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Methods of Instruction

Introduction

1. Determining which Method of Instruction to use in a training program can sometimes be

difficult, because there are many different instructional methods which may be used in a training

environment. Each method has certain advantages and disadvantages, some are more suited for

certain kinds of instruction than others. Each of the different methods require greater or lesser

participation by students. One method, or perhaps a combination of methods, is usually most

appropriate for most subject matter and objectives. The common methods of instruction are the

instructor-lead, lecturer, demonstrator, practical exercise, and the self-study, with each of these

methods it will have someone doing something to teach whatever it is you there to learn, only

exception is the self-study independent method.

Instructor-led Method

2. This is the most common used method of instruction, where the instructor becomes the

sole disseminator of information. The Instructor presents information to the student

systematically in this method. This approach is considered the best method to use because the

instructor interfaces with the students by presenting segments of instruction, questions the

students frequently, and provides periodic summaries or logical points of development. This type

of training is facilitated by an instructor either online or in a classroom setting. Instructor-led

training allows for learners and instructors or facilitators to interact and discuss the training

material, either individually or in a group setting. Online instructor-led training is known as

virtual instructor-led training, or VILT. This methodology involves face-to-face in-person

training delivered in a classroom, in the presence of an instructor or facilitator. The topical focus
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may be either hands-on use of a computer workstation (e.g., using the ILS) or academic-style

lecture and discussion (e.g., FRBR concepts). This methodology may be used as a component in

a “blended” approach utilizing alternative methodologies.

Advantages

3. This methodology is appropriate when the following considerations are important:

a. A synesthetic experience is desirable -- visual, aural, reading, writing, kinesthetic

b. Flexible delivery in a variety of modes -- lecture, discussion, presentation,

demonstration, hands-on, team-building

c. Presence of an “expert” is desired – “sage on the stage”

d. Human interactivity between participants and instructors/facilitators is desirable

e. Real-time instruction and feedback are important

f. Adaptability to different learning styles and paces

g. Enhanced group interaction/learning from each other

h. The content requires hands-on and/or demonstration to a significant extent

i. A controlled environment is desirable to improve focus, reduce distraction, and

help with technological considerations (e.g., software, browser access, passwords)

j. The target audience is present (i.e., there is no cost or time advantage to avoiding

travel)

k. High completion rates are important

Disadvantages

4. This methodology is not appropriate if the following considerations present obstacles:

a. All participants must be physically present

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b. Travel costs are prohibitive

c. Duration of training is likely considerable

d. Scheduling and logistics are difficult

e. Training would require time away from the job

f. Learning must be rolled-out to all employees simultaneously

g. Personalized or customized instruction is desirable

h. Different learning styles of participants is a key concern

i. Self-paced instruction is desirable

Lecturer Method

5. The lecture method is also a widely used method of instruction, with this method the

lecture becomes the sole disseminator of information. Interaction with the students is often

limited by the lectures when presenting segments of instruction, questions the students frequently

have only the choice of listening to what is being presented. Nira Hativa, an expert in curriculum

and instruction, notes an effective lecture does more than just communicate information: " it

arouses interest and motivation; promotes concentration and attention; identifies and marks the

most important information; and enables effective cognitive processing, storing, and information

retrieval" Charles W. Eliot, a former president of Harvard, put it differently: "The lecturer pumps

laboriously into sieves. The water may be wholesome, but it runs through. A mind must work to

grow"

6. Lecture method of teaching is the oldest teaching method applied in educational

institution. This teaching method is one-way channel of communication of information.

Students’ involvement in this teaching method is just to listen and sometimes pen down some

notes if necessary, during the lecture, combine the information and organized it. One of the
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problems in this method is to grab the attention of students in class room. Another big problem is

that many students in the class cannot follow the theme. Learning has a strong influence on

method of teaching.

7. Advantages

a. In this teaching method a large amount the topics can be covered in a single class

period.

b. Using of this method exclude the using of any equipment or Lab.

c. Learning material is not required.

d. Student listening skills developed.

e. Logical arrangement of the material in order to present it orally

f. Help to learn languages.

8. Disadvantages

a. Psychologically this method is acceptable because individuals are not alike.

Teacher delivers the same lecture to both students without recognizing the

individual differences.

b. Learning is an active process thus study should encourage to actively participate

in the class room instead of just listening the teacher.

c. Language using in the lecture is above the standard of the students. They are not

able get full advantage of the lecture.

d. Lecture are often forgotten by the students soon after while learning is retained if

activities are experienced.

e. Attention level is not the same while student listening the lecture.
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Demonstration Method

9. The Demonstration method is one where the student observes the portrayal of a

procedure, technique, or operation. The demonstration method shows how to do something or

how something works. A method demonstration is a teaching method used to communicate an

idea with the aid of visuals such as flip charts, posters, power point, etc. A demonstration is the

process of teaching someone how to make or do something in a step-by-step process. As you

show how, you “tell” what you are doing. A demonstration always has a finished product. The

key to a good demonstration is for the audience to be able to go home and do what you have

taught them how to do. Demonstration method of teaching is a traditional classroom strategy

used in technical and training colleges and in teacher education. Demonstration Strategy focus to

achieve psychomotor and cognitive objectives. If we talk about its structure, it is given in three

successive steps:

a. Introduction. In this step objectives of the lesson are stated. The teacher

may be called demonstrator. He demonstrates the activity before the student that

is to be developed.

b. Development. Students try to initiate the demonstrated activity. If there is

any query the teacher tries to satisfy them by further demonstration and

illustrations.

c. Integration. At this step, the teacher integrates all the activities and then

these activities are rehearsed revised and evaluated.

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10. This strategy is applied mainly in technical or training institutes. In teacher education

programs it is used to develop skills in the student teacher. At school level, a teacher applies it in

teaching science, biology, nature study arts and crafts.

11. Advantages

a. It helps in involving various sense to make learning permanent

b. Though, teacher behavior is autocratic, he invites the cooperation of pupils in

teaching learning process

c. It develops interest in the learners and motivates them for their active participation

d. It helps in achieving psychomotor objectives

e. Any simple or complex sill becomes easy to understand.

12. Disadvantage

a. It can be used only for skills subjects

b. Only the attention of the learners is invited towards the activity demonstrated.

They are not free to discuss about it

c. Due to poor economic conditions of the government schools, there is scarcity of

audio-visual aids and equipment and the teachers are not so creative to produce

handmade models for demonstration

d. There is a general lack of sincerity and diligence among teachers who wish to

complete the syllabus or syllabi at the earliest without putting sincere efforts.

Practical Exercise Method

13. A practical exercise (PE) may take many forms. Basically, it is a method of training in

which the student actively participates, either individually or as a team member. He or she does
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this by applying previously learned knowledge or skills. All students actively participate

although they may work at their own rate. Students may or may not be required to follow a set

sequence. The various forms of the PE are explained in detail below:

a. Controlled PE: The controlled PE is a form of PE where the student is guided,

step-by-step through a procedure, technique or operation. It is characterized by

two things: (1) Students participate as a class, (2) they are guided through a set

sequence, and students generally complete each step and are checked by the

instructor prior to continuing to the next step. A mistake is corrected before the

student is allowed to proceed to the next step.

Practice Method

14. Students (alone or as part of a team effort) repeatedly perform previously learned actions,

sequences, operations, or procedures. As an instructional strategy, drill & practice is familiar to

all educators. It "promotes the acquisition of knowledge or skill through repetitive practice." It

refers to small tasks such as the memorization of spelling or vocabulary words, or the practicing

of arithmetic facts and may also be found in more sophicated learning tasks or physical

education games and sports. Drill-and-practice, like memorization, involves repetition of specific

skills, such as addition and subtraction, or spelling. To be meaningful to learners, the skills built

through drill-and-practice should become the building blocks for more meaningful learning. Drill

and Practice activities help learners master materials at their own pace. Drills are usually

repetitive and are used as a reinforcement tool. Effective use of drill and practice depends on the

recognition of the type of skill being developed, and the use of appropriate strategies to develop

these competencies. There is a place for drill and practice mainly for the beginning learner or for
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students who are experiencing learning problems. Its use, however, should be kept to situations

where the teacher is certain that it is the most appropriate form of instruction.

15. Drill and practice software packages offer structured reinforcement of previously learned

concepts. They are based on question and answer interactions and should give the student

appropriate feedback. Drill and practice packages may use games to increase motivation.

Teachers who use computers to provide drill and practice in basic skills promote learning

because drill and practice increases student acquisition of basic skills. In a typical software

package of this type, the student is able to select an appropriate level of difficulty at which

questions about specific content materials are set. In most cases the student is motivated to

answer these questions quickly and accurately by the inclusion of a gaming scenario, as well as

colourful and animated graphics. Good drill and practice software provide feedback to students,

explains how to get the correct answer, and contains a management system to keep track of

student progress.

16. There has been a definite move away from paper-based drill and practice systems to

computer-based systems. Drill and practice exercises with appropriate software can enhance the

daily classroom experience. Given the personalized, interactive nature of most software, the

computer can lend itself to providing extended, programmed practice. Used in small doses,

electronic learning experiences can supplement any lesson effectively. Certain software allow

students to reinforce specific skills in a certain subject area. Although not as easily integrated

across the curriculum, drill and practice software can be useful. It usually comes in one of two

formats. The first focuses on a specific subject area or a part of that area. The most common

areas are reading and math. The second type attempts to improve skills in several areas of the
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curriculum. As with all other types of software, the teacher needs to determine if technology is

the best way to work with the subject matter being dealt with.

Case Study or Team Practice

17. The student performs as a member of a group to solve a text book problem with a team

solution or practice completing a sequenced task. Case method is a powerful student-centered

teaching strategy that can impart students with critical thinking, communication, and

interpersonal skills. Having students work through complex, ambiguous, real world problems

engages students with the course material, encouraging them to “see it from an action

perspective, rather than analyze it from a distance” (Angelo & Boehrer). Case studies are, by

their nature, multidisciplinary, and “allow the application of theoretical concepts…bridging the

gap between theory and practice” (Davis & Wilcock). Working on cases requires students to

research and evaluate multiple sources of data, fostering information literacy.

18. Case method is also effective at developing real world, professional skills. Working on

case studies requires good organizational and time management skills. Case method increases

student proficiency with written and oral communication, as well as collaboration and team-

work. “Case studies force students into real-life situations,” training them in managerial skills

such as “holding a meeting, negotiating a contract, giving a presentation, etc” (Daly, 2002).
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19. Michiel R. Leeenders, Louise A. Mauffette-Launders and James Erskine defined a case

as “a description of an actual situation” and explain that it usually involves a challenging

situation or a dilemma which requires analysis of the situation and the environment and leads to

decision making.i Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study research method as an

empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when

the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple

sources of evidence are used. A case study is a documentation of events and situations which

have occurred in an organization or in a business .These events or situations are sequentially

reported and there is also a description of how the person/s concerned reacted to the situation.

20. Case studies report events as they have occurred, with no judgmental opinions of the

author, and thus stimulates the reader to think from his own perspective. The way in which the

managers have responded to the situations or events are documented and this allows the reader to

analyze the facts and make a decision. The most interesting case studies generally allow the

reader to empathize with the key character in the situation and respond to a dilemma or a

challenge. The case study does not focus on getting the right answer; in fact there never is a

single right answer for the case unless it is a mathematical problem. Emphasis is laid on the

manner in which the solution is arrived at, the deliberations involved and the practicality of the

solution. The case study was first used in the field of law and medicine but the credit for

popularizing the case method in management education goes to the Harvard Business School

way back around 1910. It has been an established instructional method for a century. Today it is

used widely in management education, employee training and even as a selection tool. McKinsey

for example has clearly identified that the case study analysis forms a primary method of
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evaluating people on decision making skills and analytical ability and thus employs it as a crucial

selection tool.

21. While the case study and the case method are often confused and the terms used

interchangeably, they actually are not the same thing. A case study is a story about a situation or

event that contains a problem or issue, usually a real situation. The case study usually contains

information about the problem PLUS information about how the situation was addressed, and the

results of the actions taken to solve the problem. The case method also presents a situation or

problem space, and need not be taken from real life. However, it does not tell the learners "what

was done", and neither does it provide any solutions at all. It is up to the learners to generate

possible solutions that might fit the case facts. The latter is more involving for learners, and

forces them into proactive problem solving rather than the former where it is considered as a post

mortem sort of analysis. However, for this article the case study and the case method have been

used to mean one and the same and cover both the real situations as well as the

simulated/fictitious ones.

Types of Cases

22. There are six types of case studies as based on the framework provided by Datta (1990),

though this classification is more related to using the case study as a research tool.

a. Illustrative Case Studies. These are descriptive; they utilize one or two

instances to show what a situation is like. This helps interpret other data, especially

when there is reason to believe that readers know too little about a program.

b. Exploratory Case Studies. These are condensed case studies, undertaken

before implementing a large-scale investigation.

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c. Critical Instance Case Studies. It examine one or a few sites for one of two

purposes. This method is particularly suited for answering cause-and-effect

questions about the instance of concern.

d. Program Implementation Case Studies. It help discern whether

implementation is in compliance with its intent. These case studies are also useful

when concern exists about implementation problems.

e. Program Effects Case Studies. It can determine the impact of programs and

provide inference about reasons for success or failure.

f. Cumulative Case Studies. It aggregate information from several sites collected

at different times. The cumulative case study can be retrospective, collecting

information across studies done in the past, or prospective, structuring a series of

investigations for different times in the future.

The Discussion Method

23. Discussion involves two-way communication between participants. In the classroom

situation an instructor and trainees all participate in discussion. During discussion, the instructor

spends some time listening while the trainees spend sometimes talking. The discussion is,

therefore, a more active learning experience for the trainees than the lecture. A discussion is the

means by which people share experiences, ideas and attitudes. As it helps to foster trainees

involvement in what they are learning, it may contribute to desired attitudinal changes.

Discussion may be used in the classroom for the purpose of lesson development, making trainees

apply what they have learnt or to monitor trainees learning by way of feedback.
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a. Lesson Development. In areas in which trainees already have some

knowledge or experience, discussion may be used to develop the main points to be

covered in a lesson. For example, in safety training many of the procedures and

behaviour that should be observed can be established through discussion with

trainees. Trainees can draw on their experience of working in workshops contract

sites to contribute to the discussion. In discussing some issues, differences of

opinion arise. The discussion can help to clarify the different points of view and

may assist each trainee to define his or her own opinion. Used in this way,

discussion may be more effective in motivating trainees than lectures. Trainees

can see that some importance is attached to their contributions.

b. Application. Discussion may also be used, following a lecture or demonstration,

to help trainees apply what they have learned. The instructor can ask questions,

that help trainees to relate concepts and principles to contexts that are familiar to

the trainees or in which they will ultimately be needed. For example following a

lecture on “types of wood joint”, the instructor may, lead a discussion directing

trainees attention to the places or pieces of furniture where each type is found, and

the reasons for using one type than the other. Used in this way discussion

contributes to the transfer of learning.

c. Feedback. The discussion method also provides an opportunity to monitor

trainees learning. The answers provided by trainees and the questions they ask,

reveal the extent and quality of learning taking place. Instructors can use this

information to repeat or modify an explanation to improve learning. They can also

provide feedback to trainees, thereby helping to reinforce learning that has taken
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place. Discussion used in this way should follow after other methods of classroom

instruction such as lectures, demonstration or practice sessions.

d. Conducting a Discussion. Discussion sessions can be led by the instructor, or

can take place in groups. In either case, the goal is to meet the lesson objectives

by allowing the trainees to:-

(1) Relate relevant personal experiences or events which have occurred in the

work setting.

(2) Contribute ideas or personal opinions.

(3) Apply what has been learned to familiar situations or solving problems.

(4) Express what had been learned.

(5) Whether the discussion is instructor led or takes place in groups it must be

guided by the instructor. It must be focused on the objectives of the lesson:

it is the instructors responsibility to see that the objectives are met. If it is

not properly guided, a discussion can degenerate into a consideration of

inappropriate or unimportant topics adding confusion rather than

clarification to the lesson.

Presentation Model of Teaching

24. When mentoring our pre-service and in-service teachers we need to describe and model

both research-based and clinical best practices. Accordingly our mentees should know about the

Presentation Model of Teaching. The presentation or advance organizer model of teaching is

a teacher-directed and systematically organized way of delivering information to students. This

model involves the four steps that are described below:

The Four Steps of the Presentation Model of Teaching (*Arends, 2001)

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Steps Description Teacher and/or Student Behavior

1 Get students ready to learn, and Teacher is clear about the objective(s)

clarify the objective/s of the and main point(s)

lesson  States the goal(s) of the presentation

 Focuses on one main point at a time

 Avoids digressions

• Avoids ambiguity

2 Present the advance organizer Teacher goes through the lesson in a

logical step-by-step progression

 Presents materials in small steps

 Presents students with an outline if

the material is complex

3 Present new information  Teacher gives specific examples

 Gives detailed explanations of

difficult points

 Provides students with concrete and

varied examples

 Models or illustrates ideas when

possible

4 Check for student Teacher checks for student understanding

understanding, and extend and  Makes certain students understand

strengthen thinking skills one point before going on to next

point
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 Asks questions to monitor student

comprehension

 Asks students to summarize or

paraphrase main points

 Explains in a different way when

students appear confused

Direct Method of Teaching

25. The direct method of teaching was developed as a response to the Grammar-Translation

method. It sought to immerse the learner in the same way as when a first language is learnt. All

teaching is done in the target language, grammar is taught inductively, there is a focus on

speaking and listening, and only useful ‘everyday' language is taught.

Example

The teacher explains new vocabulary using realia, visual aids or demonstrations.

In the classroom

Aspects of the Direct Method are still evident in many ELT classrooms, such as the emphasis on

listening and speaking, the use of the target language for all class instructions, and the use of

visuals and realia to illustrate meaning.

What’s the Direct Method?

26. It’s the teaching method that puts grammar—its rules, morphology, syntax—at the

forefront. Meaning, language is taught by analyzing the different elements of language and

explicitly prescribing correct ways of combining those elements. A teacher composing a sample

sentence on the board, and then labeling the words as nouns, verbs and adjectives while
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explaining how they relate to each other, is using grammar-translation method to teach language.

The approach is usually championed in textbooks where the different parts of speech have their

own chapters and, at the end of each chapter, practice exercises abound. The direct method is

also known as “the natural method” because it looks to the process of first language

acquisition to set the context and techniques for second language acquisition. When we learned

our mother tongue, we didn’t go through grammar lessons and translation drills. So, how did we

learn our first language?

27. The Principles of the Direct Method

a. Language is learned inductively

b. Only the target language is used

c. Speaking is supreme

28. Direct Method Teaching Techniques

a. Example proliferation

b. Visual support

c. Listening activities

d. Oral exercises and tasks

e. Stress free and supportive environment

Concept Teaching Method

29. Concept Teaching. Models of Instruction. Concept Teaching Instructional Strategy.

Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and the development of
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logical reasoning & critical thinking. May be deductive (rule to example) or inductive. It

Involves the learning of specific concepts, the nature of concepts, and the development of logical

reasoning & critical thinking, may be deductive (rule to example) or inductive (example to rule)

a. Phases of Concept Teaching. Proceeds through 4 primary phases:

(1) Clarify goals & conditions

(2) Illustrate examples & nonexamples

(3) Students provide examples & nonexamples to demonstrate attainment of

concept

(4) Guide students to think about their own thinking (examine their decisions,

consequences of choices, how concept fits in with bigger picture)

b. Using Concept Teaching in the Classroom. Select Big Idea concepts and

determine the best approach:

(1) Inductive through direct presentation of the concept first, or

(2) Deductive (concept attainment) through examples/nonexamples & guided

discovery

(3) Clarify aims/establish a “hook” to draw students in

(4) Proceed through the selected inductive or deductive approach using

examples & nonexamples

(5) Get students to demonstrate their understanding

(6) Employ higher-level questioning & discussion strategies -- help students

analyze their own thinking processes.

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Discovery Method of Teaching

30. Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in

problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and

existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned. It is

situational method or philosophy of teaching whereby students are permitted to find solutions to

problems on their own or at their own pace, often jointly in group activities, either

independent of or under the guidance of a teacher unstructured. It is also referred to as problem-

based learning, experiential learning and 21st century learning. It is supported by the work of

learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seymour Papert. Although

this form of instruction has great popularity, there is some debate in the literature concerning its

efficacy.

a. Characteristic of Discovery Based Learning. Discovery-based learning is

typically characterized by having minimal teacher guidance, fewer teacher

explanations, solving problems with multiple solutions, use of hand-on materials,

minimal repetition and memorization. There are multiple essential components

that are required for successful discovery-based learning, which include the

following:

(1) Teacher guidance where the emphasis is on building upon students’

reasoning and connecting to their experiences

(2) Classroom culture where there is a shared sense of purpose between

teacher and students, where open-mindedness and dialogue are encouraged

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(3) Students are encouraged to ask questions, inquire through exploration and

collaborate with teacher and peers