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Sept 30

>Law of the Conservation of Mass: in a chemical reaction mass cannot be created or destroyed.
>Mixture: two distinct things mixed in a number of varying ratios. No fixed composition.
>Compound: a substance formed of multiple constituent parts which are always in the same
ratio. Joseph Proust determined this Law of Constant Composition.
>Law of Multiple Proportions: when two elements form a series of compounds, the ratio of the
masses of the second element that combined with one gram of the first element can always be
reduced to small whole numbers.
>Dalton’s Atomic Theory: Elements are composed of atoms. Atoms of an element are identical.
Atoms combine in simple whole number ratios to form compounds. Compounds have the same
relative numbers and types of atoms. Chemical reactions involve reorganization of atoms:
changes in the way they are bound together. The atoms themselves are not changed.
>Electrons discovered ~120 years ago. JJ Thomson determined e/m=1.76*10^8 C/g and R
Millikan determined e= 1.602*10^-9 C
>Thomson discovered that electrons are negatively charged. Electrons are much smaller and
lighter than atoms. Electrons are uniformly present in many different kinds of substances. He
proposed that atoms must contain positive charge that balances the negative charge of
electrons. Determined the plum pudding model of electrons in a field of positive charge.
>Rutherford believed that if Thomson's model was correct, alpha particles would pass straight
through the atom. In his experiment some of the alpha particles ricocheted back. So he
determined that there were dense positively charged nuclei at the center of atoms.
>Atomic structure: atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. They are the smallest particles
of an element that retains the chemical identity of the element. Atomic mass unit (u) or (amu) or
(Da) is one twelfth the mass of an atom of carbon with six protons and six neutrons.
>Ions are charged particles. They occur when electrons are removed or added to a neutral atom
or molecule.
>Cation: ion with positive charge
>Anion: ion with a negative charge

Oct 2

>Mendeleev first to assemble a table of elements. Arranged them in rows so that similar
properties align in the same vertical columns. Elements ordered based on atomic number,
grouped based on reactivity.
>Categories of elements: sometimes fuzzy, without hard definitions. Metals and Nonmetals are
the two basic definitions. Metals - luster, electrically and thermally conductive, ductile and
malleable. Nonmetals - various colors brittle, poor conductors low mp. Metalloids - properties
between these two categories.
>Alkali metals: group 1, Alkali earth metals: group 2, Noble gasses: last group, Halogens: group
one from the last. Transition metals are the large block in the middle, behave similarly, mostly
non reactive.
>If element is a metal (i.e, left hand side of p. table) tends to lose electrons. Form cations.
Element is nonmetal tends to gain electrons, form anions.
>When forming an ion, ‘I’ want to have as many electrons (iso-electronic) to noble gasses. They
will take the shortest path usually do this.
>Memorize this on chart common charges: Group 1 makes 1+ ions. Group 2 makes 2+ ions.
Also memorize the common charges of everything in yellow.
>Molecules: ensemble of atoms that work together. Behaves like a distinct object, and counts as
a pure substance.
>Formula: Empirical formula: gives the relative number of atoms of each type in a molecule.
Molecular formula is the actual number and types of atom in a molecule.
>Ionic compounds are compounds that contain positively charged ions and negatively charged
ions.
>Polyatomic ions: a charged compound of two or more atoms bonded together. Memorize the
polyatomic ion table.
>Naming: monatomic cations take the name of the element itself: i.e. sodium ions. For metals
that can form different charges, the positive charge is given by a roman numeral following the
name of the metal.
>Memorize hydronium.
>Monatomic anions have names formed by dropping the ending of the name of the element and
adding the ending -ide. Hydride ion, oxide ion, nitride ion. Polyatomic anions containing oxygen
have names ending in -ate or -ite. The one with the most oxygens in the series gets ate as
suffix, the one with the least oxygens get ite. If there are more than two ions in the series, then
the prefixes hypo, meaning less than and per meaning more than are used. For example,
hypochlorite chlorite, chlorate, and perchlorate. When naming these ions in homework, include
‘ion’ in the answer.
>Nomenclature: names of ionic compounds are the cation name followed by the name of the
anion. Do not say the number of ions in an ionic compound, that is for molecular compounds.
Al(NO3)3 is simply aluminum nitrate.

Oct 4

>Molecular compounds: composed of usually (non-metal plus non-metal). leftmost element is


usually written first. If in the same group, the lowest is written first. The name of the second
element is given an -ide ending. Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of each atom.
Mono is never used on the first element.
>N204 dinitrogen tetroxide, for example
>When hydrogen begins a molecular formula, it is likely an acid.
>Binary acids and Oxyacids. Binary acids are usually hydrogen plus a nonmetal. For example
HCl hydrochloric acid. Oxyacids contain oxyanions. Oxyacids with oxyanions ending in ate
replace ate with ic. Oxyanions ending in ite replace suffix with -ous.
>Mole: the amount of matter that contains as many objects as the number of atoms in exactly
12 grams of carbon 12.
>Molar mass is the quantity in grams numerically equal to its atomic weight. One carbon 12
atom weighs 12 atomic units; 1 mol of carbon 12 weighs 12 grams. One Mg24 atom weighs 24
atomic units, 1 mol Mg 24 weighs 24 grams. In the real world, this isn’t exactly accurate
because most things have mixed isotopes. So, the periodic table gives average mass because
most elements have isotopes.
>Formula weight of a substance is the sum of the atomic weights of each atom in its chemical
formula. H2SO4 weighs the combined the combined of all atoms.
>Percent composition: the percentage by mass contributed by each element in a substance.
Sucrose - table sugar: C12 H22 O11. 12 C atoms = 144 amu. Formula weight of sucrose is 342
amu. This the percent composition of carbon in sucrose is 144/342.

Oct 7

>Some chemical analysis only gives you the percentage of each element and you have to figure
out the empirical formula.
>Ascorbic acid contains 40.92 percent C 4.58 percent H and 54.5 percent O by mass. Assuming
you have 100 g of the substance, this means you should have 40.92 grams C, etc. Convert to
moles. 1 mole of carbon is 12.01 grams of carbon, so you have 3.40716069942 moles of
carbon, etc. This will yield a formula of C3.407 H4.54 O3.406. Divide by the lowest (3.406)
round a little. C1 H1.33 O1 or C H1.33 O. Then, multiply by all the same number to get to all
whole numbers. C3H4O3, or the empirical formula for Ascorbic Acid. Not the molecular formula,
though. Only the ratio. However, the molecular formula will be a whole number multiple of the
empirical formula. Find the multiple by comparing the empirical formula weight to the molecular
formula weight. C3H4O3 weight is 88 amu. If told that the formula weight of Ascorbic Acid is 176
amu, can determine the molecular formula is the empirical formula times 2 or C6H8O6.

>Antifreeze practice problem: Ethylene glycol is 38.7 percent carbon, 9.7 percent hydrogen and
51.6 grams oxygen. 38.7 g of Carbon, 9.7 grams of Hydrogen 51.6 grams of Oxygen. 3.2223
moles of carbon, 9.62454 moles of hydrogen 3.2252 moles of oxygen. C3.222 H9.62454
O3.222 C = C H3 O. Empirical formula is C H3 O. 62.1 grams per mole. That means the formula
weight is 62.1 grams per mole. The 12.01+15.999+1.01 Molecular formula is C2H6O2.
>Alternate method of solvingL 62.1 grams Antifreeze per mole of Antifreeze * .387 grams
carbon per gram antifreeze * 1 mole carbon per 12.01 grams carbon = 2 mol carbon per mole
antifreeze. Same method for the other constituents

>Balancing chemical equations: left of arrow are reactants. Right of arrow are products.
Physical state: g = gas, l = liquid s = solid aq = aqueous. In normal chemical reactions atmos
are not destroyed or created. Stoichiometry is the quantitative relationship between products
and reactants. CH4 plus O2 equals CO2 plus H20. Not allowed to change subscripts. Balanced
equations tell you that when one N2 molecule reacts with three H2 molecules then two NH2
molecules are produced.
>2AL 1.5 O2 1AL2O3 = 4AL 3O2 2AL2O3
>Combustion reactions involve oxygen as a reactant. If a hydrocarbon is combusted, then the
products are CO2 and H2O.

Oct 9

>Limiting reagent: the chemical that runs out first in a set of ingredients for a specific reaction.
>Theoretical yield is the amount produced by using up all of the limiting reagent

3.5697 mols of N2 14.925 mols of H2. limiting reagent is N2. t.y. is ~7.12 mols of NH3.
>86.9 percent yield

Oct 14

>Solution: homogenous mixture of two or more substances


>Solvent: the component present in greater quantities
>Solute: the component that is present in lesser quantity. It is said to be dissolved in the solvent.
>Aqueous solution: solutions where water is the solvent.l
>A compound is soluble in a particular liquid if it dissolves in that liquid
>A compound is insoluble if it does not dissolve in the liquid.
>When ionic compounds dissolve in water, they usually dissociate into their constituent ions.
>Water has a partial negative charge on the oxygen side due to oxygen pulling all electrons
towards it. This means that the hydrogen charge is a partially positive charge. I.e. water is a
polar molecule. Thus when ionic compounds are in the presence of water, the ions are pulled to
the charged sides of the water molecule.
>Electrolyte: a substance whose aqueous solution contains ions and thus conducts electricity
>Non electrolyte: a substance that does not form ions in solution.
>CH3CO2H - acetic acid: the only weak electrolyte to memorize.
>Molarity: Moles of solute divided by LITERS of SOLUTION.
>If given the following notification: 3.0 M CaCl2 (aq) then you actually have (Ca 2+) in 3 mol/liter
plus (Cl 1-) in 6 mol/liter
>Some ionic compounds do not dissolve in water. AgCl does not dissolve in water. AgCl
remains AgCl (s) within liquid water, and it does not dissolve into independent ions.
>Metathesis reaction: AX + BY becomes AY + BX. I.e. AgNO3 (aq) plus KCl (aq) becomes AgCl
(s) and KNO3 (aq). For a metathesis reaction to occur, ions must be removed from the solution.
This means the formation of an insoluble solid (a precipitate) or the formation of either a soluble
weak electrolyte or a soluble nonelectrolyte, or the formation of a gas. In the above example,
AgCl is a precipitate.
>Review precipitation reactions (!!!) reference phone pics and slides. Also the solubility table.

Oct 16

>.2 moles of alno33 and .4 moles of koh


>Balanced equation: Al(NO3)3 + 3KOH = AlOH3 + 3K+ plus 3NO3-
>Gas forming reactions: 2HCl aq plus Na2S aq becomes H2S g plus 2NaCl aq. There are
important gases which can form which should be watched for. Gas to watch for: H2S, CO2, SO2
and NH3.
>Acids: arrhenius definitions: when dissolved in water increases the H+ concentration of water.
Monoprotic: yield one H atom per molecule of acid. Diprotic: yield two H atoms per molecules of
acid. Proton donor.
>Bases: when dissolved in water increases the OH- concentration of water. Proton acceptor
Amphiprotic - can react as either an acid or a base.
>Neutralization reactions: reactions between an acid and a metal hydroxide produces water and
a salt (an ionic compound).

Oct 18

>Titration: used to determine the concentration of a solution.


>Analyte: the solution of unknown concentration but known volume.
>Titrant: the solution of known reaction.
>Equivalence pointL the point at which exactly the right volume of titrant has been added to
complete the reaction.
>Burettes are graded differently. Larger numbers are on the bottom, reverse grading. This is
because it is not a pouring device, it is a draining device. The markings are built to note how
much has drained. Subtract the two readings to find how much has drained.
>Redox reactions: oxidation is when a substance loses electrons, and reduction is when a
substance gains electrons.
>Oxidation states: the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms in the species is equal to
its total charge. For atoms in their elemental form: oxinum 0. For atoms of group one: oxinum
+1, atoms group two, oxinum +2. Hydrogen has +1 in combo with nonmetals, -1 in combo with
metals. Fluorine is -1 in all compounds. Oxygen has a few rules, which take priority in this order:
-2 unless combined with F, -1 in peroxides O2 2-, -½ in superoxides O2 1-, -⅓ in ozonides O3
1-. Halogens are -1 in most compounds, unless the other element includes oxygen or more
electronegative halogens.
>Review oxidation states.
>Do not use MV=MV on Titrations

Study ^^^ for Exam 1, not below


Oct 21

>Half-reactions- for example, Cu(s) + Ag+(aq) -> Cu2+(aq) + Ag(s). Broken down, this reaction
becomes Cu(s) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2electrons and Ag+(aq) + electron -> Ag(s). Not balanced
because it produces two electrons but only consumes one electron. Thus, this only becomes
balanced with the following reaction: Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) -> Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s).
>Balancing reactions in acidic or basic conditions:
1. Assign oxidation states
2. Write unbalanced half rxns
a. Balance all atoms except O and H
b. Balance oxygen atoms using H2O
c. Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+
d. Balance the charge by adding electrons
3. Multiply one or both half rxns by integer so that electrons gains = electrons lost
4. Add half rxns together
5. Check that the elements and charges are balanced
>Example: (in basic solution) Al(s) + NO2 becomes NH2 + Al(O2)-. Al and H change oxidation
states, from 0 to +3 and from -1 to +1 respectively.
>Oxidizing and Reducing agents: Oxidizing agents are reactants that accepts electrons from
another reactant. They gain electrons, and it is the reactant that is reduced. Reducing agents
are reactants that donate electrons to another reactant. It loses electrons and it is the reactant
that is oxidized.

Oct 23

>Gases assume the volume and shape of their containers. Gases are the most compressible
state of matter. Gases will mix evenly and completely when confined to the same container.
>Pressure: Force/area. Pressure is the result of collisions between gas molecules and the
surfaces around them.
>Manometer, Boyle's law, Charles Law, Avagadro’s Law. Combined gas law is PV=nRT
>1.2*V=n18

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