Applications of High Voltage:

HVAC Power Transmission:

The world’s population is getting increased and global energy consumption is growing up.
Therefore, the needs of several types of renewable energy resources such as hydropower, wind,
sun, tides, geothermal, waves, biomass sources are required besides to coal, fossil fuels, natural
gas and minerals. But sometimes generation places of these resources are not close to
consumers. For transferring high power from sources of generation to countries or regions
which are growing faster is becoming significant [1] [2]. Larger amounts of electric power
transferring for longer distances could be required to higher transmission voltage. Nowadays,
it could be met by using High Voltage (HV) and Ultra High Voltage (UHV). Ranges of 52 kV
- 300 kV and 800 kV and above are the voltage of HV and UHV, respectively [3]. While
transferring energy to longer distances, the more energy losses could be occurred. The energy
losses could be prevented by increasing the voltage above 800 kV with UHV transmission lines
which achieve efficiency and lower transmission costs [4]. Furthermore, UHV transmission
provides to use clean energy sources for producing electricity which is resulted in a reduction
of environmental impacts such as emissions, air pollutions and climate changes. Other
advantages of UHV technology are: increased transmission capacity, extended transmission
distance, reduced transmission losses and also reduced land requirements [5].
The studies related to UHV transmission technologies began in Russia, Japan, the United States
of America (USA), Italy, Canada, and Brazil in 1960s and 1970s. In addition, China started
UHVAC transmission projects in 1986. China, India and South Africa have been still studying
on UHVDC transmission. The first UHV studies in Russia (The Former USSR) were appeared
in 1970s. At the beginning of the 1990s, 1150 kV AC transmission lines (2362 km) were
established but later voltage level was decreased to 500 kV. In addition 1090 km and ±750 kV
DC transmission lines were built in the beginning of 1980s. In Japan the studies about UHV
transmission technology started in 1973 [6]. Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)
constructed to 1100 kV transmission lines which aim to connect power station to crowded
countries/regions in 1993 and also in 1999 power sources on the Pacific Ocean were connected
with the transmission lines. In 2000s those routes were operated at 550 kV although they were
constructed at 1100 kV which could provide 3 to 4 times greater capacity [7]. UHV
transmission studies started in 1967 in the USA. Transmitting bulk power, developing system
stability and reducing environment impacts were aimed by using new transmission systems.
The facilities which performed UHV studies were General Electric Company (GE), the Electric
Power Research Institute (EPRI), the American Electric Power Company (AEP), and the
Bonneville Power Administration (BPA). In recent years, it could be said that the U.S. has little
activity on UHV transmission technologies as compared with China [5]. The CU Powerline
and Square Butte Projects which were included North American grid HVDC projects were
studied for delivering the power among the cities such as From North Dakota to Minneapolis,
Minnesota and Duluth, Minnesota, respectively. Two projects called Neptune and Trans Bay
Cable were constructed by Siemens Company. Neptune project proposed to link Long Island
and New Jersey transfers 660 MW over 65 miles. The second project, a 53 miles 400 MW
Trans Bay Cable carries bulk power into San Francisco Bay. HV DC and AC transmission
projects are Illinois River Project, Rock Island Clean Line LLC Project and the other
transmission line projects are The Plains and Eastern Clean Line Transmission Project, The
Centennial West Clean Transmission Line Project and The Grain Belt Express Clean Line
Transmission Project which are planned to be done [8]. In Italy, UHV studies were done in the
laboratories and testing stations that A 700 kV generator was used in 1970s. In Canada, at the
HV laboratory of Hydro-Que’bec Institute of Research (IREQ) studies related to voltages up
to 1500 kV were performed. Test studies such as Corona, electric field and ion current
performance were researched in the range of ±600 kV to 1200 kV DC and 1500 kV AC. Also
at Magdalen Islands, test line was built vibration performance test of 6 and 12 conductor
bundles and development of spacer dampers [6]. The Project, 550 miles and 3.8 GW of
capacity, called The Nelson River in Canada links to hydroelectric sources which are located
in Northern Manitoba to population centers in Southern Manitoba. Between 1990 and 1992,
The Quebec-New England Project, have over 930 miles and 2 GW of capacity, was instructed
from Hudson Bay (in Quebec) to Massachusetts (near Boston) [8]. FACTS, a technology that
enforces the weak AC grids and stabilizes AC transmission to longer distances, is the world’s
biggest project in India (at Purnea and Gorakhpur). Hydropower from Bhutan over long
distances are achieved by this Project [9]. India is establishing lines with ultrahigh voltages of
±800 kV. Nowadays India has still been studying on the world’s the first ultrahigh voltage
power transmission lines at 1200 kV with participants such as Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd,
Vijai Electricals Ltd, Crompton Greaves, Larsen & Toubro, Siemens, Alstom India, KEC
International, Supreme & Co [10]. In Brazil, transmitting the bulk power from Amazon Basin
to the load centers at far distances was required using transmission lines above 1000 kV. Since
1984, Brazil has used to the world’s highest voltage and capacity system called The Itaipu
transmission line at ±600 kV [6]. In 2014, 2400 km HVDC link was instructed in Brazil. It is
the world’s longest link for carrying 3150 MW of power in the northwest to Sao Paulo [11]. In
2014, a consortium led by SGCC won a 30-year concession to build and operate a 2000-km
(1240-mile), 800 kV UHV line in Brazil. The transmission system will carry power from the
Belo Monte dam in northern Brazil to the major consumption centers in the southeast [12].
China is a leader developing country for UHV technologies in the World. The largest number
of HVDC links are available in China. Because of faster developing industries, demand of
power generation and power transmission is increasing. Due to prevent high energy losses, 800
kV - 1100 kV UHDC and 1000 kV UHVAC voltage levels are preferred. Seven transmission
lines are in operation in China [9] [12]. In December 2014, the world’s largest power grid
operator, State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC), declared that 13 UHV transmission lines
are planned to built by 2017 and 27 UHV transmission lines are intended to construct by 2020
[13] [14]. UHV projects in China are summarized in terms of in operation, under construction
and waiting final approval (Figure 1) [15]. As mentioned before, Russia, Japan, the U.S. and
Italy had performed studies and tests related to UHV transmission between the 1960s and
1990s. By the reason of political factors and a decrease in demand, projects about UHV has
not been completed [16].
HVDC Power transmission:
HVDC stands for high voltage direct current, a well-proven technology used to transmit
electricity over long distances by overhead transmission lines or submarine cables. It is
also used to interconnect separate power systems, where traditional alternating current
(AC) connections cannot be used.

In an HVDC system, electric power is taken from one point in a three-phase AC network,
converted to DC in a converter station, transmitted to the receiving point by an overhead line
or cable and then converted back to AC in another converter station and injected into the
receiving AC network. Typically, an HVDC transmission has a rated power of more than 100
MW and many are in the 1,000 – 3,000 MW range.

With an HVDC system, the power flow can be controlled rapidly and accurately in terms of
both power level and direction. This possibility is often used to improve the performance and
efficiency of the connected AC networks. ABB pioneered HVDC technology and is the world
leader in the HVDC field. In total, about 130,000 MW HVDC transmission capacity is installed
in more than 140 projects worldwide. ABB has delivered more than 75 of these projects with
a total transmission capacity of almost 60,000 MW. The largest bipole delivered by ABB to
date is 6,400 MW. There are three different categories of HVDC transmission projects:

- Point-to-point transmission

- Back-to-back stations

- Multi-terminal systems.

The first commercial HVDC scheme, based on mercury arc valves was commissioned in 1954.
This was a link between the Swedish mainland and the island of Gotland in the Baltic sea. The
power rating was 20 MW and the transmission voltage 100 kV There was a significant
improvement in HVDC technology in 1970 when thyristor valves were introduced in place of
the mercury arc valves. This reduced the size and complexity of HVDC converter stations
substantially. The use of microcomputer control equipment in today’s projects has also
contributed to HVDC’s current success as a powerful alternative to AC power transmission.

In 1995 ABB announced a new concept for HVDC converter stations, HVDC with Capacitor
Commutated Converters (CCC), which further improves the performance of HVDC
transmissions. And in 1997 a completely new converter and DC cable technology called HVDC
Light was introduced.

WHY HVDC?

The reasons for selecting HVDC instead of AC for a specific project are often numerous and
complex. The most common arguments in its favour are:

1. Lower investment cost

2. Long distance water crossing

3. Lower losses

4. Asynchronous interconnections
5. Controllability

6. Limited short-circuit currents

7. Environment.

In general, the different reasons for using HVDC fall into two main groups, namely: - HVDC
is necessary or desirable from the technical point of view (that is controllability). - HVDC
results in a lower total investment (including lower losses) and/or is environmentally superior.

In many cases, projects are justified by a combination of benefits from the two groups.
Environmental aspects are also increasingly important and HVDC has the advantage of a lower
environmental impact than AC since the transmission lines are much smaller and need less
space for the same power capacity. One of the most important differences between HVDC and
AC is the possibility to accurately control the active power transmitted on a HVDC line. This
is in contrast to AC lines, where the power flow cannot be controlled in the same direct way.
The controllability of the HVDC power is often used to improve the operating conditions of
the AC networks where the converter stations are located.

Another important property of an HVDC transmission is that it allows the interconnection of

asynchronous networks.

Testing with power frequency voltages:

To assess the ability of the apparatus’s insulation withstand under the system’s power
frequency voltage the apparatus is subjected to the 1-minute test under 50Hz or 60Hz
depending upon the country. The test voltage is set at a level higher than the expected working
voltage in order to be able to simulate the stresses likely to be encountered over the years of
service. For indoor installations the equipment tests are carried out under dry conditions only.
For outdoor equipment tests may be required under conditions of standard rain as prescribed
in the appropriate standards.

Testing with lightning impulse voltages

Lightning strokes terminating on transmission lines will induce steep rising voltages in the line
and set up travelling waves along the line and may damage the system’s insulation. The
magnitude of these overvoltages may reach several thousand kilovolts, depending upon the
insulation. Exhaustive measurements and long experience have shown that lightning
overvoltages are characterized by short front duration, ranging from a fraction of a microsecond
to several tens of microseconds and then slowly decreasing to zero. The standard impulse
voltage has been accepted as an aperiodic impulse that reaches its peak value in 1.2µsec and
then decreases slowly (in about 50µsec) to half its peak value. Full details of the waveshape of
the standard impulse voltage together with the permitted tolerances are presented in Chapter 2,
and the prescribed test procedures are discussed in Chapter 8. In addition to testing equipment,
impulse voltages are extensively used in research laboratories in the fundamental studies of
electrical discharge mechanisms, notably when the time to breakdown is of interest.
Testing with switching impulses
Transient overvoltages accompanying sudden changes in the state of power systems, e.g.
switching operations or faults, are known as switching impulse voltages. It has become
generally recognized that switching impulse voltages are usually the dominant factor affecting
the design of insulation in h.v. power systems for rated voltages of about 300kV and above.
Accordingly, the various international standards recommend that equipment designed for
voltages above 300kV be tested for switching impulses. Although the waveshape of switching
overvoltages occurring in the system may vary widely, experience has shown that for flashover
distances in atmospheric air of practical interest the lowest withstand values are obtained with
surges with front times between 100 and 300µsec. Hence, the recommended switching surge
voltage has been designated to have a front time of about 250µsec and halfvalue time of
2500µsec. For GIS (gas-insulated switchgear) on-site testing, oscillating switching impulse
voltages are recommended for obtaining higher efficiency of the impulse voltage generator Full
details relating to generation, measurements and test procedures in testing with switching surge
voltages will be found in Chapters 2, 3 and 8.

D.C. voltages:
In the past d.c. voltages have been chiefly used for purely scientific research work. Industrial
applications were mainly limited to testing cables with relatively large capacitance, which take
a very large current when tested with a.c. voltages, and in testing insulations in which internal
discharges may lead to degradation of the insulation under testing conditions. In recent years,
with the rapidly growing interest in HVDC transmission, an increasing number of industrial
laboratories are being equipped with sources for producing d.c. high voltages. Because of the
diversity in the application of d.c. high voltages, ranging from basic physics experiments to
industrial applications, the requirements on the output voltage will vary accordingly. Detailed
description of the various main types of HVDC generators is given in Chapter 2.

Testing with very low-frequency voltage:

In the earlier years when electric power distribution systems used mainly paper-insulated lead
covered cables (PILC) on-site testing specifications called for tests under d.c. voltages.
Typically the tests were carried out at 4–4.5V0. The tests helped to isolate defective cables
without further damaging good cable insulation. With the widespread use of extruded
insulation cables of higher dielectric strength, the test voltage levels were increased to 5–8V0.
In the 1970s premature failures of extruded dielectric cables factory tested under d.c. voltage
at specified levels were noted.

Dielectric withstand test:

A dielectric withstand test or high potential or hipot test is an electrical test performed on a
component or product to determine the effectiveness of its insulation. The test may be between
mutually insulated sections of a part or energized parts and electrical ground. The test is a
means to qualify a device's ability to operate safely during rated electrical conditions. [1] If
the current through a device under test is less than a specified limit at the required test potential
and time duration, the device meets the dielectric withstand requirement. A dielectric withstand
test may be done as a factory test on new equipment, or may be done on apparatus already in
service as a routine maintenance test.[2]
Voltage withstand testing is done with a high voltage source and voltage and current meters. A
single instrument called a "hipot tester" is often used to perform this test. It applies the
necessary voltages to a device and monitors leakage current. The current can trip a fault
indicator. The tester has output overload protection. The test voltage may be either direct
current or alternating current at power frequency or other frequency, like resonant frequency
(30 to 300 Hz determined by load) or VLF (0.01 Hz to 0.1 Hz), when convenient. The
maximum voltage is given in the test standard for the particular product. The application rate
may also be adjusted to manage leakage currents resulting from inherent capacitive effects of
the test object. The duration of the test may be up to 60 seconds or more. The applied voltage,
rate of application and test duration depend on the specification requirements of the equipment.
Different test standards apply for consumer electronics, military electrical devices, high voltage
cables, switchgear and other apparatus.[2]
Typical hipot equipment leakage current trip limit settings range between 0.5 and 20 mA[3] and
are set by the user according to test object characteristics and rate of voltage application. The
objective is to choose a current setting that will not cause the tester to falsely trip during voltage
application, while at the same time, selecting a value that minimizes possible damage to the
device under test should an inadvertent discharge or breakdown occur.

Cable Testing:

 Withstand Testing
 Tan Delta
 Partial Discharge
 Insulation Resistance
 Sheath Testing
 Concentric Neutral Testing

Cable Fault Location

 Primary Cable Fault Locators

 Complete Fault Locating Systems
 Time Domain Reflectometer
 Acoustic/Magnetic Pinpoint Location

Dielectric breakdown testing:

Dielectric breakdown testing answers the question, "How much voltage can I apply between
the wires before the insulation fails?" The test increases the voltage until the current increases.
This method finds the highest voltage the cable can stand before it fails. Once the cable fails,
it is usually damaged or destroyed.
Hipot Test:
Many people are familiar with a continuity test. A continuity test checks for "good
connections,” meaning current will flow from one point to its destination point. If current
flows easily enough then the points are connected. Many people are less familiar with a hipot
test. "Hipot" is short for high potential (high voltage).

A hipot test checks for "good isolation." A hipot test checks that no current flows between
points where there should be no current. In some ways a hipot test is the opposite of a
continuity test.

Continuity Test: "Makes sure current flows easily from one point to another point."

Hipot Test: "Makes sure current does not flow between points where there should be no flow
(using high voltage to ensure current does not flow)."

A hipot test takes two conductors that should be isolated and applies a very high voltage
between the conductors. The current that flows is watched. If too much current flows the
points are not well isolated and they fail the test.

A hipot test checks for good isolation between the parts of a circuit. Having good isolation
helps to guarantee the safety and quality of electrical circuits. Hipot tests are helpful in
finding

 nicked or crushed insulation

 stray wire strands or braided shielding
 conductive or corrosive contaminants around the conductors
 terminal spacing problems
 tolerance errors in IDC cables
All of these conditions might cause a device to fail.