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>Law of the Conservation of Mass: in a chemical reaction mass cannot be created or destroyed.
>Mixture: two distinct things mixed in a number of varying ratios. No fixed composition.
>Compound: a substance formed of multiple constituent parts which are always in the same
ratio. Joseph Proust determined this Law of Constant Composition.
>Law of Multiple Proportions: when two elements form a series of compounds, the ratio of the
masses of the second element that combined with one gram of the first element can always be
reduced to small whole numbers.
>Dalton’s Atomic Theory: Elements are composed of atoms. Atoms of an element are identical.
Atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds. Compounds have the same
relative numbers and types of atoms. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms:
changes in the way they are bound together. The atoms themselves are not changed.
>Electrons discovered ~120 years ago. JJ Thomson determined e/m=1.76*10^8 C/g and R
Millikan determined e= 1.602*10^-9 C
>Thomson discovered that electrons are negatively charged. Electrons are much smaller and
lighter than atoms. Electrons are uniformly present in many different kinds of substances. He
proposed that atoms must contain positive charge that balances the negative charge of
electrons. Determined the plum pudding model of electrons in a field of positive charge.
>Rutherford believed that if Thomson's model was correct, alpha particles would pass straight
through the atom. In his experiment some of the alpha particles ricocheted back. So he
determined that there were dense positively charged nuclei at the center of atoms.
>Atomic structure: atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. They are the smallest particles
of an element that retains the chemical identity of the element. Atomic mass unit (u) or (amu) or
(Da) is one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon with six protons and six neutrons.
>Ions are charged particles. They occur when electrons are removed or added to a neutral atom
or molecule.
>Cation: ion with positive charge
>Anion: ion with a negative charge
Oct 2
>Mendeleev first to assemble a table of elements. Arranged them in rows so that similar
properties align in the same vertical columns. Elements ordered based on atomic number,
grouped based on reactivity.
>Categories of elements: sometimes fuzzy, without hard definitions. Metals and Nonmetals are
the two basic definitions. Metals - luster, electrically and thermally conductive, ductile and
malleable. Nonmetals - various colors brittle, poor conductors low mp. Metalloids - properties
between these two categories.
>Alkali metals: group 1, Alkali earth metals: group 2, Noble gasses: last group, Halogens: group
one from the last. Transition metals are the large block in the middle, behave similarly, mostly
non reactive.
>If element is a metal (i.e, left hand side of p. table) tends to lose electrons. Form cations.
Element is nonmetal tends to gain electrons, form anions.
>When forming an ion, ‘I’ want to have as many electrons (iso-electronic) to noble gasses. They
will take the shortest path usually do this.
>Memorize this on chart common charges: Group 1 makes 1+ ions. Group 2 makes 2+ ions.
Also memorize the common charges of everything in yellow.
>Molecules: ensemble of atoms that work together. Behaves like a distinct object, and counts as
a pure substance.
>Formula: Empirical formula: gives the relative number of atoms of each type in a molecule.
Molecular formula is the actual number and types of atom in a molecule.
>Ionic compounds are compounds that contain positively charged ions and negatively charged
ions.
>Polyatomic ions: a charged compound of two or more atoms bonded together. Memorize the
polyatomic ion table.
>Naming: monatomic cations take the name of the element itself: i.e. sodium ions. For metals
that can form different charges, the positive charge is given by a roman numeral following the
name of the metal.
>Memorize hydronium.
>Monatomic anions have names formed by dropping the ending of the name of the element and
adding the ending -ide. Hydride ion, oxide ion, nitride ion. Polyatomic anions containing oxygen
have names ending in -ate or -ite. The one with the most oxygens in the series gets ate as
suffix, the one with the least oxygens get ite. If there are more than two ions in the series, then
the prefixes hypo, meaning less than and per meaning more than are used. For example,
hypochlorite chlorite, chlorate, and perchlorate. When naming these ions in homework, include
‘ion’ in the answer.
>Nomenclature: names of ionic compounds are the cation name followed by the name of the
anion. Do not say the number of ions in an ionic compound, that is for molecular compounds.
Al(NO3)3 is simply aluminum nitrate.
Oct 4
Oct 7
>Some chemical analysis only gives you the percentage of each element and you have to figure
out the empirical formula.
>Ascorbic acid contains 40.92 percent C 4.58 percent H and 54.5 percent O by mass. Assuming
you have 100 g of the substance, this means you should have 40.92 grams C, etc. Convert to
moles. 1 mole of carbon is 12.01 grams of carbon, so you have 3.40716069942 moles of
carbon, etc. This will yield a formula of C3.407 H4.54 O3.406. Divide by the lowest (3.406)
round a little. C1 H1.33 O1 or C H1.33 O. Then, multiply by all the same number to get to all
whole numbers. C3H4O3, or the empirical formula for Ascorbic Acid. Not the molecular formula,
though. Only the ratio. However, the molecular formula will be a whole number multiple of the
empirical formula. Find the multiple by comparing the empirical formula weight to the molecular
formula weight. C3H4O3 weight is 88 amu. If told that the formula weight of Ascorbic Acid is 176
amu, can determine the molecular formula is the empirical formula times 2 or C6H8O6.
>Antifreeze practice problem: Ethylene glycol is 38.7 percent carbon, 9.7 percent hydrogen and
51.6 grams oxygen. 38.7 g of Carbon, 9.7 grams of Hydrogen 51.6 grams of Oxygen. 3.2223
moles of carbon, 9.62454 moles of hydrogen 3.2252 moles of oxygen. C3.222 H9.62454
O3.222 C = C H3 O. Empirical formula is C H3 O. 62.1 grams per mole. That means the formula
weight is 62.1 grams per mole. The 12.01+15.999+1.01 Molecular formula is C2H6O2.
>Alternate method of solvingL 62.1 grams Antifreeze per mole of Antifreeze * .387 grams
carbon per gram antifreeze * 1 mole carbon per 12.01 grams carbon = 2 mol carbon per mole
antifreeze. Same method for the other constituents
>Balancing chemical equations: left of arrow are reactants. Right of arrow are products.
Physical state: g = gas, l = liquid s = solid aq = aqueous. In normal chemical reactions atmos
are not destroyed or created. Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between products
and reactants. CH4 plus O2 equals CO2 plus H20. Not allowed to change subscripts. Balanced
equations tell you that when one N2 molecule reacts with three H2 molecules then two NH2
molecules are produced.
>2AL 1.5 O2 1AL2O3 = 4AL 3O2 2AL2O3
>Combustion reactions involve oxygen as a reactant. If a hydrocarbon is combusted, then the
products are CO2 and H2O.
Oct 9
>Limiting reagent: the chemical that runs out first in a set of ingredients for a specific reaction.
>Theoretical yield is the amount produced by using up all of the limiting reagent
3.5697 mols of N2 14.925 mols of H2. limiting reagent is N2. t.y. is ~7.12 mols of NH3.
>86.9 percent yield
Oct 14
Oct 16
Oct 18
>Half-reactions- for example, Cu(s) + Ag+(aq) -> Cu2+(aq) + Ag(s). Broken down, this reaction
becomes Cu(s) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2electrons and Ag+(aq) + electron -> Ag(s). Not balanced
because it produces two electrons but only consumes one electron. Thus, this only becomes
balanced with the following reaction: Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s).
>Balancing reactions in acidic or basic conditions:
1. Assign oxidation states
2. Write unbalanced half rxns
a. Balance all atoms except O and H
b. Balance oxygen atoms using H2O
c. Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+
d. Balance the charge by adding electrons
3. Multiply one or both half rxns by integer so that electrons gains = electrons lost
4. Add half rxns together
5. Check that the elements and charges are balanced
>Example: (in basic solution) Al(s) + NO2 becomes NH2 + Al(O2)-. Al and H change oxidation
states, from 0 to +3 and from -1 to +1 respectively.
>Oxidizing and Reducing agents: Oxidizing agents are reactants that accepts electrons from
another reactant. They gain electrons, and it is the reactant that is reduced. Reducing agents
are reactants that donate electrons to another reactant. It loses electrons and it is the reactant
that is oxidized.
Oct 23
>Gases assume the volume and shape of their containers. Gases are the most compressible
state of matter. Gases will mix evenly and completely when confined to the same container.
>Pressure: Force/area. Pressure is the result of collisions between gas molecules and the
surfaces around them.
>Manometer, Boyle's law, Charles Law, Avagadro’s Law. Combined gas law is PV=nRT
>1.2*V=n18