Soil Classification

Soil classification deals with the systematic categorization of soils based on distinguishing
characteristics as well as criteria that dictate choices in use.
Soil classification is a dynamic subject, from the structure of the system itself, to the definitions
of classes, and finally in the application in the field. Soil classification can be approached from the
perspective of soil as a material and soil as a resource.
Engineering
Engineers, typically geotechnical engineers, classify soils according to their engineering properties
as they relate to use for foundation support or building material. Modern engineering classification
systems are designed to allow an easy transition from field observations to basic predictions of soil
engineering properties and behaviors.
The most common engineering classification system for soils in North America is the Unified Soil
Classification System (USCS). The USCS has three major classification groups: (1) coarse-grained
soils (e.g. sands and gravels); (2) fine-grained soils (e.g. silts and clays); and (3) highly organic
soils (referred to as "peat"). The USCS further subdivides the three major soil classes for
clarification. It distinguishes sands from gravels by grain size, and further classifying some as
"well-graded" and the rest as "poorly-graded". Silts and clays are distinguished by the soils'
Atterberg limits, and separates "high-plasticity" from "low-plasticity" soils as well. Moderately
organic soils are considered subdivisions of silts and clays, and are distinguished from inorganic
soils by changes in their plasticity properties (and Atterberg limits) on drying. The European soil
classification system (ISO 14688) is very similar, differing primarily in coding and in adding an
"intermediate-plasticity" classification for silts and clays, and in minor details.
Other engineering soil classification systems in the United States include the AASHTO Soil
Classification System, which classifies soils and aggregates relative to their suitability for
pavement construction, and the Modified Burmister system, which works similarly to the USCS,
but includes more coding for various soil properties.
A full geotechnical engineering soil description will also include other properties of the soil
including color, in-situ moisture content, in-situ strength, and somewhat more detail about the
material properties of the soil than is provided by the USCS code. The USCS and additional
engineering description is standardized in ASTM D 2487.
Soil science
For soil resources, experience has shown that a natural system approach to classification, i.e.
grouping soils by their intrinsic property (soil morphology), behavior, or genesis, results in classes
that can be interpreted for many diverse uses. Differing concepts of pedogenesis, and differences
in the significance of morphological features to various land uses can affect the classification
approach. Despite these differences, in a well-constructed system, classification criteria group
similar concepts so that interpretations do not vary widely. This is in contrast to a technical system
approach to soil classification, where soils are grouped according to their fitness for a specific use
and their edaphic characteristics.
Natural system approaches to soil classification, such as the French Soil Reference System
(Référentiel pédologique français) are based on presumed soil genesis. Systems have developed,
such as USDA soil taxonomy and the World Reference Base for Soil Resources, which use
taxonomic criteria involving soil morphology and laboratory tests to inform and refine hierarchical
classes. Another approach is numerical classification, also called ordination, where soil individuals
are grouped by multivariate statistical methods such as cluster analysis. This produces natural
groupings without requiring any inference about soil genesis.
In soil survey, as practiced in the United States, soil classification usually means criteria based on
soil morphology in addition to characteristics developed during soil formation. Criteria are
designed to guide choices in land use and soil management. As indicated, this is a hierarchical
system that is a hybrid of both natural and objective criteria. USDA soil taxonomy provides the
core criteria for differentiating soil map units. This is a substantial revision of the 1938 USDA soil
taxonomy which was a strictly natural system. The USDA classification was originally developed
by Guy Donald Smith, former director of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's soil survey
investigations. Soil taxonomy based soil map units are additionally sorted into classes based on
technical classification systems. Land Capability Classes, hydric soil, and prime farmland are some
examples.
The European Union uses the World Reference Base for Soil Resources (WRB), currently the
Update 2015 of the third edition 2014 (see the list of soils there). Previously, the earlier editions
of the WRB were used. According to the first edition of the WRB (1998), the booklet "Soils of the
European Union" was published by the former Institute of Environment and Sustainability (now:
Land Resources Unit, European Soil Data Centre/ESDAC).
In addition to scientific soil classification systems, there are also vernacular soil classification
systems. Folk taxonomies have been used for millennia, while scientifically based systems are
relatively recent developments. Knowledge on the spatial distribution of soils has increased
dramatically. Soil Grids is a system for automated soil mapping based on models fitted using soil
profiles and environmental covariate data. On a global scale, it provides maps at 1.00–0.25 km
spatial resolution. Whether sustainability might be the ultimate goal for managing the global soil
resources, these new developments require studied soils to be classified and given its own name.
OSHA
The US Occupational Safety and Health Administration(OSHA) requires the classification of soils
to protect workers from injury when working in excavations and trenches. OSHA uses 3 soil
classifications plus one for rock, based primarily on strength but also other factors which affect
the stability of cut slopes:
 Stable Rock: natural solid mineral matter that can be excavated with vertical sides and remain
intact while exposed.
 Type A cohesive, plastic soils with unconfined compressive strength greater than 1.5 ton per
square foot (tsf)(144 kPa), and meeting several other requirements (which induces a lateral
earth pressure of 25 psf per ft of depth)
 Type B cohesive soils with unconfined compressive strength between 0.5 tsf (48 kPa) and 1.5
tsf (144 kPa), or unstable dry rock, or soils which would otherwise be Type A (lateral earth
pressure of 45 psf per ft of depth)
 Type C granular soils or cohesive soils with unconfined compressive strength less than 0.5 tsf
(48 kPa) or any submerged or freely seeping soil or adversely bedded soils (lateral earth
pressure of 80 psf per ft of depth)
 Type C60 A subtype of Type C soil, though is not officially recognized by OSHA as a separate
type, induces a lateral earth pressure of 60 psf per ft of depth
Each of the soil classifications has implications for the way the excavation must be made or the
protections (sloping, shoring, shielding, etc.) that must be provided to protect workers from
collapse of the excavated bank.
The ground on which we walk is never quite the same, it keeps on changing. Sometimes it is made
up of millions of tiny granules and other times it is the hard surface of tar-covered roads. There
was the time long back when this ground was mostly covered with soil and grass. And then came
the roads, rails and so on. This soil is a very broad term and refers to a loose layer of earth that
covers the surface of the planet.
The soil is the part of the earth’s surface which includes disintegrated rock, humus, inorganic and
other organic materials that provides the medium for plants growth. For the formation of soil, it
takes around hundreds to thousands of years. The soil is usually generated when rocks break up
into their constituent parts. When a range of different forces acts on the rocks, they break into
smaller parts to form the soil. These forces also include the impact of wind, water and the reaction
from salts.
There are three stages of soil:
 Solid soil,
 Soil with air in the pores,
 Soil with water in the pores.
There are various types of soil that undergo diverse environmental pressures. The soil is mainly
classified by its texture, proportions and different forms of organic and mineral compositions.
Types of Soil
The soil is basically classified into four types:
 Sandy soil.
 Silt Soil.
 Clay Soil.
 Loamy Soil.
Sandy Soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils are one
of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and poor in holding
water, which makes it hard for the plant’s roots to absorb water. This type of soil is very good for
the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or fragmentation of rocks like
granite, limestone, and quartz.

Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to the sandy soil and is made up of
rock and other mineral particles which are smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth
and quite fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is easily transported by
moving currents and it is mainly found near the river, lake, and other water bodies. The silt soil is
more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore it is also used in agricultural
practices to improve soil fertility.
Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in this soil are
tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This soil has very good
water storage qualities and making hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it. It is very sticky
to the touch when wet, but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and heaviest type of soil which
do not drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish.

Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil. It is a combination of sand, silt, and clay such that the beneficial
properties from each is included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture and nutrients,
hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as an agricultural soil as it
includes an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials being sandy, clay, and silt and it also
happens to have hummus. A part from these, it also has higher calcium and pH levels because of
its inorganic origins.
1. State the classifications of soil.
Soil can be classified into 3 primary types based on its texture – sand, silt, and clay. However, the
percentage of these can vary, resulting in more compound types of soil such as loamy sand, sandy
clay, silty clay, etc.
2. State the characteristics of sandy soil.
Sandy soil essentially consists of small particles formed by weathering rocks. It is also very low
nutrients and poor in holding water, which makes it one of the poorest types of soil for agriculture.
3. Explain the significant features of a silty soil.
Silt has much smaller particles compared to sand. It is also made up of rock and other mineral
particles. Furthermore, its fine quality holds water better than sand. Due to the above-mentioned
features, it is also beneficial for agriculture.
4. Explain the characteristic of Clayey soil.
Clay contains the smallest particles amongst the other two types of soil. Particles are so densely
packed that there is very little or no airspace. Consequently, this property effectively retains water.
However, it also becomes hard for moisture and air to penetrate into it, thereby impeding the
growth of plants.
 Types of Sand
Types of Sand
Sand can be classified based on various criteria. Such as General criteria and Engineering
criteria.
Based on General criteria, sand can be many types. For example, coral sand, black sand, gypsum
sand, etc. We’ll ignore the general criteria. We will consider the types of sand from the civil
engineering point of view. From the engineering point of view, the sand can be classified based on
various things. I’ll discuss them one by one below.
Based on Its Source

Based on the source of the Sand, it can be two types: Natural and Artificial.
Based on where the sand is collected from, the Natural sand can be the following types:
 Pit sand
 River sand
 Sea sand
Let’s discuss them thoroughly.
Pit Sand
This is a type of Natural sand.
 Source of Pit sand:
This sand is collected from the ground by digging a pit.
The pit’s depth is about one-two meter from the ground level.
 Grain:
Pit sand consists of sharp, angular and rough grains. it is free from salt and organic materials.
Because of the absence of salt in this sand, it doesn’t absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
 Sand Type:
Pit sand is coarse type sand
 Color:
Due to the coating of iron-oxide, it shows red-orange color.
 Uses:
Due to its superior binding quality, it is widely used in civil construction.
River Sand
River sand is also a type of natural sand.
 Source:
It is obtained from a river bed or a river-bank.
  Grain:
This sand consists of fine rounded grains and It is well graded.
 Sand Type:
River sand is Fine-type sand.
 Color:
It has a white-grey color.
 Uses:
It is available in clean condition and can be widely used for all-purpose of construction activities
like plastering and concreting.
Sea sand
 Source:
This Natural type of sand is obtained from sea-shore.
 Grain:
It consists of rounded grains.
 Sand Type:
It is also Fine-type sand.
 Color:
The color of sea sand is light-brown.
 Uses:
This type of sand is not normally used for construction work. Because it has salt in it which attracts
the moisture from the atmosphere and causes for dampness, efflorescence, and disintegration of
work. It should be thoroughly washed before using in construction.
Artificial Sand
It is an effective alternative to river sand. It is produced by crushing either basalt rock or granite.
It is well-graded and coarse-type sand.
Based On Sieve Analysis

Based on sieve analysis sand can be divided into following three types:
 Fine sand
 Coarse sand
 Gravelly sand
Fine Sand
Sand passing through the 1.5875 mm sieve is called fine sand. We use this sand mainly for
plastering purpose.
Coarse Sand
The sand which is passing through the 3.175 mm sieve is called coarse sand. For masonry work,
we mostly used this type of sand.
Gravelly Sand
The sand which is passing through the 7.62 mm sieve is called gravelly sand. We generally use
this type of sand in concrete.
Types of Sand Based on Their Purpose of Use

Based on where to be used, the sand can be classified as follows:

 Brick sand
 Plaster sand
 Concrete sand
Brick Sand
This sand is obviously used for brickwork. The Fineness Modulus of this sand should be 1.2 to 1.5
and should not contain more than 4% silt.
Plaster Sand
Obviously, it is used for plastering work. The fineness modulus should not be more than 1.5 and
silt content should not be more than 4% in this type of sand.
Concrete Sand
For the concreting purpose, we generally use coarse sand. The fineness modulus of this sand should
be 2.5 to 3.5 and it should not contain more than 4% silt.
Based on Their Grain Size
Based on the grain size of the sand it can be classified as follows:
Very Fine Sand
If the grain size of the sand between 0.0625 mm to 0.125 mm then it is called very fine sand.
Fine Sand
The grain size of this type of sand is between 0.125mm to 0.25mm
Medium Sand
If the grain size of the sand between 0.25mm to 0.50mm that is the medium sand.
Coarse Sand
This type of sand’s grain size is between 0.50mm to 1.0mm.
Very Coarse Sand
The grain size of this type of sand is between 1.0 mm to 2.0 mm.
Conclusion
There are some other types of sand available in the construction sector such as landscaping sand,
paving sand, etc.
Geography of Pakistan:
The Geography of Pakistan is a profound blend of landscapes varying from plains to deserts,
forests, hills, and plateaus ranging from the coastal areas of the Arabian Sea in the south to the
mountains of the Karakoram range in the north. Pakistan geologically overlaps both with the Indian
and the Eurasian tectonic plates where its Sindh and Punjab provinces lie on the north-western
corner of the Indian plate while Balochistan and most of the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa lie within the
Eurasian plate which mainly comprises the Iranian Plateau. Gilgit-Baltistan and Azad Kashmir lie
along the edge of the Indian plate and hence are prone to violent earthquakes where the two
tectonic plates collide.
List of deserts of Pakistan:
Pakistan hosts five major deserts which were historic forests.
1. Kharan Desert
The Kharan Desert is located in Northwest Balochistan. It makes a nature boundary between
Pakistan, Iran and Afghanistan. It is located in Kharan District. The Kharan Desert is a sandiest
desert in Pakistan. It is distinct from the rest of the province's landscape due to its sandy nature
and more even ter. The desert was used for nuclear testing by the Pakistan military, making it the
most famous of the five deserts. It is in the center of a large empty basin. It estimated area of more
than 20,0000 square km.
2. Thal Desert
The Thal Desert is located in Bhakkar District of Pakistan between the Indus and Jhelum rivers. A
large canal-building project is currently underway to irrigate the land. Irrigation will make most
of the desert suitable for farming. In the north of the Thal Desert there are salt ranges, in the east
the Jhelum and Chenab rivers and to the west the Indus river.
3. Thar Desert
The Thar Desert spans an area of 175,000 square kilometres and covers large areas of Pakistan and
India. It is the largest desert of Pakistan and the only subtropical desert of Asia. It is the seventh
largest desert on the planet and the third largest in Asia. It has also spread into India. The Thar
Desert, also known as the Great Indian Desert, is a large, arid region in the north-western part of
the Indian subcontinent that forms a natural boundary between India and Pakistan. It is the world's
17th largest desert, and the world's 9th largest subtropical desert. 85% of the Thar Desert is in
India, and the remaining 15% is in Pakistan. In India, it covers 320,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi), of
which 90% is in Rajasthan and extends into Gujarat, Punjab, and Haryana. In Pakistan, it spreads
over Punjab and Sindh starting from the Tharparkar District in the east. This desert consists of a
very dry part, the Marusthali region, in the west, and a semi-desert region in the east with fewer
sand dunes and slightly more precipitation.
4. Cholistan Desert
Cholistan Desert is locally known as "Rohi 'and covers the area of Bahawalpur, Punjab. It adjoins
the Thar Desert, extending over to Sindh and into India. Cholistan desert hosts an annual Jeep
rally, known as Cholistan Desert Jeep Rally which is the biggest motor sports event in Pakistan.
Cholistan desert is the largest desert in the subcontinent.
In Pakistan different types of sands are present in different areas. In Lahore the big source of sand
is ‘Ravi Sand’ and commonly used.
In Sargodha sand contains sulphate ions which are not good for construction purposes therefore
we use SRC in those areas. In Karachi sand is used in large amount we use it in making concrete
blocks.