Different Curriculum Development Models

Curriculum development models are based on a clear and consistent understanding of various
scholars of the nature of curriculum as a discipline and as a field of study. Different models are
described based on the different views and processes of curriculum development they offer. In this
context, well-known models that are found in major curriculum books are analyzed. These models
have been recognized and accepted by curriculum scholars as effective and appropriate for
developing curriculum in any level. In this chapter the analysis points out various strengths and
weaknesses of different models. A brief background and description of the processes involved in each
model are presented. The models are treated as inimitable since each represents various ideas or
theories on how to develop curriculum.
Phase I. Develop standards.

1. Develop a comprehensive set of content standards using multiple scores.

2. Refine the comprehensive list by eliminating and combining.

3. Secure teacher input to identify teacher priorities.

4. Use data to develop final draft of standards divided into Essential Standards and Enrichment
Standards.

Phase II. Develop benchmarks.

1. Review decisions about content emphases.

2. Identify standards for continuing development (standards that will not be benchmarked.)

3. Decide how benchmarks will be identified-by taskforce or by teachers.

4. Develop initial draft of benchmarks, evaluating with criteria provided and secure teacher review;
revise benchmarks if needed.

Phase III. Develop final products.

1. Use standards and benchmarks to produce the scope and sequence chart.

2. Decide on curriculum guide content.

3. Analyze benchmarks into learning objectives.

Glatthorn’s model is an example of a linear and rational curriculum development model. The
model is rational and descriptive, stressing on the development of standards as the first activity in
curriculum development. The model recognizes the importance of using multiple sources in
developing curriculum standards. This model also recognizes teachers’ input in the development of
standards, which are often neglected in curriculum projects in the Philippines because of the
top-down approach to curriculum development and implementation.

The use of benchmarks to improve, refine, and validate curriculum standards is an equally good
practice in curriculum development. The model extends itself up to the development of scope and
sequence, which is important for planning instruction and deciding on specific contents and
objectives. Another important feature of Glatthorn’s model is its relevance and applicability in any
educational institution in developing curriculum standards for various courses. This model can be very
useful in the development of curriculum standards that is one of the major purposes of this book. The
linear nature of Glatthorn’s model is also one of its weaknesses.
 In the Platform phase, Walker suggested that curriculum workers bring with them their
individual beliefs, knowledge, and values. They have their own ideas about how to do their task and
they are prepared to discuss and argue about them. The first phase is similar to the idea of Print (1993)
of a curriculum presage. The Delibirations phase, on the other hand, involves identifying which facts
are needed for means and ends, generating alternatives and considering the consequences of these
alternatives. This phase is also used in weighing alternative costs and consequences, and choosing the
best alternative for the curriculum task they are about to do. The third phase, which is the Curriculum
Design, involves planning, decision-making, and the actual development of the curriculum.

Walker’s model is a dynamic and descriptive model of curriculum development. It reflects the
realities of how curriculum workers plan and develop a curriculum. It recognizes the role and
influence of curriculum workers in any curriculum development tasks.

In addition, it avoids the obsession of starting with objectives. This practice is also observed in
the model of Print (1993). since the model is dynamic, the curriculum workers may commence at any
point in the curriculum process depending on their needs. This allows more flexibility among
curriculum workers in developing curriculum. Curriculum workers may review their previous decisions
and actions to correct some mistakes. According to Walker (1971)), this model can e used for a
school-based curriculum development.

The first phase of Print’s model recognizes the nature of the curriculum workers involved in the
development of the curriculum. Accordingly, in this phase, it is important to pose the following
questions that may influence curriculum development:

1. Who are involved in this curriculum development, and what, if anything, do they represent?

2. What conceptions of curriculum do they bring with them?

3. What underlying forces or foundations have influenced the developers’ thinking?

The answer to these questions will bring useful insights into the type of curriculum that will be
developed.

The second phase in this model is the task of developing the curriculum. The procedure is cyclical,
which begins with a situational analysis, and continues with the aims, goals, and objectives, content,
learning activities, and instructional evaluation, and then continuing to situational analysis again.

The third phase includes the actual application that incorporates these major activities: (1)
implementation of the curriculum, (2) monitoring of and feedback from the curriculum, and (3) the
provision of feedback data to the presage group.

Cyclical Models of Curriculum Development

The cyclical models prescribe a cyclical or continuous process of curriculum development.

Cyclical models usually start with situational analysis that serves the basis for all the succeeding
process.
 An example of a cyclical model for curriculum development was developed by Nicholls and
Nicholls (1978). the model emphasizes the cyclical nature of curriculum development. According to
the Nicholls, curriculum development is a continuous process.

As shown in Figure 7, the model prescribes five logical and interdependent stages that are
continuous curriculum development process. The model starts with a situational analysis in which
curricular decisions are made, followed by the selection of objectives and the other succeeding
phases.

The model is highly prescriptive and dynamic. The inclusion of situational analysis as part of the
model is a valuable principle in curriculum development. It enables the curriculum workers to
understand better the context in which the curriculum is developed. By starting with situational
analysis, curriculum workers will be able to collect data and the needed information from various
curriculum sources and influences that are prerequisites in formulating curriculum goals and
objectives. Thus, if applied in college setting, faculty members need to conduct situational analysis
before planning their syllabi and curriculum plans. This will make it possible for the curriculum to be
more relevant and responsive to the needs of the students and the school.

Pp. 36-37

Ralph Tyler, at the University of Chicago, developed the first model of curriculum development.
This model was presented in his book Principles of Curriculum and Instruction published in 1949. Tyler
argued that curriculum development should be logical and systematic.

His model, as shown in Figure 3, presents a process of curriculum development that follows a
sequential pattern starting from selecting objectives to selecting learning experiences, organizing
learning experiences, organizing learning experiences, and evaluation.

Tyler argued that to develop any curriculum, curriculum workers should respond to four basic
questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences are likely to attain these objectives?

3. How can these educational experiences be organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

Aside from these four questions, Tyler also identified three curriculum sources: society, students,
and subject matter. Accordingly, curriculum workers need to study these sources carefully in order to
develop a curriculum. Tyler also pointed out the importance of philosophy of education and
psychology of learning to screen the objectives that are included in the curriculum.

B. Taba’s Grassroots Rational Model

A follower of Tyler is another curriculum scholar, Hilda Taba. Taba presented her model in her
book Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice in 1962. Her model is a modified vesion of Tyler’s
Model. Taba argued that curriculum development should follow a sequential and logical process, and
she suggested for more information input in all phases of curriculum development. Taba also claimed
that all curricula are composed of fundamental elements. In her model, Taba outlined seven steps
that should be followed when developing a curriculum:

1. Diagnosis of needs

2. Formulation of objectives

3. Selection of content

4. Organization of content

5. Selection of learning experience

6. Organization of learning experiences

7. Determination of what to evaluate and ways and means of doing it

Taba also suggested that curriculum development could be made successful if there was a
diagnosis of needs. This would help curriculum workers in understanding the needs of the learners. It
would also help in the selection of the goals and objectives and in the selection of contents. Taba
pointed out that the nature of the objectives determines what learning is to follow.

C. Standards-based Curriculum Development Model

The standards-based curriculum development model was developed by Allan Glatthorn. The
mode was intended for developing curriculum standards for any discipline from basic education to
higher education. As shown in Table 2, Glatthorn identified three phases to be followed in developing
a standards-based curriculum.

Table 2 is an example of a linear model. It includes a prescribed sequence of curriculum

development activities to develop standards.

Pp. 50-52

This model, being dynamic, can be confusing to other curriculum workers who are not aware of
the necessary processes of curriculum development. If this model is applied in the Philippines, where
most teachers are mere implementers of curriculum developed by other educators, it may not have
value to them.

Another weakness of Walker’s model is a strong tendency of the curriculum development to be

stuck in Phase II. According to Print (1993), too much discussion may lead to analysis-paralysis
syndrome that could penalize or prolong the process of curriculum development. Probably, this
model can be elaborated more on the design processes involved in Phase III to help teachers and
neophyte curriculum workers to do their tasks.

B. Skilbeck’s Curriculum Development Model

 In 1976, Malcolm Skilbeck came up with a model for developing a school-based curriculum in
Australia. His model presents a dynamic view of curriculum development. When using this model,
curriculum workers may start from any phase. However, as shown in Figure 11, each phase is
interrelated and follows a systematic sequence. Skilbeck’s model includes a situational (daliri mo

Involves gathering data from the school, society, and the learners. The (nakaharang

the situational analysis provide strong bases for making curricular decisions for all the succeeding
phases of curriculum development.

Figure 11 ->

C. Eisner’s Artistic Approach to Curriculum Development

Elliot W. Eisner was a famous curriculum scholar. In 1979, he published the book The Educational
Imagination where he presented his idea on how curriculum development should be done. Eisner
(1979) believed that there is a need to develop a new theory that recognizes the artistry of teaching
which is useful in helping teachers develop those arts. In his book, Eisner outlined how this artistic
approach can also be used in curriculum development.

Table 3. Eisner’s Artistic Model of Curriculum Development

1. Goals and their priorities

 The need to consider less, well-defined objectives as well as explicit ones

 The need for deliberation in talking through priorities

2. Content of curriculum

 Options to consider in selecting curriculum

 Caveats about the null curriculum

3. Types of learning opportunities

 Emphasis on transforming goals and content into learning events that will be of significance to
students

4. Organization of learning opportunities

 Emphasis on a nonlinear approach in order to encourage diverse student outcomes.

5. Organization of content areas

 Emphasis on cross-curricula organization of content

6. Mode of presentation and mode of response

 Use of a number of modes of communication to widen educational opportunities for students

7. Types of evaluation procedure

 Use of a comprehensive range of procedures at different stages of the process of curriculum

development.

In selecting the goals and objectives of the curriculum, Eisner (1979) stressed an artful process of
arriving at a consensus about curricular priorities by involving the participants. Engaging the
participants is similar to Walker’s (1971) idea of platform or Schwab’s (1971) idea of deliberation. In
selecting the content of the curriculum, Eisner (2002) considered the three sources of curriculum:
individual, society, and subject matter as identified by Tyler (1949). in selecting learning opportunities,
Eisner strongly favored providing students with a wide variety of learning opportunities. Accordingly,
educational imagination must transform goals and contents into high-quality experiences for students
(Eisner 2002).

Eisner also emphasized on providing a variety of learning opportunities to different types of

students using varied resources and activities. He contended that curriculum content should be
organized and integrated in different ways, Eisner suggested using different strategies and methods
to engage the students in meaningful learning. Lastly, for Eisner, evaluation is not the final step of
curriculum development, but rather it is something that pervades the entire curriculum development
process (Eisner 1985).

This model can be applied in designing school-based curriculum development or in national

curriculum projects. Eisner’s model is an open-ended process or a form of a dynamic model. It is
descriptive in offering a general approach that be followed by curriculum workers, yet the model is
also prescriptive in offered suggestions about what should happen when developing a curriculum.

Eisner’s model recognizes the influence of various curriculum workers in developing a curriculum.
The model emphasizes the importance of having well-defined goals and objectives in curriculum. It
recognizes the varied activities that teachers do in the school to attain the goals of the curriculum.

This model may be effective in the context of developing and designing courses for higher
education. The influence of academic freedom and the changing nature of the disciplines in higher
education require a curriculum model that is less prescriptive but logical enough to embrace the
artistic or creative ways in which faculty members develop their courses.

Since the processes are not procedural, curriculum workers can always modify and improve their
curricula to address certain problems and needs. This model calls for more relevant and responsive
ways of selecting and organizing contents and learning experiences in order to respond to the diverse
needs of students.

Pp. 54

Curriculum sources are general factors that influence or affect curriculum development and
decision-making in the macro level. Posner (1995) suggested that two levels of curriculum
development: macro level, which includes the general or overall process of curriculum development;
and the micro level, which focuses on specific phase/s or on specific context/s like school-based
curriculum development.
 There are three curriculum sources in the model: learners, society, and disciplines. These
curriculum sources are based on the model of Ralph Tyler (1949). The learners as a curriculum source
is very important. Knowing their interests, needs, learning styles, thinking styles, culture,
socio-economic status, gender, and other variables are significant data for developing curriculum.
Understanding the nature of learners Is helpful for curriculum workers to make appropriate choices in
curriculum and how to organize the contents of the curriculum.

As shown in Figure 12, the curriculum sources are considered vital in conducting situational
analysis. Curriculum sources provide the necessary data in determining the goals and objectives of the
curriculum. These curriculum sources are also valuable in making decisions on the development of
curriculum standards. In the revised model, an arrow connects the curriculum sources to Phase III.

Curriculum influences are specific factors that affect the development of the curriculum
influences can be grouped into three: external, internal, and organizational.

Pp. 57-58

The linear models (Standards-based Curriculum Development Model, Understanding by Design,

Systematic Design Model, and Print’s Curriculum Development Model) provide a direct and
time-efficient approach to curriculum development. These models simplify the process of curriculum
development such that curriculum workers will find it easy to follow. Linear models are highly
prescriptive and rational. Usually, they start with a situational analysis or selecting objectives.

The cyclical model of Nicholls and Nicholls (1978), and the Contextual Filters Model of Course
Planning Model present an interrrelated procedure for developing curriculum. These models are
prescriptive by starting with situational analysis, yet they are also dynamic. These models are
applicable to school-based curriculum development.

The dynamic models of Eisner ( 1979), Walker (1971), and Pawilen’s model (2001) are less rigid
in application and they can be used in school-based curriculum development. These three models
reflect the reality of how institutions and teachers develop curricula. Eisner’s (1979) model is
prescriptive, yet it is also descriptive, while walker’s (1971) model is highly dynamic and descriptive.

Each model of curriculum development is based on a curriculum theory developed by various

proponents. The models presented are reflections of what various authors and scholars believe about
the nature of curriculum and the process of curriculum development. Each has its own rightful claim.

We can always learn some principles from these models:

1. When developing a model for curriculum development, there is always the need for a clear
and logical process.

2. Curriculum sources and other variables that are influential in developing a curriculum should
be specified.

3. Models should reflect how educators plan and develop curriculum in any levels.

4. Models should be based on a curriculum theory.

5. Each process in a model should specify areas where curriculum decisions are made.
 6. Each model should reflect the major phases of curriculum development (planning, design,
implementation, and evaluation). it is also important that each model should be applicable in various
contexts.

Pp. 55-56

External influences are social factors that directly influence curriculum decision making. These
factors are society market demand, government, disciplinary associations, and alumni. Internal
influences are those that are related to the school like faculty members, students, disciplines, and
program mission. Organizational influences are school factors but they are more concerned with the
governance of the program and support system like school resources, leadership, governance, and
program relationship (Stark & Lattuca 1997). These curriculum influences provide important data for
conducting situational analysis.

In the revised proposed model, the various curriculum influences are integral, as shown in the
arrow connecting the curriculum influences and the development of curriculum standards. In all
phases of curriculum development, these curriculum influences are always considered. For example,
new government policies, in most cases, need to be implemented immediately. Change in school
leadership and programs also need immediate action. Consequently, at any point, the curriculum
influences may have direct or indirect effect on curriculum development. The broken arrows
connecting the curriculum influences with the different phases of the curriculum development show
this. This influence makes the model dynamic. It always considers the changing nature, needs, and
demands of its context.

By nature, curriculum sources and influences serve as bases for selecting and making decisions
about the various elements of curriculum: intent, content, learning experiences, and evaluation.

Processes for Developing a Curriculum

1. Situational Analysis - the first phase; starts with analyzing the context in which the curriculum is
developed. The situational analysis includes a study of the different curriculum sources (students,
society, and disciplines or subject matter), and careful examination of the different curriculum
influences (internal, external, and organizational) that affect curriculum development.

2. Selection of Goals and Objectives - results from situational analysis. In some cases, if the
government or the university prescribes the curriculum goals and objectives, such features will be
considered as part of the internal or external influences that will be studied in the situational analysis.

3. Development of Curriculum Standards - takes place after the situational analysis and selection of
goals and objectives. The first phase of Glatthorn’s model (1998) was modified to simplify the task for
developing curriculum standards: (a) develop a comprehensive set of content standards by examining
various curriculum sources and influences, (b) align the standards with several criteria; (c) secure
teachers’ input to revise and improve the standards; (d) ask experts to validate the standards ; and (e)
develop the final draft of standards, divided into content standards, skill standards, and values
standards.

4. Selection of Content or Subject Areas - phase where the developed curriculum standards are used
to select subjects or courses to be included in the curriculum
5. Selection and Organization of Learning Experiences - includes selecting learning activities,
organizing instructional plans, and selecting instructional materials to be used in implementing the
curriculum.

6. Implementation - involves the actual implementation of the curriculum by faculty members. It is

where the actual teaching and learning take place.

7. Evaluation - the final phase; phase where the goals and objectives of the curriculum, including the
design and selection of all the curriculum elements, are evaluated. After the result of evaluation, the
curriculum development process will go back to situational analysis to reexamine the needs and
include necessary changes and demands from curriculum sources and influences.

Analysis of Different Curriculum Development Models

Figure 13 provides a summary of the results of the analysis of the different curriculum
development models in relation to the two dimensions suggested by Print (1993). All the curriculum
development models are based on curriculum researches and are based on certain theories of
curriculum. Each model is unique depending on the curriculum theory advocated by the proponents.
It is the role of the curriculum developers to select a model based on their context (Print 1993).

Pp. 40

Stage 1 includes what students should know, understand, and be able to do. It also asks the
questions about what is worthy of understanding and what enduring understandings are desired for
the learners. This calls for examining current curriculum goals and established curriculum standards,
and reviewing curriculum expectations. Stage 2 calls for designing assessment evidence for
documenting or validating whether the desired learning has been achieved. This model encourages
the use of authentic assessment for assessing and evaluating students’ learning. Stage 3 includes
planning learning experiences that are useful in implementing the curriculum. In this stage, teachers
decide on the type of activities that the students will do and the materials that will be needed for the
planned activities.

The UbD model is prescriptive and rational, focusing on the development of goals as the starting
point of the curriculum development process. The model is currently popular in the Philippines
because of its advocacy in focusing on enduring understandings or central ideas (Wiggins and
McTighe 2002) as the central goal of the curriculum.

The model stresses on the six facets of understanding as a framework in identifying the results
or goals of learning. If this model is used in the Philippines, it can help the CHED, particularly various
teacher education institutions, to revise their existing curricula to focus on higher understanding
rather than just prescribing subjects and course descriptions. The UbD calls for development of higher
and more relevant curriculum standards in the country.

UbD’s advocacy of planning for authentic assessment before planning learning experiences is
essential in connecting the assessment with the goals and learning experiences of the curriculum.
Analyzing what the learners should know and understand is an important feature of the model. This
principle will make the content of the teacher education curriculum more learner-centered. Like
Glatthorn’s model, it also recognizes the important role of teachers in curriculum development
processes, which is a good practice in curriculum development.
 While the UbD model puts emphasis on analyzing what the learners need to know and
understand in formulating curriculum goals, the school authority or the government already fixes the
standards. The model is fixed at accepting what standards are prescribed by the government agency
on education. Consequently, the goals are most likely to follow the prescribed content standards set
by the government.

Pp.46

Nicholls and Nicholls model also recognizes the influence and importance of contributing
disciplines such as philosophy psychology, and sociology in developing the curriculum. These
disciplines are useful in selecting the curriculum goals and objectives, content, learning experiences,
and evaluation. The importance of these three disciplines in developing curriculum is also recognized
in the model of Tyler (1949).

Moreover, this model has the potential to be used in any educational setting, either
school-based or on a national level. The cyclical nature of the model also enables curriculum workers
in making the necessary changed and adjustments in the total curriculum. This attribute of the model
is helpful for teachers, administrators, and education boards to address curricular issues and propose
innovations and changes whenever needed. The model of Nicholls and Nicholls advocates curriculum
development activity that involves continuous improvement.

However, there is little weakness found in this model. The possibility that may occur is that many
curriculum workers are used to develop curricula following a linear model. In the Philippines, for
example, curriculum development follows a top-down approach where many curricular decisions are
made in the national level. The goals and contents of the curriculum are set by the state. In the
context of higher education, there is a tendency for teachers not to follow this model because of the
tedious job of conducting situational analysis before developing any syllabus or curriculum plan.

B. Wheeler’s Curriculum Development Model

In his influential book Curriculum Process, Wheeler (1967) presented a cyclical process in which
each element of the curriculum is related and interdependent. Although this model is also rational in
nature, each phase is a logical

Pp. 39

Roberts (2003) stressed that in curriculum studies, as in many other domain of human activity,
one of the few constants is change. Roberts further explained his idea that as a field of inquiry,
curriculum should allow new theories to emerge and new insights to flourish to make the curriculum
field more vibrant and dynamic.

In Glatthorn’s model, developing curriculum standards is a separate activity from the overall
curriculum development process. This makes the model incomplete. The model should recognize that
developing curriculum standards is an integral part of the curriculum development process. This
model does not include situational analysis nor needs analysis. Unlike in other curriculum
development models, situational analysis or diagnosis of needs is included as an important process.
While the model specified the development of standards using multiple sources, it cannot replace the
important function of situational analysis in the curriculum development process. Situational analysis
is helpful in understanding the context in which the curriculum is developed. Analyzing the different
curriculum sources and influences will lead to the development of curriculum standards that are not
just focused on a specific discipline, but will also consider the important role of the learners and the
society in curriculum development.

D...Understanding by Design Model (UbD)

The Understanding by Design model was developed by Wiggins and McTighe (2002). It has
become a byword in the Philippine educational system because it was used to design the current
basic education curriculum. As of School Year 2010-2011, first year and second year high school are
using UbD.

The model is also called backward design for putting emphasis on starting with the goals and
objectives in designing curriculum. The model puts emphasis on designing curriculum to engage
students in exploring and deepening their understanding of important ideas and the design of
assessments(Wiggins & McTighe 2002). Figure 4 shows the three stages in the backward design
process.