Mechanical Design of Chemical Processes

Chapter 2: Briefing - MATERIALS OF EQUIPMENT

I/ Properties of materials:
1. Mechanical properties:
Mechanical properties of a material are the capability to resist external forces, but does
not deform beyond allowance or wreck.
They are important in design because the function and performance of a product
depend on its capacity to resist deformation under the stresses encountered in service.
(1) Yield and tensile trength: When a solid material is subjected to an increasing stress (force
per unit area) normal to the stressed area, the material deforms as measured by the strain (the
ratio of change in length of the material to the initial length)
If stress is increased beyond the linear range up to the yield strength, deformation continues to
be elastic and deformation is not permanent.
As stress is increased beyond tensile strength or ultimate strength further, plastic deformation
is concentrated in the region of the weakest point and the material begins to “neck” or thin
down locally until fracture occurs.

(2) Plasticity: Ductility is the ability of a material to deform plastically under tensile stress
before fracturing. On the other hand, malleability measures the ability of a material to deform
under compressive stress. Both of these mechanical properties measure the extent to which a
solid material can be deformed plastically without fracture
(3) Hardness: is a characteristic of material that determines the resistance of a material to wear
and abrasion
(4) Toughness: is the ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy before
fracture. Brittleness implies sudden failure; toughness is the opposite. Of prime importance is
the ability to absorb energy before fracture. Toughness requires a combination of strength and
ductility.
 2. Physical properties:
Physical properties define the behavior of materials in response to physical forces
other than mechanical.
They are important in manufacturing because they often influence the performance of
the process.
(1) Modulus of elasticity: is the material ability to resist elastic deformation.
(2) Poisson’s ratio: is the measure of the deformation of a material in the direction that
perpendicular to the compressive/tensile stress
(3) Thermal expansion: is the expansion of a material under high temperature
3. Chemical properties:
Chemical properties define the behavior of materials in chemical media.
They are important because they affect the chemical processes inside the equipment or
equipment performance.
(1) Corrosion resistance: is the ability of a material to resist the corrosion caused by the
medium (such as atmosphere, water vapor, electrolyte).
(2) Oxidation resistance: is the ability of a material to resist to high temperature oxidation or
oxidative media, such as water vapor, CO2, SO2, etc.
4. Manufacturing properties:
Manufacturing properties consist of mechanical, physical and chemical properties
which affect the manufacturing processes.
(1) Castability: fluidity, congealing shrinkage rate
(2) Forgeability: resistance to thermal fragment/oxidation, thermo-plasticity
(3) Weldability: fluidity of parent material and welding flux in the melting state, congealing,
shrinkage rate, thermo-plasticity
(4) Machinability: hardness, brittleness.
(5) Heat treatment properties: heat treatment feasibility
(6) Cold and warm formability: plasticity, toughness.
II/ Construction materials for equipment:
1. Criteria for material selection:
- Corrosion, working temperature/pressure
- Abrasive environment
- Ease of fabrication
- Availability of standard equipment
- Cost
- Advice from the experienced
2. Commonly used materials
(1) Metals and alloys
Carbon steel is an alloy of iron and carbon with nominal amounts of other elements.
- Low carbon steel (%C = 0.05 ÷ 0.25, %Mn ≤ 0.40)
- Medium carbon steel (%C = 0.25 ÷ 0.55, %Mn = 0.60 ÷ 1.65)
- High carbon steel has (%C = 0.55 ÷ 0.95, %Mn = 0.30 ÷ 0.90)
- Very high carbon steel (%C = 0.96 ÷ 2.1)
Advantages Disadvantages Applications
- low cost - low corrosion - storage of most of organic
- good tensile strength and ductility resistance solvents; steam, air, water;
- availability of many standards concentrated acid and
- easy fabrication alkali
 Stainless steel is also an alloy of iron and carbon. It is most commonly used materials
of construction for corrosion resistance. It differs from carbon steel mainly by the amount of
chromium present (%Cr ≥ 12). Other alloying elements (nickel, molybdenum, titanium,
copper, carbon and nitrogen) are added to enhance properties.
- Austenitic grades (most common types: 304, 304L, 316)
- Martensitic grades
- Ferritic grades
- Duplex grades
- Precipitation hardening grades
Advantages Disadvantages Applications
- high corrosion resistance - corrosion in reducing - boilers, vessels, highly stressed
- high strength and environment (Cl-) parts
ductility - higher cost than CT - storage of high corrosive liquid
- hard fabrication
(2) Polymers:
- Thermoplastics: can be reshaped (PE, PP, PVC)
- Thermosets: cannot be remoulded (phenolic/polyester resins)
- Elastomers
Advantages Disadvantages Applications
- resistance to weak mineral acids, - moderate temperature, - pipes, tubes, tanks
small changes in pH, minor pressure applications
impurities - low mechanical strength
- low cost - fair resistance to organic
- light weight solvents
- easy fabrication and installing
(3) Ceramics
III/ Corrosion:
In chemical manufacture, corrosion resistance is most often the prime consideration in
materials selection. Corrosion is the deterioration of materials (usually metals) as a result of
chemical reactions between the materials and the surrounding environment.
(1) Uniform corrosion: is attack to the material that is distributed more or less uniformly over
a surface, and proceeds more or less uniformly at a uniform rate. An acceptable rate of
corrosion of relatively low-cost material, such as carbon steel, is of 0.25 mm-1y-1 or less for
stainless steel, 0.1 mm-1y-1.
(2) Galvanic corrosion: occurs when two different metals have contact, either physically or
electrically, in a common electrolyte.
(3) Erosion corrosion: is a corrosion process enhanced by the erosion action of flowing fluids
(high velocity, turbulence, impinging solid particles, cavitation, which is the formation and
sudden collapse of vapor bubbles in a liquid)
(4) Crevice corrosion: is localized corrosion in small crevices where fluid can stagnate. Such
crevices can occur in a metal surface or at joints, screw threads, and so on.
(5) Pitting corrosion: is localized corrosion that leads to the creation of small holes in the
metal surface.
(6) Stress corrosion cracking: is a failure mechanism caused by a combination of a susceptible
material (normally a ductile metal), tensile stress and a specific corrosive environment.
(7) Hydrogen embrittlement: embrittlement is a phenomenon that causes loss of ductility in a
material, making it brittle and reducing its load-bearing capacity. Hydrogen embrittlement
involves the diffusion of hydrogen atoms into the metal.
When equipment is mechanically designed, after determining the wall thickness
needed to meet mechanical requirements, an extra thickness is added to compensate for the
reduction in the wall thickness as a result of corrosion over time. This is referred to as the
corrosion allowance. Thus, a corrosion allowance must be added to the wall thickness to meet
the mechanical requirements over the life of the equipment.