spread as widely as possible throughout the company. Conversely, a good leader takes
personal responsibility for failures. This sort of reverse magnanimity helps other people feel good
about themselves and draws the team closer together. To spread the fame and take the blame is a
hallmark of effective leadership.

Leaders with humility recognize that they are no better or worse than other members of the team. A
humble leader is not self-effacing but rather tries to elevate everyone. Leaders with humility also
understand that their status does not make them a god. Mahatma Gandhi is a role model for Indian
leaders, and he pursued a “follower-centric” leadership role.

Openness means being able to listen to new ideas, even if they do not conform to the usual way of
thinking. Good leaders are able to suspend judgment while listening to others’ ideas, as well as
accept new ways of doing things that someone else thought of. Openness builds mutual respect and
trust between leaders and followers, and it also keeps the team well supplied with new ideas that can
further its vision.

Creativity is the ability to think differently, to get outside of the box that constrains solutions.
Creativity gives leaders the ability to see things that others have not seen and thus lead followers in
new directions. The most important question that a leader can ask is, “What if … ?” Possibly the
worst thing a leader can say is, “I know this is a dumb question ... ”

Fairness means dealing with others consistently and justly. A leader must check all the facts and
hear everyone out before passing judgment. He or she must avoid leaping to conclusions based on
incomplete evidence. When people feel they that are being treated fairly, they reward a leader with
loyalty and dedication.

Assertiveness is not the same as aggressiveness. Rather, it is the ability to clearly state what one
expects so that there will be no misunderstandings. A leader must be assertive to get the desired
results. Along with assertiveness comes the responsibility to clearly understand what followers
expect from their leader.

Many leaders have difficulty striking the right amount of assertiveness, according to a study in the
February 2007 issue of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, published by the APA
(American Psychological Association). It seems that being underassertive or overassertive may be
the most common weakness among aspiring leaders.

A sense of humor is vital to relieve tension and boredom, as well as to defuse hostility. Effective
leaders know how to use humor to energize followers. Humor is a form of power that provides some
control over the work environment. And simply put, humor fosters good camaraderie.

Intrinsic traits such as intelligence, good looks, height and so on are not necessary to become a
leader. Anyone can cultivate the proper leadership traits.

Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you can become an effective
leader. Good leaders develop through a never ending process of self-study, education, training, and
experience (Jago, 1982). This guide will help you through that process.

To inspire your workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain things you must be, know,
and, do. These do not come naturally, but are acquired through continual work and study. Good
leaders are continually working and studying to improve their leadership skills; they are NOT resting
on their laurels.

Definition of Leadership

The meaning of a message is the change which it produces in the image. — Kenneth Boulding
in The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society

Before we get started, lets define leadership. Leadership is a process by which a person influences
others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more cohesive
and coherent. This definition is similar to Northouse's (2007, p3) definition — Leadership is a
process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal.

Leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership knowledge and skills. This is called
Process Leadership (Jago, 1982). However, we know that we have traits that can influence our
actions. This is called Trait Leadership (Jago, 1982), in that it was once common to believe that
leaders were born rather than made. These two leadership types are shown in the chart below
(Northouse, 2007, p5):

Four Factors of Leadership

Leader

You must have an honest understanding of who you are, what you know, and what you can do. Also,
note that it is the followers, not the leader or someone else who determines if the leader is successful.
If they do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they will be uninspired. To be successful
you have to convince your followers, not yourself or your superiors, that you are worthy of being
followed.

Followers

Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a new hire requires more
supervision than an experienced employee. A person who lacks motivation requires a different
approach than one with a high degree of motivation. You must know your people! The fundamental
starting point is having a good understanding of human nature, such as needs, emotions, and
motivation. You must come to know your employees' be, know, and do attributes.

Communication

Situation

Boss or Leader?

Although your position as a manager, supervisor, lead, etc. gives you the authority to accomplish
certain tasks and objectives in the organization (called Assigned Leadership), this power does not
make you a leader, it simply makes you the boss (Rowe, 2007). Leadership differs in that it makes
the followers want to achieve high goals (called Emergent Leadership), rather than simply bossing
people around (Rowe, 2007). Thus you get Assigned Leadership by your position and you display
Emergent Leadership by influencing people to do great things.

Bass' Theory of Leadership

Bass' theory of leadership states that there are three basic ways to explain how people become
leaders (Stogdill, 1989; Bass, 1990). The first two explain the leadership development for a small
number of people. These theories are:

 Some personality traits may lead people naturally into leadership roles. This is the Trait
Theory.
 A crisis or important event may cause a person to rise to the occasion, which brings out
extraordinary leadership qualities in an ordinary person. This is the Great Events Theory.
 People can choose to become leaders. People can learn leadership skills. This is the
Transformational or Process Leadership Theory. It is the most widely accepted theory
today and the premise on which this guide is based.

Principles of Leadership
To help you be, know, and do, follow these eleven principles of leadership (U.S. Army, 1983). Note
that later chapters in this guide expand on these and provide tools for implementing them:

1. Know yourself and seek self-improvement - In order to know yourself, you have to
understand your be, know, and do, attributes. Seeking self-improvement means continually
strengthening your attributes. This can be accomplished through self-study, formal classes,
reflection, and interacting with others.
2. Be technically proficient - As a leader, you must know your job and have a solid familiarity
with your employees' tasks.
3. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions - Search for ways to guide
your organization to new heights. And when things go wrong, they always do sooner or later
— do not blame others. Analyze the situation, take corrective action, and move on to the next
challenge.
4. Make sound and timely decisions - Use good problem solving, decision making, and
planning tools.
5. Set the example - Be a good role model for your employees. They must not only hear what
they are expected to do, but also see. We must become the change we want to see - Mahatma
Gandhi
6. Know your people and look out for their well-being - Know human nature and the
importance of sincerely caring for your workers.
7. Keep your workers informed - Know how to communicate with not only them, but also
seniors and other key people.
8. Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers - Help to develop good character traits
that will help them carry out their professional responsibilities.
9. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished - Communication is the
key to this responsibility.
10. Train as a team - Although many so called leaders call their organization, department,
section, etc. a team; they are not really teams...they are just a group of people doing their
jobs.
11. Use the full capabilities of your organization - By developing a team spirit, you will be
able to employ your organization, department, section, etc. to its fullest capabilities.

Attributes of Leadership

If you are a leader who can be trusted, then those around you will grow to respect you. To be such a
leader, there is a Leadership Framework to guide you

BE KNOW DO

BE a professional. Examples: Be loyal to the organization, perform selfless service, take personal
responsibility.

BE a professional who possess good character traits. Examples: Honesty, competence, candor,
commitment, integrity, courage, straightforwardness, imagination.

KNOW the four factors of leadership — follower, leader, communication, situation.

KNOW yourself. Examples: strengths and weakness of your character, knowledge, and skills.
KNOW human nature. Examples: Human needs, emotions, and how people respond to stress.

KNOW your job. Examples: be proficient and be able to train others in their tasks.

KNOW your organization. Examples: where to go for help, its climate and culture, who the
unofficial leaders are.

DO provide direction. Examples: goal setting, problem solving, decision making, planning.

DO implement. Examples: communicating, coordinating, supervising, evaluating.

DO motivate. Examples: develop morale and esprit de corps in the organization, train, coach,
counsel.