GAS CAP AND COMBINATION DRIVE RESERVOIRS

Reservoir Engineering-II
Feb 2017

Dr. Syed M. Tariq

Professor on PPL Chair

Petroleum Engineering Dept.

NED University of Engineering and Technology

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 GAS CAP AND COMBINATION DRIVE RESERVOIRS
LECTURE SUMMARY OUTLINE

I. OBJECTIVES

II. GAS-CAP DRIVE MECHANISM

A. CONDITIONS FOR A GAS CAP
B. GAS-CAP DRIVE ENERGY
C. REQUIREMENTS FOR EFFECTIVE GAS-CAP DRIVE
D. PRODUCING CHARACTERISTICS
E. SECONDARY GAS CAP FORMATION
F. MATERIAL BALANCE FOR GAS CAP RESERVOIRS
G. MATERIAL BALANCE FOR PARTIALLY UNDER SATURATED
RESERVOIRS
H. DEPTH-VOLUME CURVES
I. RECOVERY EFFICIENCY AND AVERAGE RESIDUAL OIL SATURATION
CALCULATION (CLASSICAL METHOD)
J. ALTERNATE MATERIAL BALANCE METHOD (TOTAL GAS BALANCE)
K. FACTORS INFLUENCING GAS CAP DRIVE RECOVERY EFFICIENCY
L. SUMMARY

III. COMBINATION DRIVE MECHANISM

A. RESPONSE/REACTION TIME
B. GEOLOGIC MAKE-UP
C. PRODUCING FACTORS AFFECTING CONTRIBUTION OF EACH
MECHANISM
D. MATERIAL BALANCE FOR COMBINATION DRIVE RESERVOIRS
E. DRIVE INDICES
F. PREDICTING FUTURE RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE
G. SUMMARY

IV. MAJOR RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT & SURVEILLANCE PROBLEMS

A. GAS CAP SHRINKAGE

B. GAS CAP TILTING
C. GAS CAP MIGRATION
D. THIN OIL COLUMNS

(Note: Figures refer to the slides in the powerpoint presentation)

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I. OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this lecture are threefold (Figure 2):

A. Develop the basic fundamentals of the gas-cap drive mechanism.

B. Analyze the performance of combination drive reservoirs by using the basic
principles developed from the study of the gas-cap drive, solution-gas
drive, and water drive mechanism.
C. Examine major problem areas associated with combination drive reservoirs
and ways to improve reservoir performance.

II. GAS CAP DRIVE MECHANISM

A. Conditions for a Gas Cap (Figure 4)

The combination of reservoir temperature and pressure must be such that

there are more light hydrocarbons present that can be dissolved in the oil.
Bottom-hole temperature generally does not change significantly during the
producing life of a given reservoir. Therefore, pressure is the main
parameter which affects hydrocarbon phase behavior. At original
conditions, the associated oil column is saturated and at its bubble point.

B. Gas-Cap Drive Energy (Figure 6)

A gas cap contains 'stored expansion energy'. As the reservoir pressure

drops, the energy for producing the oil is provided by the expansion of the
gas cap into the oil zone. Relative to oil and water, gas is highly
compressible and highly mobile. Solution-gas drive is always present to
some degree in a gas-cap drive reservoir.

C. Requirements for Effective Gas-Cap Drive (Figure 7)

1. Large Gas Cap - The larger the gas cap is to the oil zone, the more
effective the gas cap is in maintaining reservoir pressure. The size
of the gas cap is usually expressed relative to the size of the oil
zone by the ratio m, where

Initial reservoir free gas volume GBgi

m  
Initial reservoir oil volume NBoi

2. Continuous Uniform Formations - This reduces the channeling of

the expanding gas cap ahead of the oil and the bypassing of oil in
the less permeable sand section.

3. Good Communication/Gas Cap and Oil Zone - Gas cap drive cannot
be effective if the reservoir is not continuous between the gas cap
and oil column. Shale barriers and low vertical permeability are two
conditions which can cause an ineffective gas cap drive.

4. Good Gravity Segregation Characteristics - Thick oil-bearing section

or high dip angle, high permeability, low oil viscosity, and low
producing rate. Gravity segregation will usually be effective in
increasing the efficiency of the basic drive mechanism.

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D. Producing Characteristics (Figure 8)

1. Reservoir Pressure - Generally declines slowly and continuously.

The pressure drop in a gas cap drive reservoir is usually
proportional to cumulative oil production unless excess free gas is
produced. In addition, the rate of pressure decline depends on the
size of the gas cap relative to the oil zone. If the cap is large in
comparison to the oil zone, the pressure drop will tend to be
smaller.

2. Producing Gas-Oil Ratio - Remains low until the expanding cap

invades up structure producing wells. High GOR wells should
usually be shut-in to conserve reservoir energy by reducing the
amount of free gas cap production. (Figure 8)

3. Water Production - Negligible or non-existent where gas-cap drive is

the only producing mechanism.

4. Well Producing Life - Generally is long if a large cap exists that

maintains a high reservoir pressure.

5. Oil Recovery - In reservoirs where conditions favor gravity

segregation, gas cap drive recovery may be 65-80% of the OOIP. In
thin, horizontal reservoirs, where gravity segregation has little
chance to aid recovery, gas cap drive will normally yield only 25-
40% of the initial oil. Oil recovery is dependent upon gas-cap size
(pressure maintenance), and reservoir rock properties.

E. Secondary Gas Cap Formation (Figure 10)

Some reservoirs without an initial gas cap may develop a cap during its
producing life. These secondary caps result from released solution gas
migrating to the structural crest. A thin zone of high gas saturation near
the top of the formation can provide a path for the released gas to reach the
crest. Some vertical permeability is required for this released gas to reach
this high gas saturation path at the top of the sand. If gas had to move up
dip along the bedding planes, the gas saturation in the entire reservoir
would have to become high enough to provide enough gas mobility to
travel these long distances. Under the latter condition, some of the gas
may preferentially move towards producing wells and be produced as in the
classic dissolved gas drive reservoir.

When developing a reservoir that has the potential to form a secondary gas
cap, wells should not be completed in intervals that could potentially
develop high gas saturation -- such as at the top of the formation and the
structural crest. If wells completed near the crest of the formation produce
at much higher GOR's than other wells, they should be shut-in, if possible,
to conserve reservoir energy and to allow the gas cap to form.

The rate of secondary gas cap formation is limited by the total amount of
solution gas released in the reservoir and by the rate of oil drainage from
the crestal areas. The oil drainage rate is proportional to oil mobility, dip
angle, the cross-sectional area open to flow, and the density difference
between oil and gas. The total released gas in a given time is the remaining
oil volume times the change in the solution GOR.

Released solution gas = N - Np Rsi Rs 

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F. Material Balance for Gas Cap Reservoirs

Figure 11 represents a tank schematic of the material balance for a gas cap
reservoir with no water influx:

ORIGINAL OIL VOLUME = REMAINING OIL VOLUME + RELEASED

GAS VOLUME + GAS CAP EXPANSION VOLUME

OR

NBoi = (N-Np)Bo + [NRsi - (N-Np)Rs - Gps]Bg - GpcBg + G(Bg-Bgi)

(Figure 12)

An alternate method and more typical expression this equation is as

follows:

NBoi = (N-Np)Bo + [NRsi - (N-Np)Rs - Gp]Bg + G(Bg -Bgi)

Note that Gp (total gas production) has been substituted for Gps (solution
gas) and Gpc (gas cap gas), since it is generally impossible to distinguish
between gas cap and solution gas in the producing stream. The alternate
equation assumes that both the gas cap and solution gas have the same
properties.

OOIP and OGIP are generally determined volumetrically from appropriate

reservoir description data which must include the depth of the gas-oil and
oil-water contacts. For future pressure-production performance of a gas-
cap reservoir, Np is calculated directly for any future pressure level. The
accuracy of future prediction is influenced by the estimates of future
GOR's. As long as no free gas is produced from the gas cap, GOR's will
remain low, and the pressure drop will be proportional to cumulative oil
production for most of the reservoir life. The rate of pressure decline
depends on the value of m. Of course, if excess gas cap gas is produced,
resulting in high GOR's, even a very large gas cap cannot be effective in
maintaining reservoir pressure.

G. Material Balance for Partially Under saturated Reservoirs

A partially under saturated reservoir may exist in relatively thick reservoirs

with high structural closure. Fluid gradients may cause a pressure
difference of several hundred psi between the top and base of the reservoir.
If the reservoir fluid properties are constant throughout the interval, the
bubble point pressure (Pb) may exist at a given level in the reservoir
(initially at the G/O contact). In this case, gas is released from oil above this
level but not from oil below. As reservoir pressure continues to drop, the
bubble point level will move down until it reaches the base of the reservoir.
When this occurs, the general material balance equation can be used.
However, a special procedure is required for the period when the reservoir
is partially under saturated.

The key points for material balance analysis of a partially under saturated
reservoir are as follow (Figure 13):

1. The reservoir is divided into two pressure regions, above and below
the bubble point.

2. Each region is represented by an average pressure for material

balance.

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3. The reservoir properties are weight-averaged by the OOIP from the
two regions.

The following is an example of this procedure. Figure 14 represents the

pressure profiles for a thick reservoir with constant fluid properties. Note
that initially, the entire reservoir was above the bubble point pressure, but
pressure increases with depth due to the fluid gradient. Pressure profiles
are also shown at several time periods after production start.

@ t1: Pressure at the top is just at the bubble point, which would
be the initial condition if an original gas cap existed.

@ t2: Bubble point exists at some point within the reservoir, so

part of the oil has released some of its gas. As pressure
declines, the depth to the Pb becomes greater.

@ t3: Pb reaches the base of the reservoir.

At any time during which the reservoir is partially under saturated, the
average Bo factor used to obtain the reservoir oil volume must be
determined as follows:

Bo(ab)Nab Bo(bb)Nbb
Bo 
N Np

Where:

Pab = Average reservoir pressure above bubble point

Pbb = Average reservoir pressure below bubble point
Bo(ab) = Bo @ Pab
Bo(bb) = Bo @ Pbb
Nab = Current OIP in portion of reservoir above Pb
Nbb = Current OIP in portion of reservoir below Pb

Therefore,

Reservoir oil volume  N Np B o

This equation is used for a partially under saturated reservoir because Bo

reaches a maximum at the bubble point and decreases as pressure
increases or decreases (Figure 15). Thus, the average pressure for a
partially under saturated reservoir is not sufficient to describe the average
Bo value.

Released gas volume must also be modified while the reservoir is partially
under saturated. Recall from the generalized material balance equation that

Released Gas Volume = [NRsi - (N-Np)Rs - Gps] Bg

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 If some of the oil is still above Pb, no gas has been released. Therefore, the
reservoir must be divided into two pressure regions above and below Pb.
The following equation describes the reservoir volume of the released gas:

Released Gas Volume = [(N-Nab)Rsi - NbbRs - Gps] Bg

Where:

Rs = Solution gas-oil ratio @ Pbb (SCF/STB)

Bg = Gas formation volume factor @ Pbb (RB/SCF)
Gps = Cumulative produced solution gas (SCF)

Many high closure reservoirs have solution GOR's which decrease with
depth. For such reservoirs, a method must be devised to determine what
quantity of the reservoir is under saturated at a given average pressure and
to calculate the amount of released solution gas. Generally, the material
balance equation is applicable with modifications for calculating the
average Bo and released reservoir gas volume.

H. Depth-Volume (DV) Curves

The most reliable method for the early determination of the volumes of
fluids originally in place is the volumetric method. The depth-volume curve
is a useful tool which can be used to determine the invaded hydrocarbon
volumes by monitoring the G/O and O/W contact movements. This is a plot
of the original volume, usually in acre-feet, of the gas cap gas and oil zone
lying above the original O/W contact (Figure 16). Although the DV-curve
units are in acre-feet, occasionally the units will be plotted in 'pore volume'.
In this case, porosity and the conversion constant (7758 bbls/acft) have
already been applied to the net acre feet. Porosity may be a single value for
the entire reservoir, or it may be derived from an iso-porosity map drawn for
the reservoirs. An alternative unit is 'hydrocarbon pore volume'. In this
case, the additional factor (1- Swi) has been applied to the total pore
volume. Connate water saturation may be a single value, or it may be
derived from an iso-water saturation map.

The DV-curve can be constructed in a variety of ways. One method is to

first construct a total net sand isopach map and superimpose a structure
map upon it. The reservoir volume is calculated in successive contour
intervals by using a planimeter and is corrected for wedge zone
truncations. However, DV-curves and tables are generally generated
automatically using modern computer mapping methods.

I. Recovery Efficiency and Average Residual Oil Saturation Calculation

(Classical Method)

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The most reliable source of data for estimating overall recovery efficiency is
the actual observed performance of the reservoir. With knowledge of the
depth of the G/O contact after some production and some significant
movement of the contact, the cumulative recovery efficiency and the
average residual oil saturation in the invaded zone can be calculated.
Recall from previous lectures that:

ED= Displacement Efficiency

EI = Vertical Sweep Efficiency
E A= Areal Sweep Efficiency
EV = Volumetric Sweep Efficiency = EI x E A
ER = Recovery Efficiency = ED x EV

The Reservoir Efficiency is the reservoir barrels of oil displaced by the gas
cap as a fraction of the oil volume invaded by the cap. Since the displaced
reservoir volume of oil equals the gas cap expansion volume, the following
equation can be written for recovery efficiency:

TOTAL GAS CAP EXPANSION

ER,GD = GAS-INVADED OIL VOLUME
The steps for calculating ER are as follows (Figures 17 and 18):

1. Using a depth-volume curve, determine the total acre-feet reservoir

volume above the current observed position of the G/O contact.
The difference between this volume and the original gas cap volume
is the invaded oil zone volume.

2. Convert this volume to the OOIP volume in acre-feet.

OOIP EZ ,RB 77581 S wi Gas - invaded oil zone in acft 
3. From observed pressure, OGIP, and cumulative gas cap gas
production, calculate the gas cap expansion. Assuming there has
been no up-dip migration of evolved solution gas, this is the volume
of gas occupying the invaded zone.

Gas cap expansion = (G-Gpc)Bgc - GBgci

4. Since one reservoir barrel of gas cap expansion necessarily

displaces one reservoir barrel of oil, calculate ER.

ER = [ (G-Gpc)Bgc - GBgci]
(OOIP)EZ

The average residual oil saturation in the gas cap expansion zone can
likewise be calculated as follows (Figure 19):

1. Invaded oil zone pore volume (Vp) = 7758 x porosity x

(invaded acre-feet)

2. Gas volume now occupying invaded zone =

G G B
pc gc  GB gci 

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 3. Average gas saturation = Gas volume/Pore volume in
invaded zone

4. Average residual oil saturation:

Sor 1 Sg S wi

5. And lastly,

ER  (1 Swi  Sor )
(1  Swi )

These calculated values of recovery efficiency and average residual oil

saturation reflect the combined effects of displacement efficiency and
volumetric sweep efficiency.

Gas cap drive recovery efficiencies vary widely, but generally, it is a much
more efficient mechanism than dissolved gas drive. It is most strongly
influenced by factors that affect gravity segregation of oil and gas.
Recovery efficiencies typically range from 25-65% of the OOIP, with the
average being 50%. However, recoveries as high as 80% have been
reported. In thin, highly stratified, or flat reservoirs, recovery is apt to be
only 25-30%, only slightly better than dissolved gas drive.

PROBLEM 1

J. Alternate Material Balance Method (Total Gas Balance)

A more general and practical method for calculating gas drive recovery
efficiency is called the 'Total Gas Balance' method. (Figures 20 and 21) In
the previously described 'Classical Method', percolation of the liberated
solution gas to the gas cap was not included. However, it can be a
significant part of a gas cap drive mechanism. If a reservoir has any dip
and reasonable permeability, gas will rapidly percolate to the cap after Sg
reaches the critical gas saturation (Sgc). It will otherwise be produced.

The Total Gas Balance method assumes that Sg in the oil zone = Sgc, the
pressure has declined sufficiently and that all liberated gas above Sgc has
percolated to the gas cap or has been produced. Additionally, the current
G/O contact data or GCE volume must be known. The method is outlined
as follows (Figures 22 and 23):

1. Original total gas in place gas = Cap + solution gas

2. Remaining total gas in reservoir = (Cap + solution gas) -

cumulative total gas prod.
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 3. Calculate known or best estimated reservoir gas volumes

a. Original gas cap -- converted to current pressure

b. Dissolved gas -- current Rs applied to remaining oil
c. Free gas (@ Sgc) in remaining oil zone (uninvaded by
gas)

4. Calculate free gas volume in gas cap expansion zone

5. Convert to gas saturation, residual oil saturation, and gas drive

recovery efficiency.

Note that this method uses total gas production, which is normally the only
volume available. By difference, it calculates the free gas volume in the
gas-invaded oil zone. Recovery efficiency is calculated in the same manner
as in the classical method. The assumption regarding Sgc existing in the
uninvaded oil zone is important. If reservoir pressure has declined
substantially but then increased -- perhaps due to water injection or water
drive -- the Sg remaining in the oil column may be less than Sgc.
EVBUS(MBAL), run with historical measured reservoir pressures, can give a
good estimate of Sg in the oil zone. However, the accuracy of this material
balance method for calculating historical recovery efficiency is directly
dependent upon the accuracy of all the data utilized. When reliable data are
available, this method is by far the best for determining historic recovery
efficiency.

PROBLEM 2

K. Factors Influencing Gas Cap Drive Recovery Efficiency

Several gas-oil movement factors can occur in reservoirs that can influence
gas cap drive recovery efficiency, as illustrated in Figure 24.

1. Gas-oil displacement by gas cap expansion (Buckley-

Leverett, Welge phenomenon)

2. Gravity drainage of oil behind the gas front

3. Contact tilting

4. Localized gas coning into producing well completions

5. Vertical sweep efficiency due to stratification and

permeability variability

6. Areal sweep efficiency due to flow barriers such as faults,

permeability variations, facies changes, etc.

The first three factors will next be discussed in detail.

Gas-oil displacement by gas cap expansion -- The theoretical displacement

efficiency by gas cap drive can be calculated from the Buckley-Leverett
fractional flow equation and the Welge graphical method, as described in a
previous lecture. Whenever sufficient history is available, the practical
approach of calculated recovery efficiency should be used. However,
theoretical prediction of recovery efficiency may be needed for new fields

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and for evaluating the effect of producing rate changes. Also, by
comparison of the theoretical ED versus the material balance ER, the
historical EV can be calculated.

E
E  R
V
ED

The Welge method is based on the Buckley-Leverett flow relationship and is

recommended for general use in displacement efficiency calculations in
gas cap or combination drive reservoirs. In order to convert this to
recovery efficiency, the volumetric sweep efficiency must be estimated
independently. The Welge method assumes that the reservoir can be
described as a linear system and that the average reservoir pressure
remains constant enough that fluid properties do not change. The method
does include gravity effects in the fractional flow equation to account for
the effect of gravity on displacement efficiency along the bedding planes.
For the displacement of oil by either gas or water, the fraction of the
displacing phase, fd, in the flowing stream at a given displacing phase
saturation is given by:

  
(See equation in Figure 25)

Where:

qt = total flow rate, (B/D) at reservoir conditions

A = cross sectional flow area (sq. ft), perpendicular to the bedding
planes

When the fraction of the displacing phase flowing is plotted against

saturation (Figure 25), the resulting curve can be used to estimate the
displacement efficiency, ED.

Using this graphical approach for a gas drive, ED at gas breakthrough is

found by constructing a tangent to the fg curve. The tangent line starts at
the oil-zone gas saturation (@ fg=0 and Sg=Sgo) and extends to the average
gas saturation in the invaded zone (@ fg=1 and Sg= Sg ). Reading Sg and
Sgo from the graph, ED is calculated as follows:

1 S wi  Sor
E D  (Figure 25)
1 S wi

For displacement efficiency after gas breakthrough, calculate fg from the

produced GOR. Assume one STB of oil is produced and neglect dissolved
GOR. Then:
GOR1.0B 
g
f g 
GOR1.0 B g   1.0 B o 

The tangent to the curve at this fg value is drawn and extrapolated to fg=1.0
to get Sg in the reservoir. Sg , and thus ED, increase as produced GOR
increases. Notice the effect of  (dip angle) on gas displacement efficiency

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from the previous equation. As  increases, fg for a given Sg decreases
and ED increases. As indicated by the equation, other factors such as
permeability, densities, viscosities, and producing rates are also important.

PROBLEM 3

Vertical Gravity Drainage of Oil After Frontal Passage -- The Buckley-

Leverett (Welge) method only considers flow along the bedding planes. If
the reservoir has some vertical permeability, then oil can continue to drain
downward behind the gas front, as illustrated in Figure 26.

The residual oil left by the initial gas drive still has a very small relative
permeability, but it also has a very large gravity gradient acting upon it.
Drainage along bedding planes continues, as described by Welge, but if the
reservoir has some vertical permeability across bedding planes, then the oil
will also flow vertically downward. When it reaches the base of the sand or
a shale break, it will accumulate to a higher saturation and then flow down
structure along the bedding plane to join the remaining oil column. Thus,
the presence of vertical permeability can significantly improve gas drive
displacement efficiency over that calculated by the Welge method alone.
Figure 27 pictorially depicts this process.

It is very important to completely understand the interactions and

implications of the viscous and gravity forces encountered when producing
oil and/or gas and injecting water and/or gas. Figure 28 depicts a downdip
(left) to updip (right) reservoir cross section with the impact of gravity
forces shown as vectors relative to the reservoir dip angle. At rest, the
reservoir will usually have a stable contact that is perpendicular to the
direction of gravity assuming pressure communication within the pay.
When the contact is moved from a stable position, the gravity forces (black
vectors for buoyancy and blue vectors for drainage) will react to drive the
contact back to a stable position.

The impact of the viscous forces can be understood by concentrating on

the area between the two dashed lines that are drawn perpendicular to the
base of the reservoir. In that area, there is a portion of the formation where
the flow distance is different within a flowing phase. Note that in this area,
near the bottom of the reservoir the flowing phase is oil and near the top of
the reservoir the flowing phase is gas. This causes the viscous (flowing)
pressure drops to be unbalanced between the flowing phases (assuming
the oil viscosity is sufficiently higher than the viscosity of the gas to cause
unequal mobility) near the top versus the base of the reservoir. This
viscous force imbalance will tend to change the angle of the contact from
where it would be at rest. In Figure 28, displacement of the oil down dip
would result in the gas beginning to override and increase the distance
between the two dashed lines. This increase in flow distance will continue
until there is a balance with the opposing gravity forces. The impact of the
viscous forces depends upon the displacement rate. Higher displacement
rate by the higher mobility phase will tend to cause increased overrunning
and more contact instability. Higher displacement rate by the lower
mobility phase (direction of viscous stability) will cause the contact to
become more perpendicular to the reservoir dip angle.

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 PROBLEM 4

As a case study to illustrate gravity drainage effects and to compare gas

drive versus water drive displacement efficiencies, recent calculations from
the Van Field in east Texas will be used. Figures 29 and 30 summarize the
pertinent data on Van. The sand quality is excellent, with average porosity
of 30% and horizontal and vertical permeability of 3100 md. Dip angle has
been left as a variable in order to show its effect on the calculation.

Figure 31 shows the results of the displacement calculations in terms of the

average residual oil saturation behind the G/O contact and the impact of
reservoir dip. With no dip, water drive is much more efficient than gas drive
due to a more favorable mobility ratio. However, as dip angle increases,
gas drive efficiency improves rapidly and exceeds water drive recovery
efficiency. The actual dip angle at Van is 9.5 degrees, for which the Welge
method calculates an average residual oil saturation of 19% for water drive
and 14% for gas drive. Finally, inclusion of vertical gravity drainage
substantially reduces both residual saturations but continues to favor gas
drive.

The effect of vertical permeability on gravity drainage is illustrated in

Figure 32. For the same field producing life, a decrease in vertical
permeability increases residual oil saturation -- that is, gravity drainage is
not as effective. Its effectiveness could be restored by reducing producing
rate and extending field life.

Critical Rate and Contact Tilting -- Gas cap tilting occurs when the water
drive is stronger on one side of the reservoir than it is on the other and/or
producing rates are inordinately higher in one part of the reservoir. When a
reservoir is produced by gas cap drive, the concept of critical rate is very
important in deciding upon the optimum oil producing rate. If the rate is
allowed to exceed one-half of the critical rate, G/O contact advance may
become very unstable, resulting in rapid gas breakthrough to producing
wells, resulting in lost oil reserves due to inefficient reservoir energy
depletion.

Figures 33 and 34 illustrate the critical rate and tilt angle phenomenon.
Note that VT is defined as the vertical component of tilt. The critical rate
and tilt angle are calculated by the following equations:

0. 488x10 3 ( o g) ( A) si
Critical Rate: qtcc
( o ko g kg)

Tilt 2050x ( o ko g k g ) ( qt )
tan tan
A( o g) cos

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 Where:

qtc = Critical rate, RB/D

qt = Producing rate, RB/D
o , g = Specific gravities
A = Cross-sectional area, Sq. Ft.
 = Dip angle
o , g = Viscosities, cp
ko = Permeability to oil ahead of the front, md @ Swc
kg = Permeability to gas @ residual oil saturation, md

A good rule of thumb for stable G/O contact advance is to restrict rate to no
more than one-half of critical rate. For qt = (1/2)qtc, the vertical component
of tilt (VT) equals the sand thickness (h), as illustrated in Figure 35.

Figure 36 shows the calculation of critical rate and contact tile angle for Van
Field using the earlier data with dip angle = 9.5 degrees. The vertical tilt
component of 43 feet is easily manageable since the sand thickness is 79
feet.

For all of the gas cap drive calculation procedures just described, Figure 37
lists references from which further detail can be obtained. The SPE paper
by Richardson/Blackwell is a well known source for the vertical gravity
drainage calculation.

L. Summary

In summary, under the right reservoir conditions and producing rate, gas
cap drive efficiency can exceed water drive. It can, however, vary widely,
depending upon (Figure 38):

1. Reservoir geometry, sand thickness, dip angle, continuity

2. Sand and fluid properties, such as horizontal and vertical

permeabilities and oil viscosities

3. Producing rate

Recovery efficiencies can range from 25% to better than 80%. Generally,
thin sands, low permeabilities, low dip angles, and high production rates
will yield recoveries not much better than dissolved gas drive. Under
optimum conditions, however -- thick, continuous sand, high vertical
permeabilities, high dips, and low producing rates -- gas cap drive can
perform better than water drive.

III. COMBINATION DRIVE RESERVOIRS (Figure 40)

A. Response/Reaction Time

A combination drive reservoir receives energy from a combination of at

least two of three main producing mechanism -- dissolved gas drive, gas
cap drive, water drive. The individual mechanisms are no different when
they occur in combination than when they occur alone. Figure 41 is a
schematic of a combination drive reservoir illustrating all three drive
mechanisms active.

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 1. Gas-Cap Drive -- This mechanism has a quick reaction time, and it is
very responsive to pressure drop within the reservoir. A large gas
cap or sizable pressure drop is not required for the gas-cap
mechanism to play an important role in oil displacement. The high
expansive properties of the gas and its low viscosity contribute to
the quick response.

2. Water-Drive -- This mechanism is slow compared to gas-cap or

solution-gas drive. Factors contributing to slow response are due
to the following:

a. High water viscosity relative to gas

b. Low water expansive properties
c. Pressure transient travel distance

To be effective, a water drive must have a large aquifer.

3. Solution-Gas Drive -- This mechanism has a quick reaction time, but

its effectiveness is generally limited. Since most of the liberated
gas is released in the drainage area, energy is usually quickly
dissipated.

B. Reservoir Geometry

The next figure illustrates the geologic structures possible for combination
drive reservoirs (Figure 42).

1. Ideal Reservoir -- The ideal reservoir is one comprised of a

homogeneous, highly permeable sand with a high dip angle. The
gas cap is large, the oil column thick.

2. Rim-Type Reservoir -- This is a hydrocarbon accumulation where

the oil column does not completely underlie the gas cap. These
reservoirs are normally characterized by thin oil columns and
relatively high dip angles.

3. Pancake-Type Reservoirs -- This is a reservoir where the gas cap

completely covers the oil zone. Normally, these reservoirs contain
large gas caps, have flat dip angles, and produce with a bottom
water drive.

C. Producing Factors Affecting Contribution of Each Mechanism

Both natural and man-made factors can affect the possible contribution of
each drive mechanism.

1. Natural factors

a. Gas cap and oil zone size

b. Aquifer size and transmissibility

2. Man-made factors

a. Increased oil rate (Figure 49)-- The higher the rate of oil
production, the greater the influence of gas-cap drive.
Although this tendency occurs throughout reservoir life, it is

15
 most prominent during the early times. In addition to this
effect on gas-cap drive, increased oil rates tend to reduce
the effectiveness of the water drive mechanism while slightly
increasing the contribution of solution gas.

b. Increased free-gas production (Figure 50) -- High rates of

free gas cap production will lessen the effectiveness of the
gas cap as a prime energy source. In fact, high rates may
cause water and/or solution gas to become the dominant
mechanisms. In the presence of water drive, excessive gas
cap production may cause gas cap shrinkage. The water
drive pushes oil into the gas cap where part of it will be lost
as residual saturation.

c. Increased water production (Figure 51) -- Production of large

volumes of water reduces the pressure maintenance effect
of water influx and can cause gas-cap expansion and/or
solution gas drive to become more significant.

D. Material Balance for Combination Drive Reservoirs

Figure 43 is a tank schematic of the material balance in a combination drive

reservoir. Initially a gas cap and oil zone are present. With production, the
reservoir pressure declines, water influx occurs in response to the pressure
gradient from the aquifer, and the gas cap expands. Dissolved gas in the
oil zone is also liberated, and the free gas becomes mobile when the critical
gas saturation is achieved. Under favorable conditions, the mobile free gas
can migrate to the gas cap and add to the gas cap drive mechanism, unless
it is produced by the oil wells.

The material balance equation for the combination drive reservoir is similar
to that for the gas cap reservoir:

ORIGINAL OIL VOLUME = REMAINING OIL VOLUME + RELEASED GAS

VOLUME + GAS CAP EXPANSION VOLUME + NET WATER INFLUX

OR

NB oi  N N p B o [NR si N N pR s -G p ]B g GB g -B gi  W -W B

e p w
(Figure 44)

Where:

We = Gross water influx

Wp = Produced water

In addition to the classical material balance method, there is also a more

general and practical method, which is referred to as the 'Total gas and total
oil balance method'. The current contact data and reservoir volumes must
be known in order to use this method, and assumptions must be made
regarding gas saturation in the oil zone and percolation of free gas to the
cap. This method is outlined below (Figures 45 and 46):

1. Perform total gas balance to determine volume of gas and

residual oil in GCE zone.

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 2. Perform total oil balance.

a. Volumetric OOIP - Np = Remaining oil in reservoir

b. Calculate known or the best estimated oil volumes.

1) Remaining original oil zone, not invaded by
gas or water.
2). Residual oil in GCE zone from gas balance.

c. By difference, calculate the volume of residual oil in

water-invaded zone.

3. Calculate residual oil saturation and water drive recovery

efficiency.

PROBLEM 5

E. Drive Indices (Figure 47)

The relative importance of a given drive mechanism in a combination drive

reservoir can be evaluated by its drive index. The drive index for a given
mechanism is the fraction of total cumulative reservoir withdrawals that
resulted from that mechanism. The sum of the three indices must be equal
to one at any given point in time.

1. Gas Cap Drive Index -- Gas-cap drive will usually dominate in the
early life of a reservoir. When oil zone withdrawals are accelerated,
the greater the influence of gas cap drive due to high mobility and
compressibility.

2. Solution Gas Drive Index -- Solution-gas drive is similar to gas-cap

drive in that it may dominate in early life. However, if gravity is
effective, solution-gas drive will become less important as released
gas recharges the cap or forms a secondary cap.

3. Water-Drive Index -- Water drive becomes more important later in

life after sufficient time has elapsed for the aquifer to react to the
reservoir pressure drop.

Net water encroachment W W B

I wd   e p w

Oil zone reduction NBoi N  N p B o

These indices are averages for the entire producing history to the time
corresponding to Np. They can be expected to change as the reservoir
matures. Figure 48 illustrates how the drive indices may vary with time.

17
F. Predicting Future Reservoir Performance

1. Reasons to predict future reservoir performance

a. Production forecast -- Used for planning and/or financial

purposes.
b. Operating plans evaluation -- Used to improve reservoir
performance and overall profitability.

2. Basic data requirements (Figure 52)

The most important aspect of any reservoir study is gathering

complete and accurate basic reservoir data. Some of the data
required is developed by the geology group -- structure maps,
isopach maps, depth-volumes curves, contact locations. Some data
can be estimated empirically or by analogy, and many sound
engineering decisions can be reached without complete data. Close
attention should be given to the following data:

a. Reservoir data -- This includes geologic data such as

reservoir size, thickness, dip, and contact data.

b. Aquifer data -- An estimate of the area, thickness, porosity,

and permeability of the aquifer is needed.

c. Rock data -- Core information is generally used to determine

porosity, relative permeability, and connate water saturation.
Particular attention should be given to relative permeability
data since it is used to determine theoretical displacement
efficiencies for gas and water. The transition zone of
connate water saturation above the O/W contact should be
considered.

d. Fluid data -- Material balance calculations are very sensitive

to PVT data. Attention should be given early in field life to
obtaining accurate and reliable hydrocarbon information
such as composition, viscosities, densities,
compressibilities, and shrinkage factors.

e. Performance data -- Accurate historical pressure,

production, and injection data is a vital prerequisite to
analyzing reservoir behavior. Since future predictions are
based on parameters developed during history matching,
particular emphasis should be placed on ensuring the
accuracy of the historical data used.

3. Reservoir computer programs

a. MBAL -- This program was discussed in an earlier lecture. It

is a simple tank type material balance model that is easy to
use and easily accessible. A significant feature of the
program is its ability to automatically adjust the parameter
affecting aquifer behavior. This helps provide a match of
observed field performance. MBAL uses the same
fundamental equations discussed earlier today with two
exceptions:

18
 1. The program does not contain a displacement
equation; therefore, recovery efficiencies for gas
cap and water drives must be calculated and entered
by hand.

2. The gas liberated from the trapped oil behind the

water and gas fronts is not used in computing the oil
volume.

b. Reservoir Simulation Software – These are modeling

programs developed and used by Industry. Basically it
superimposes a grid system on the reservoir, and all
pertinent properties are assigned to each grid block -- depth,
gross and net sand thickness, porosity, permeability, initial
fluid saturations. They can handle all three fluid phases.
Initial reservoir pressure, reservoir temperature, fluid
properties, relative permeability, and capillary pressure
curves are input. The program solves the fluid flow and
material balance equations simultaneously using numerical methods.

c. General procedures used in reservoir modeling (Figures 53-

56)

1. Input basic data.

2. Calculate volumetric factors at each time step.

3. Perform cumulative material balance at each time

step, solving for water influx.

4. Estimate aquifer size and transmissibility.

5. Predict reservoir pressure history resulting from

water influx calculated by the model.

6. Adjust aquifer properties until model-predicted

pressure history reasonably matches measured
pressures.

7. Predict future reservoir behavior using model

aquifer.

IV. MAJOR RESERVOIR MANAGEMENT & SURVEILLANCE PROBLEMS (Figure 57)

A. Gas Cap Shrinkage (Figure 58)

Gas-cap shrinkage is one of the most prevalent problems associated with a

multi-drive reservoir. Shrinkage of the gas cap occurs when fluid influx into
the reservoir is greater than the liquid production from the reservoir. Since
the cap was originally oil-free, a good rule of thumb is that 25%-33% of the
oil which migrates into the gas cap will be permanently lost as residual oil.

1. Means of detecting gas-cap shrinkage:

a. Volumetric-balance calculations of the gas cap at periodic
intervals are an important means of evaluating the
magnitude of gas-cap shrinkage.

19
 b. Look for excess free gas production which is characterized
by high ratio production while reservoir pressure is constant
or increasing. When free gas production exceeds the
expansion of the gas cap, liquid influx (oil or water) into the
gas cap occurs.

c. Premature watering-out of oil wells completed close to the

O/W contact or reversal of trend in HGOR production of
wells completed near the G/O contact.

d. Establish a nuclear logging program for key wells located

near the G/O contact to monitor the movement of the G/O
contact.

2. Means of arresting gas-cap shrinkage

a. Increase the fluid withdrawals from the reservoir to
compensate for the influx into the reservoir. This is a good
way to prevent shrinkage, as the mechanism has a quick
reaction time and is very responsive to lowering the
pressure gradient between the gas-liquid interface.

b. Obtain an MER increase to allow accelerated liquid

withdrawals from the oil zone which should result in
lowering the reservoir pressure. The reduced pressure
should permit the gas-cap expansion to offset free gas
production. Slight pressure drop can be very effective if the
gas cap is of significant size.

c. Initiate a gas injection program to balance net-gas

withdrawals with expansion of the cap. Net-ratio credit in
conjunction with gas injection is an effective means of
increasing reservoir efficiency.

d. Establish allowable transfer rules to permit the transfer of

HGOR production to wells with lower gas-oil ratios, thereby
reducing free gas production.

The effect of production rate on gas cap shrinkage is illustrated by

Figures 59-61.

B. Gas-Cap Tilting (Figure 62)

Gas-cap tilting occurs when the water drive is stronger on one side of the
reservoir than it is on the other, and/or when producing rates are
inordinately higher in one part of the reservoir. Loss in ultimate oil
recovery occurs when the oil column moves into the gas cap.

1. Means of detecting gas cap tilting:

a. Production data is the real key to determining gas cap tilting.

Wells close to the O/W contact on one side of the field will
exhibit no significant water production and will produce with
ever increasing HGOR's as the gas cap tilts in the oil
column. On the other side of the field where the water drive
is prevalent, wells near the G/O contact will not exhibit the
high ratio tendency normally expected, and wells close to

20
 the O/W contact will show evidence of rapid water
encroachment.

b. Varying pressure data can be an indication of gas cap tilting

as the pressure will often be higher in the area of stronger
water drive.

c. Nuclear logging in key wells near the G/O contact can be an

effective means of monitoring movement of the gas cap.

d. Material balance calculations cannot be used to detect gas

cap tilting.

2. Means of arresting gas cap tilting

a. Initiate gas injection to preserve gas cap, particularly on side

of the strong water support.

b. Water production on the side of the strong water drive --

same idea as stated in shrinkage -- increase liquid
production from the reservoir to offset influx into the
reservoir.

c. Water injection below the O/W contact on the side of the

field experiencing limited water influx.

C. Gas-Cap Migration (Figures 63 and 64)

Gas cap migration which results in cap shrinkage occurs when the gas cap
is in communication with another sand which has a lower reservoir
pressure. Communication can exist through juxtaposition or through
wellbores. Gas flows from the gas cap to the low pressure sands causing
migration of oil into the gas cap which results in loss of ultimate recovery.

1. Means of detecting gas cap migration

a. The existence of a pressure differential between two sands

which are in juxtaposition can establish the possibility of
migration.

b. Material balance calculations on the gas cap and the zone to

which flow is suspected can confirm migration.

c. Production data on wells completed near the G/O contact

will not exhibit high GOR tendencies, and wells completed
near the O/W contact will prematurely water-out.
Additionally, production tests and increased BHP on wells
completed in the original gas cap can verify liquid (oil or
water) movement into the cap.

d. A nuclear logging program which is centered in key wells

near the G/O contact can detect liquid movement into the
cap.

e. Temperature surveys, noise logs, and radioactive tracer

surveys can be effective in determining inter-reservoir
communication behind the pipe.

21
 2. Means of arresting gas cap migration

a. Equalizing the pressure differential between the two sources

of communication is the most effective means of terminating
migration. Injection of water into the low pressure sand to
raise its pressure is one method often employed. Increasing
the withdrawal rate in the high pressure sand or reducing
the rate in the low pressure sand is also effective.

b. Mechanical repair of communication channels.

D. Thin Oil Column (Figure 65)

Production problems associated with depleting a thin oil column in

association with a large gas cap and a strong water drive are quite
common. Due to coning of gas and water, the drainage area is limited and
recovery efficiency is poor.

1. Means of detecting the problem

a. Production data will indicate that wells are rate sensitive --

i.e., as production rate is increased, GOR and water
production will show significant increases.

b. Eventually all multi-drive reservoirs approach the thin oil

column level and the problems associated with coning are
inevitable.

2. Means of improving reservoir performance

a. Reduce production rate in an effort to minimize coning.

b. Inject gas to remove penalty and prolong producing life.

Although HGOR production results, recovery will be
increased.

c. Re completing wells below the O/W contact has been

effective in some cases, resulting in reduced GOR's.

d. Evaluate infill drilling to capture potential by-passed oil due

to the premature water and gas coning.

e. Consider drilling horizontal wells early in the life of the

reservoir to mitigate coning problems.

PROBLEM 6

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