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Article history: Historic buildings are usually characterized by a particular microclimate due to their high thermal inertia
Received 28 May 2015 that may require the use of mechanical systems to control the environment. The guidelines used to define
Received in revised form 28 July 2015 the indoor climate have evolved in recent years, with new methods and deepening the knowledge of the
Accepted 29 July 2015
behaviour of materials, resulting in the publication of several risk-based methods.
Available online 31 July 2015
Despite the risk-based methods, the use of guidelines continue to play a leading role on the science
of preventive conservation with the progressive assumption of less demanding targets. However these
Keywords:
guidelines were usually defined for specific climates so that when extrapolated to other locations their
Microclimate
Thermal inertia
application may not be positive.
Preventive conservation This research aims to analyze the hygrothermal behaviour of an unheated historic building in a tem-
Monitoring perate climate (Lisbon, Portugal) using a long-term monitoring and applying a risk-based analysis to the
Risk-based analysis natural climate and to the climate limited by the historic set-point of 20 ◦ C – 50% and the targets defined by
Historic buildings the standards EN 15757 and PAS 198. Finally a classification was defined to assist in the decision-making
Cultural heritage processes and to verify if it is safe to impose less demanding targets in temperate climates, improving
therefore energy economy.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction energy efficiency was still not a problem due to the low cost of
energy, and where the risk-based analysis were not extensively
Historic buildings assume a fundamental role in modern soci- used [2–4]. These targets, even in temperate climates, can only be
eties, being a symbol of their past, and often used as museums or achieved using HVAC systems.
galleries, bringing together the value of their collections and the It is important to take into account that historic buildings often
history behind the building. show a particular hygrothermal response. These buildings, usu-
The artefacts that constitute the collections react to temperature ally with thick walls and small percentage of transparent surfaces
and relative humidity, which can induce degradation phenomena, when compared to the opaque envelope, present a large capacity
namely mechanical, biological and chemical [1]. To avoid the inher- to store heat, showing a great effectiveness in damping and delay-
ent risks and to guarantee a proper conservation it is common to ing thermal cycles. In temperate climates, this behaviour leads to a
use tight limits of temperature (T) and relative humidity (RH). great thermal equilibrium in short-periods, disturbed only by the
Throughout history, the guidelines were not always based presence of disrupting factors such as artificial heating, lighting or
on scientific works, and sometimes the set-points were defined human presence [5]. However, their envelope is usually composed
according to experience and observation of the response of objects. by materials with high thermal conductivities, which do not react
The set-point of 20 ◦ C for T and 50% for RH, for example, was widely positively for tight targets of temperature. If the limitations of the
used by conservators for a long time, apparently without scientific envelope are ignored, the consequences may not be positive, with
explanation, but the truth is that it is still used in several cases the possibility of surface condensations, for example [6,7].
[2]. These limits were defined in a particular moment where the The knowledge about these subjects is improving and the most
recent trends show a higher flexibility, according to developments
in the materials science [8]. The experience obtained along the time
has shown that in some cases the collections have survived posi-
∗ Corresponding author.
tively, even when exposed to less demanding targets. The ASHRAE
E-mail address: h.silva@campus.fct.unl.pt (H.E. Silva).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2015.07.067
0378-7788/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
H.E. Silva, F.M.A. Henriques / Energy and Buildings 107 (2015) 26–36 27
Fig. 1. Main façade of the St. Christopher church (a) and the interior (b).
specification [9] is a good example, defining five classes and allow- surfaces (Fig. 1b). The roof is made with ceramic tiles supported by
ing some fluctuations without compromising the collections. The timber frames. Inside, there is a rectangular room with 144 m2 and
European Standard EN 15757 is other good example, where it was 13 m of height, with a flat ceiling. The church presents a sacristy
defined a dynamic method to limit the mechanical degradation in to the north of the central room and a funeral room to the south.
organic hygroscopic materials [10]. The wooden frames single glazing windows have a global area of
The implementation of tight limits has another worrisome about 45 m2 , which when compared to the 800 m2 of external walls,
consequence: the high-energy consumption needed to keep the provide a ratio of 5.6%. No artificial heating systems are available.
building at the desired levels. Nowadays, one of the biggest The roof with no thermal insulation and a small mass appears as a
challenges in historic buildings, such as museums, is to reach weakness zone.
an equilibrium between the conservation requirements and the The church remains usually closed and receives few visitors. It
energy economy [4,7], as it is evidenced in the recent British spec- is open from Tuesday to Saturday between 17:00 and 19:30, with
ification PAS 198 [11], where the targets are defined according to religious celebrations taking place at 18:30. On Sunday, it is open
the collection needs, searching also achieve the energy economy between 11:00 and 13:00, with a religious celebration at 12:00. On
without jeopardizing a proper conservation. Monday it remains closed throughout the day.
The methodology used in this work combines a long-term mon- To understand the interior microclimatic behaviour an exten-
itoring and a statistical analysis, aiming to characterize the indoor sive environmental monitoring was conducted. For this purpose, a
climate of an unheated historic building, and a risk-based anal- set of sensors for automatic and manual records were used. Mea-
ysis. The response of the building and collections was analyzed surements were taken from November 2011 to August 2013, with
and tested according to the natural indoor climate and the targets automatic records every 10 min and using three different types of
defined by the EN 15757, PAS 198 and the historic set-point of 20 ◦ C sensors, as it can be seen in Table 1. All of the sensors respect the
and 50%. uncertainties defined in the European Standards EN 15758 [14] for
the temperature and the EN 16242 [15] for the relative humidity.
The monitoring system included 25 sensors in the main room (1
2.1. Site description sensor type H, 1 T&RH probe and 23 thermocouples) and 1 sensor
type H on the northern tower to monitor the external conditions,
The building analyzed was the Church of St. Christopher, a as it is possible to see in Table 2 and Fig. 2. For the purpose of this
national monument of Portugal located on the slopes of the São paper, besides the focus on the preventive conservation issues, it
Jorge Castle (Lisbon – Portugal), under the influence of Mediter- was considered essential the analysis of the influence of thermal
ranean climate with mild temperatures due the proximity of the inertia in the building response. For this purpose 6 sensors were
Atlantic Ocean. Lisbon has about 260 days of sunshine per year, an
annual average of 17 ◦ C of temperature, an annual precipitation of
725.8 mm and north prevailing winds [12]. Table 1
The church was built in the early thirteenth century and main- Sensors used in the monitoring system.
tained its original configuration until the sixteenth century, when Sensor Uncertainty
it was badly damaged by a fire. It suffered little damages with the Hobo U12-13 (H) T: ±0.35 ◦ C
1755 earthquake that shook the entire waterfront of the city [13]. RH: ± 2.5%
It features thick walls, between 0.7 and 1 m, lined by limestone T&RH Delta T probe T: ± 0.1 ◦ C
on the corners and lime mortar renders on the exterior (Fig. 1a), RH: ± 2%
Thermocoulples (T) T: ± 0.5 ◦ C
and walls covered with gilded and painted panels in the interior
28 H.E. Silva, F.M.A. Henriques / Energy and Buildings 107 (2015) 26–36
Fig. 2. Horizontal plan of the St. Christopher church and location of the T and RH sensors in the main room.
selected (in bold in Table 2): the sensors H on the northern tower To analyze the indoor RH fluctuations a constant water vapour
(S.6) and pulpit (S.3) to analyze the relationship between the indoor concentration along the main room was assumed, a premise that
and outdoor conditions; the sensors T at 0.15 m (S.1) and 10 m (S.5) seems reasonable given the low occupancy and ventilation rates of
to evaluate the evolution of the hygrothermal conditions along a the building. The data collected by the sensor located in the north-
vertical profile, verifying the influence of the thermal inertia and the ern pulpit were used as reference to calculate the water vapour
coverage on the air stratification. In addition, it was also compared concentrations for each moment.
the hygrothermal evolution of the surface conditions and the risk
of surface condensations with the use of a T sensor (S.2) and the 2.4. Response of the building and collections
one in the middle of the main room (S.4).
The use of standards and guidelines is a good tool, especially
2.3. Indoor characterization when it is not possible to make detailed studies for each location.
However, it is necessary to note that the guidelines do not always
For a better understanding and evaluation of the strengths and fit all objects and climates [16,17]. Sometimes it becomes neces-
weaknesses of the church a microclimatic analysis was performed sary to carry out a detailed risk-based analysis in order to draw
in order to verify the interactions between the interior and exterior strong conclusions. This research was designed in order to evalu-
climates, the influence of the thermal inertia and to check the air ate the building and collection response to the natural climate and
stratification, the disrupting factors and to assess the risk of surface according to the targets defined by the EN 15757, PAS 198 and the
condensations. pair 20 ◦ C – 50%, with the analysis divided in 5 points: building
response, biological, chemical and mechanical degradation of both
painted panels and sculptures.
Table 2
Location of the sensors (the 6 selected sensors are in bold).
2.4.1. Building response
Sensors Site (Fig. 2) Height (m)
This research aims to compare the influence of four different
1 horizontal profile (T) a 5.3 set-points in the conservation and in the capacity of the building to
1 sensor – door of sacristy (T) b 3.1
respond to the targets. First the historic set-point of 20 ± 2 ◦ C and
1 horizontal profiles (T) c 3.9
1 horizontal profiles (T) d 7.5 (S.4) 50 ± 5% was used, followed by the targets defined by EN 15757 and
1 vertical profile e 0.15 (S.1); 1.5; 3.9; PAS 198. Finally an analysis according to the natural indoor climate
7.5; 10 (S.5) was made.
1 sensor – northern pulpit (H) e 3.9 (S.3) The dynamic target defined by the EN 15757 is calculated in
2 wall surface sensors (T) e 1.5 (S.2); 3.9
2 floor surface sensors (T) e –
function of the seasonal cycle, calculated as a 30-day run average,
1 horizontal profiles (T) f 3.9 and the short-term fluctuations, calculated by the exclusion of the
1 horizontal profiles (T) g 7.5 14% major differences between the recorded data and the seasonal
1 sensor in the chorus (T) h 5.3 cycle. Adding the 7th and 93th percentiles of the short-term fluctu-
1 sensor – northern tower (H) – (S.6)
ations to the seasonal cycles it was obtained the target range that
H.E. Silva, F.M.A. Henriques / Energy and Buildings 107 (2015) 26–36 29
Fig. 3. Mechanical degradation: (a) Mechanical response of the base layer of painted panels due the RH fluctuations [19]; (b) Mechanical response of lime Wood cylinders
simulating the sculptures response due a step RH fluctuations [20].
aims to limit the mechanical degradation of organic hygroscopic the internal and surface behaviour taking into account the response
materials [10]. time of the layers and the duration of the fluctuations. The fluc-
The PAS 198 [11], a recent guideline published by the BSI, deter- tuations of moisture content assume a fundamental role in the
mines some ranges of temperature and relative humidity taking mechanical response of the objects, i.e., for example, when the
into account various factors as the chemical, mechanical and bio- surface is drying, the core remains with higher moisture content,
logical degradation, energy efficiency and human comfort. For this resulting in high tensions. The stresses decrease when the moisture
purpose it was defined a range of temperature from 7 ◦ C to 23 ◦ C, content of the core is closer to the one of the surface.
according to the energy considerations. For the RH it was defined a The allowable fluctuations of RH in function of the starting RH
range from 30% to 65% to take into account the mechanical stability are shown in Fig. 3b for a step fluctuation of RH. It was decided to
and the energy considerations. Finally it was used the data records use this approach instead the daily fluctuation, since it is the more
of the church without any limits. adverse and conservative scenario.
Fig. 4. Isopleth method of Sedlbauer for the substrate type I: (a) germination time; (b) growth rate [21].
The hydrolysis, one of the major manifestations of the chemical multiplier, increasing the influence of the points with worse con-
degradation, is commonly characterized by the Arrhenius equa- ditions, as it was made by the IPI to calculate the Time Weighted
tion [23,24], that allows the calculation of the degradation rate. Preservation Index [25,26]:
Sometimes this equation is difficult to apply, which lead to the
1
formulation of new approaches. The researchers of the Image Per- eLM = N 1.3
(3)
manence Institute (IPI) developed some experiments and defined 1/N × i=1
(50%/RHi ) × e(Ea /R)×(1/Ti +273.15)−(1/293.15)
an empirical equation that allows to estimate how long it is
where the eLM is the equivalent lifetime multiplier and N is the
necessary for cellulose acetate to evidence significant signals of
number of data points.
deterioration, as discoloration, embrittlement and other changes
that involve loss in appearance or functionality [25,26]. The IPI has
established a value of 45 years as the minimum to guarantee a 3. Results
proper conservation. Eq. (1) shows this estimator, denominated as
Preservation Index [25]: 3.1. Indoor characterization
Fig. 5. Indoor and outdoor temperatures and seasonal cycles: (a) annual behaviour; (b) effect of the thermal inertia in winter; (c) effect of the thermal inertia in summer.
Fig. 7. Vertical profile of the indoor air temperature and relative humidity at 0.15 m (S.1) and 10 m (S.5) in: (a) winter (January) and (b) summer (August).
32 H.E. Silva, F.M.A. Henriques / Energy and Buildings 107 (2015) 26–36
real since the higher relative humidities were always lower than Table 3
Time and type of response for painted panels and sculptures [28].
90% both on the air and at the surface.
Artefact Type of response Response time
3.2. Response of the building and collections Painted panel Surface response 4.3 days
Full response 26 days
Fig. 9. Building Response (BR) according with the 3 set-points in analysis: 20 ◦ C – 50%, EN 15757 and PAS 198. (a) Temperature; (b) relative humidity.
H.E. Silva, F.M.A. Henriques / Energy and Buildings 107 (2015) 26–36 33
3.2.3. Biological degradation survive in unfavourable conditions and resume growth after those
The biological degradation is a frequent risk in old buildings, not periods. The germination occurs when the MRF reaches the 1-value.
only directly in the objects, but also on the interior surfaces. Since After the germination, if 24 h or more of dry conditions occur the
a correct analysis should be conducted for the surface conditions, running sum must be restarted, since it is expectable that moulds
it was considered that the object responds instantaneously to air do not survive more than 24 h in dry conditions [26].
fluctuations. The isopleth system for the substrate type I was used. Observing the MRF evolution in Fig. 11b a value of 0.29 for the
Applying a more conservative case would mean that if it is secure environment defined by EN 15757 and 0.35 for the natural climate
for this condition all the others should also be secure [22]. are reached, both below the 0.5-value, considered as the boundary
The representation of the four conditions in analysis is plotted of the safe zone [26].
in the so-called isopleth diagram, as it can be seen in Fig. 11a. As
expected the environments defined by the 20 ◦ C – 50% and PAS 198 3.2.4. Chemical degradation
targets do not lead to any risk. The results for the EN 15757 and As it was referred for the mechanical degradation, the objects do
the natural climate are less conclusive, being possible to see that in not reach the equilibrium from the environment instantaneously.
certain periods the conditions for the spore germination is reached, According with the IPI a running average of 24 h for T and of 30 days
but without conclusions about the time of exposure. for RH [26] was used to obtain the response of the collections and to
Trying to obtain a more conclusive result it was decided to use calculate the lifetime multiplier. While the mentioned work deals
the concept of mould risk factor (MRF). To determine the MRF, it only with the degradation of the cellulose, it was decided to use it
was assumed that for each reading above a certain isopleth the in the present study to obtain a general view about the influence of
counter would start. The MRF is obtained by summing the recip- the four environments on the evaluation of chemical degradation.
rocal of the time needed to the germination for each point above The evolution of the lifetime multiplier for the four environ-
the isopleth. In this case, where the data were recorded for every ments is presented in Fig. 12. It is possible to note that the bad
10 min, each reading above the isopleth of 16 days, for example, conditions from this point of view occur for the high tempera-
is pondered as 1/(16 × 24 × 6) [22,26]. The result of a running sum tures of summer but not for the high relative humidities of winter.
allows the computation of the global MFR. All values above the iso- Considering the concept of equivalent lifetime multiplier, that
pleths, even if not consecutive, are added, since some spores can enhances the influence for the worst cases, it was verified that the
Fig. 11. Evaluation of biological risk: (a) representation of the data records on the isopleth diagram; (b) representation of the germination factor.
34 H.E. Silva, F.M.A. Henriques / Energy and Buildings 107 (2015) 26–36
tests are emerging, as those used in the current paper. Despite these
advances some experts argue that the actual approaches, although
less demanding, remain too conservative [30]. The rational being
that if some materials of permanent expositions have survived for
years to environmental changes, even before the proliferation of the
acclimatization systems where the indoor climate was only con-
trolled by the building envelope, what is the reason not to survive
in the present days?
The addition of 2 new classes can be used to overcome these
questions, since in a 5-class scale it is possible to maintain the
extremes, while allowing to take into account more intermediate
behaviours, something that can hardly be done on a 3-class scale.
For the mechanical risk, class 5 represents a perfect behaviour,
always in the elastic region, while class 1 represents the failure
obtained when subjected to tension strengths. The middle zone of
Fig. 12. Chemical degradation: lifetime multiplier for varnish and cellulose. the scale considers 3 classes, where class 4 (good response) shows
a plastic response, but only in compression and in less than 10%
of the time. Class 3 (some risks) extends the limitation of the class
environment from the set-point 20 ◦ C – 50% presents the best con- 4 allowing a plastic response both in compression and in tension.
ditions, as expected, since the multiplier relates the current records Class 2 (potential risk) represents a behaviour in plastic region in
to the stationary condition of 20 ◦ C and 50%. more than 10% of time but without reaching failure.
The climate limited by the PAS 198 assumes the second better The concept of MRF, based on the research developed by Sedl-
response to the chemical degradation. Curiously, the environment bauer [21,22] was used to quantify the risk of biological activity
defined by EN 15757 presents a worse scenario than the one for and was divided in 5-classes, influenced by the limits defined by
the natural climate. This fact can be justified by the imposition of the Image Permanence Institute [26]. In the origin of the so-called
the lower limit of temperatures that contributes to a lower value isopleth method, it was defined that the germination only occurs
of eLM. if the ideal conditions of temperature and relative humidity were
According to the Image Permanence Institute (IPI) the lowest reached for a certain time, representing a 1-value of MRF. So, two
Preservation Index to guarantee satisfactory conservation condi- classes were created for this region, class 2 for a 1-value, represent-
tions for 45 years, that corresponds approximately to the target ing a potential risk and class 1 for a MRF higher than 1 representing a
20 ◦ C – 50%, i.e. a eLM equal to 1. high risk. In the other extreme class 5 represents an ideal behaviour
This study shows that any of the used targets conduct to perfect for a MRF equal to 0. Class 4 is less demanding, allowing germina-
conservation conditions, as far as chemical degradation is con- tion levels to be exceeded for short periods as long as MRF is lower
cerned. Despite the existing risks, it is necessary to take into account than 0.5. Under normal circumstances the limits defined for class 3
that not all collections are equally sensitive to chemical degrada- may be sufficient to prevent biological growth; however it is pru-
tion; a detailed analysis for each case is required, to understand if dent to keep a careful monitoring to avoid unexpected occurrences.
there is a real need to improve the internal environment. For the evaluation of chemical risks the concept eLM was used,
relating the risks of a given ambience (characterized by T and RH)
3.3. Global evaluation with the reference established for 20 ◦ C – 50%. For this purpose a
classification was defined around the mid value 1 (class 3 – some
Following the individual analysis performed previously it was risks), with two classes for increased life expectancies (classes 4 and
decided to summarize the results and to create a classification 5) and two for shorter life expectancies (classes 1 and 2). The defi-
method that may allow a better understanding of the global nition of the intervals for each class was based on the classification
phenomena and an easier process for the comparison of results. This of the Image Permanence Institute [26].
new classification is divided in five categories, where 5 represents Finally 5 classes for the building response factor (BR) were pro-
the ideal conditions and 1 the worst case, and evaluates five differ- posed, representing the percentage of time in which the use of
ent parameters: the hygrothermal building capacity – BR (Building HVAC systems is not necessary. For class 5 (ideal) a value of 100%
response); the mechanical degradation of painted wood and sculp- was defined, corresponding to the absence of any energy require-
tures; the biological degradation – MRF (mould risk factor) and the ments to control the indoor climate. The limits for the other classes
chemical degradation – eLM (equivalent lifetime multiplier). No are presented in Table 4. A careful analysis should be made for
weights were attributed to the parameters, neither a final clas- classes 1 and 2 checking if the existing temperature/relative tar-
sification, considering that each building and collection present gets are not too tight or if there are problems with the envelope
particular needs and the final evaluation should be made case by that may lead to unnecessary heat losses.
case. The classification is presented in Table 4.
This classification was based on the method published by Applying this classification to the four targets, it is possible to
Martens [28] that defines three classes and evaluates the risk of conclude that the set-point 20 ◦ C – 50% presents the best response
chemical, biological and mechanical degradation. However, some to the mechanical, biological and chemical degradation, but their
changes were introduced highlighting the inclusion of a new tight limits are too exigent for the building that can conform the
parameter (BR – building response) and the addition of 2 more target ranges only in 0.5% of the year, revealing high requirements
classes. of energy to achieve the limits.
For several years the conservation science theories were based The dynamic targets defined by EN 15757 allow a better
on tight limits of temperature and relative humidity, admitting that response of the building, that can achieve the limits without any
any possibility of loss in the collections was not acceptable. Nowa- other measure, active or passive, during 75% of the time, conduct-
days a new consensus seems to be reached leading to a higher ing to a high energy economy. Despite the more permissive targets,
resilience of the collections to microclimate fluctuations. New stan- the EN 15757 presents a good response of mechanical and biological
dards, guidelines and risk-assessment methods based on laboratory degradation.
H.E. Silva, F.M.A. Henriques / Energy and Buildings 107 (2015) 26–36 35
Table 4
Microclimatic classification according to the building response and a risk-based analysis.
BR, building response; MRF, mould risk factor; eLM, equivalent lifetime multiplier.
Table 5
Classification and comparison between the four approaches in analysis.
E, elastic response; P:C., plastic response in compressions; P. C.+T, plastic response in tension or in tension and compression.
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