IL NUOVO CIMENTO VoL. L X B, N.

1 i i Marzo 1969

A Model (, Hidden-Variable ,~ Theory for Hydrogen.

D. LEITER
Physics Department, Boston College - Chestnut Hill, Mass.

(ricevuto il 21 Giugno 1968; manoscritto revisionato ricevuto il 23 Luglio 1968)

S u m m a r y . - - We discuss solutions to a heuristic model for wave-mechanical

hydrogen in which an ad hoc <~hidden-variable ,~ field 2z(x, t) is added
into the conventional SchrSdinger equation. The resulting equation is
nonlinear in ~(x, t) and has limit cyclic solutions which correspond to
the conventional hydrogenic eigenfunctions. However, superpositions of
eigenfunctions have the property t h a t they collapse into pure eigen-
functions in a time VLCTwhich can be arbitrarily adjusted according to
the value of 2. The relationship of the model to that of the ~reduction
of the wave packet ~ is discussed.

1. - Introduction and discussion.

T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s w o r k is t o d i s c u s s t h e p r o p e r t i e s of s o l u t i o n s to u h e u r -
i s t i c m o d e l of w a v e - m e c h a n i c a l h y d r o g e n in w h i c h we p o s t u l a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e
of a (~h i d d e n - v a r i a b l e ~) field n(x, t) as

(1) =(x, t) fdx'~.D_(., -- ~')1~(,~./, t')l ~ ,

where

i) DD_(x--x') =0,

(2) ii) D _ ( x -- x') = ~(r - - R/c)O(v) -- ~(v + R / c ) O ( - - 3)

8:nR

I iii) T:~t--t' R~[x-x'[

T h e n t h e m o d i f i e d S c h r S d i n g e r e q u a t i o n for h y d r o g e n in t h i s m o d e l is pos-
108 I). LEITER

tulated to b e (2)

\
(3) (~2
~mm r 2u(x, t )/| ~o(x, t) = i~df(x, t) ' (h = c = 1)

w h e r e 2 is t h e c o u p l i n g c o n s t a n t of t h e x - f i e l d to t h e ~0-field. E q u a t i o n (3)
is a n o n l i n e a r p a r t i a l i n t e g r o - d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n i n ~0. T h i s e q u a t i o n h a s (~l i m i t
c y c l e solutions )) (LCS) (2)

(4) vJ~,(*, t) = ~Ax, t) exp [ - iE~t] ( ~ = 1, 2, ...),

where
2/--1 1
i) ~ ( . , t) = Z Z b~U~(x),
l--l} ~ - - - - l

(5)
m~ 2
iii) E~ - -
2N

T h e s e LCS p l a y t h e role of q u a n t u m levels, w h i c h are, in this case, d e g e n e r a t e .

L C S e x i s t b e c a u s e eq. (4) i m p l i e s t h a t I~f(x,t)]: is t i m e i n d e p e n d e n t , for w h i c h
= 0 occurs. H o w e v e r , if we c o n s i d e r a s u p e r p o s i t i o n of LCS

(6) ~o(,, t) = ~ ~Ax) exp [ - iE~ t] C~(t),

.,V-1

t h e n , since ~ ~ 0, t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t 3t CN ~ 0. In fact

co
• ac~(t)
(7)
~t 21'.1

w h i c h is a n o n l i n e a r e q u a t i o n i n t h e C~(t)'s for w h i c h t h e a s y m p t o t i c a l l y s t a b l e

(1) For purposes of mathematical convenience, we have chosen ~(x, t) to obey

an equation which happens to be relativistieally invariant. This is not inconsistent
with its coupling to a nonrclativistie Sehr6dinger equation sines this requires that
<~/,m><<cbe valid for the ~o(x, t)-field, but imposes no direct kinematic constraint ml :r.
A similar situation oeem's in ordinary qua.ntum mechanics when the relativistica.lly
invariant Maxwell field A~ is coupled to the nonrelativistie SehrSdinger ~f-field.
(~) N. MINORSKY: Nonlinear Oscillations (Amsterdam, 1962), p. 72 (for related
topics see also Chap. 2, 6 and 21 of this reference); additional information on stability,
Mbcit on an equation different from ours, is found in Studies in Nonlinear Stability
Theory, by W. ECK~IAUS (Berlin, 1965).
 A MODEL {I H I D D E N - V A R I A B L E }) T H E O R Y FOR HYDROGEN 109

solutions are
i) c~,(t) -+ a~, ,
(8)
ii, ~St - + 0 . ], 2

Hence, superpositions of the LCS, eq. (6) will evolve causally into one of
in the superposition. Solutions like (6) will be henceforth referred to as <~limit
cycle transition solutions ~> (LCT). To u n d e r s t a n d the physics of how this oc-
curs we shall s t u d y the transition process in detail.

2. - Limit cycle transition solutions (LCT).

]n eq. (7), the <~hidden-variable ,> field z~(x, t) is given by

i) ~(x,t)=fu~[ lw(x''t-m/c)12 l ~ ( x " t + R/c)l~]

(9) 8ycR '
ii) R -lx--x' I.

If we insert (6) into (9) and expired the t e r m

(10) e~q(t ± R/c) ~ C~(t ± R/c)C*(t i R/c)exp [i(E~--E,,)t]

in ~ Taylor series in powers of (R/c), then

(11) n(x, t) = -~=1 o_, ,=~ ~U+~' (~t)~,+~ [~°~] '

where e~ = (S~ + igor), and

- dx'aR2~*(x')cpq(x').

Hence (7) becomes

i8C~=~ ~ ~ F ( ~ + ~ ) 8 ('~+~' ]

where A ~ = E~ - - E~ and

(14) (o.,+~) - - 2 f dx'aT~,(x)Tx(x)R2~q~*(x')qg~(x') .

1 10 D . LEITEI%

E q u a t i o n (13) is an infinite-order, ordinary, nonlinear differential equation for

the C~(t), which can be written in the more compact form

8C~(t)
~_, .F~,(t)C~(t) ,
o

where

06) r,,,,(,) o=,f cxp E,_ o l .

Since (13) and (14), imply t h a t

i) w~,,,o.-.o[(,~/m~)
(2s:t:l) 28
],
~(2s+l)
07)
ii) (~t)2,+~( S ~ ) ~ 0 [(mo~2)~+~].

Then the ildinite series of derivatives in (16) will converge and /'~r~(t) can be
t r u n c a t e d to some finite order (2N4-1), and will be accurate to order ~ g . Hence
in what follows we will be justified in assuming that (13) is a (25r4-1)-order,
ordinary, nonlinear differential equation for 3? > 1. The energy of the hydrogen
atom, obeying (3), is

(18)

Substitution of (6) and (15) into (18) yields

2$ M 2V
(19) s(t) = ~ [C~(t)]2E~ 4- ~ ~ F~q(t)C~(t) Cq(t) .
P=I ~-1 q = l

Hence the energy of the hydrogen atom, in this model, will be changing with
time if the wave function is described b y (6). This nonstationary condition
of the energy will continue until (6) evolves into an LCS like (4). This can
occur when (8) is satisfied since then all the derivatives of S~(t) vanish and
(16) and (15) imply t h a t Fr~ = 0 and i~cC~r/~t -----0. For example in the r-th
LCS we have
i) ~(t) E(,} (r=l, 2, ...)
(20)
ii) (d/dt) e ( t ) = 0 ,

and 8e = O with respect to arbitrary variations in 3F(,)(x) subject to the con-

s~raint @o,(x)/~,(x)} = 1 .
 A I~IODEL (~ HIDDEN-VARIABLE ~) THEORY FOR HYDROGEN 111

T h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t i m e of e v o l u t i o n of a n L C T i n t o a n d LCS c a n b e esti-
m a t e d b y c a l c u l a t i n g ~lC~(t)12/~t f r o m (15) as

et - 2 5 (1;~(t).q~,(t)).
q=l

T h e n f r o m (17) a n d (21)

(22) alc'l"
at ,-~ 0 [ ( 2 c ~ ) m ~ ] .

H e n c e t h e t r a n s i e n t effects of t h e (~h i d d e n v a r i a b l e )~ field will e x t e n d o v e r

a t i m e i n t e r v a l on t h e o r d e r of

(23) ~0 [';T] --~ 0 [(2c~2)-~" lO -~' s ] .

Then, in t h i s m o d e l , t h e collapse of a n L C T (a w a v e p a c k e t ) i n t o a n LCS w o u l d

occur, for e x a m p l e , i n a t i m e i n t e r v a l T < 1 0 - ' ~ s if ,t were such t h a t [ 2 ~ 1 > 1 .
This is in c o n t r a d i s t i n c t i o n to c o n v e n t i o n a l q u a n t u m mech~mics (eq. (3) w i t h
2 ~ 0)) w h e r e for a w a v e p a c k e t like (6) i}C~/~t 0. E s s e n t i a l l y , t h e r e a s o n
w h y ~ <~c o l l a p s e of t h e w a v e p a c k e t ,> caii o c c u r in t h i s m o d e l is b e c a u s e t h e
<, h i d d e n - v a r i a b l e ,) field 2 z i n t r o d u c e s a d v a n c e d a n d r e t a r d e d n o n l i n e a r t e r m s
i n t o t h e w a v e e q u a t i o n for 9. T h e s e t e r m s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e for t h e d e r i v a t i v e s
of S ~ a p p e a r i n g in (13). ~ h e s e t e r m s a r e n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d a c t to d e c r e a s e
or i n c r e a s e t h e e n e r g y of t h e s y s t e m u n t i l a n LCS in r e a c h e d . I n t h e LCS
t h e n o n c o n s e r v a t i v e d e r i v a t i v e t e r m s v a n i s h a n d t h e e n e r g y of t h e s y s t e m
b e c o m e s c o n s t a n t in t i m e . T h e m a i n q u e s t i o n r e m a i n i n g is h o w one e s t a b l i s h e s
a connection with conventional quantum mechanics and its probabilistic struc-
ture. A p o s s i b l e a n s w e r to this q u e s t i o n lies in t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n of b o u n d a r y
c o n d i t i o n s on (3), a n d / o r (13). H o w e v e r , b e f o r e we discuss t h i s m a t t e r , we
n o t e for c o m p l e t e n e s s t h a t if we w e r e to c o n s i d e r t h e h y d r o g e n a t o m t o b e in
a n ~ e x t e r n a l ~> e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c field t h e n (3) b e c o m e s

(24) [ (I~ t2mAext)2- - rc~ e~.,,t -? 2,'~ ~

] i~dp ,

w h e r e z is still g i v e n b y (1). I n t h i s case t h e i n h e r e n t d e g e n e r a c y of t h e LCS

would be broken and we would obtain

(25) w~m(x, t) = z~,m(x) exp [-- iE~,J],

where

(26) [ ( P + Aex~)2 0c eqgext]

Xx~m F~

[ 2m r J
112 D. LEITEI~

F o r this more general case, the preceding discussiou would be still valid, except
for the requirement of having triplet sets of i~dices of the _~¢'(t), and the pres-
enee of the vector and scalar potential terms in p(t~ in ~ddition to 2~.

3. - A c o n n e c t i o n t o c o n v e n t i o n a l quantum mechanics.

Since (3) and/or (13) are, to the ( 2 N + 1 ) - t h order of approximation, ( 2 N + 1 ) - t h -

order nonlinear differenti-bl equations, the required boundary conditions at
t = 0, needed to specify an <~experiment ,> initiated at t 0, are the values
of C~(0) and ~C~(O)/~t, ..., (8'"N'/(~t)2~)(Cv(O)); ( N - - 1 , 2, ...). The outcome of
such an <~experiment ,> will be a single LCS or a sequence of LCS, depending
on the values of the C~(0), ... (~2~/(~t)2~)(C~(0)). I n a sense C~(0) corresponds
to the <~initial position >>of the system, while ~C~(O)/~t is the <<initial velocity >>,
and ~'2C~(O)/~t~ is the ~,initial acceleration >>, and so on up to (~2~/(~t)2~)(C~(0)).
The specification of this <~complete set of initial conditions >> will lead to a
completely predictable outcome. I n particular, if the system is initially in an
LCS, so t h a t C ~ ( 0 ) ~ ( ~ ( r : l , 2,...) ~C~(O)/~t=O=~C~(O)/~ct 2 - --0=
(~(2~/~t~) C~(O), then it will remain in t h a t LCS.
However if, as in conventional q u a n t u m mechanics, we specify only the
C~(0), then the lack of knowledge of the <~extra >> variables ~C~(O)/~t, ...,
~(2~C~(0)/(~t)~2~, required by the (( hidden-variable >> field, implies t h a t insuf-
ficient b o u n d a r y conditions are being applied to (13). Hence for a series
of (( repeated experiments >> where only the C~(0) were specified and the
C~(O)/~t,..., (62~/(~t)~v)(C~(O)) were unknown, or randomly distributed, then
(13) would predict a distribution of possible LCT-LCS trajectories in
the (( CTspace >>. However a knowledge of the (~initial position >), as given
by the C~(O), in the (( C~-space>> would allow us to predict statistically
what the LCT-LCS might be for a large n u m b e r of repeated experiments where
the (, hidden variables ~> 3C~,(O)/~ct, ..., (5~/~t~)(C~(O)) were r a n d o m l y distrib-
uted about their allowed range of values, consistent with (13). I n particulur,
since the A~r is bilinear in ~v as ~v*~v, it is re~sonable to expect t h a t the val-

ues of IC~(0)I5 assuming that ~]C~(0)I ~ = 1 is chosen, should represe~t the

relative (( probabilities ~> of She system being in the p - t h LCS. I n particular,

if the system is initially ((prepared)) in the r-th LCS, then C ~ ( 0 ) = ( ~ ;
~C~(O)/~t= 0 = , ..., : 0 ~ E2x C~(O)/~t~. Hence we would infer from the knowl-
edge of C~(0) alone, a <(one-hundred percent ~>probability of the system being
f o u n d to be in the r-th LCS in subsequent repeated, identical ((experiments ~>.
This process is similiar in character to the measurement postulate of conven-
tional q u a n t u m mechanics, except for the fact that underlying the statistical
interpretation is a causal model for the measurement process which requires
 A MODEL (t IIIDDEN-VARIABLE ~) THEORY FOR IIYDROGEN 113

for its u n i q u e n e s s a g r e a t e r ~ t m o u n t of i n i t i : d i n f o r m a t i o n than that required

by conventional qm~ntum theory (i.e. eq. (3) w i t h 2 - - 0 ) .
I t is to b e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t t h i s m o d e l is h e u r i s t i c in c h a r a c t e r and is m e a n t
o n l y to b e s u g g e s t i v e of t h e w a y t h a t n o n l i n e a r i t y , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a d v a n c e d
and retarded potentials, can be exploited to produce the e f f e c t s of <<h i d d e n
v a r i a b l e s ~>(a).

RIASSUNTO (')

Si diseutono le soluzioni di un modello euristieo per l'idrogeno nella meeeaniea on-

dulatoria, in cui si aggiunge all'equazione convenzionale di Schr6dinger un campo ad
hoc di <(variabili nascoste ~) 2z/(x, t). L ' e q u a z i o n e risultante g non lincare in ~o(x, t) ed ha
soluzioni cicliche limite che corrispondono alle normali autofunzioni dell'idrogeno.
T u t t a v i a , le sovrapposizioni di autofunzioni si riducono a pure autofunzioni in un tempo
vLer che pub essei'e regolato ~.rbitrariamente a seconda, de1 va.lore di 2. Si discute la
relazione del modello con quello della ((riduzione del p a c c h e t t o d ' o n d e ~.

(*) T r a d u z i o n e a cura della Redazione.

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8 - II Nuovo Cimento ]3.