Annals of Tourism Research, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp.

919Ð935, 1998

\ Pergamon
Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved
Printed in Great Britain
0160-7383/98 $19.00+0.00

PII: S0160-7383(98)00045-0

MOVIE INDUCED TOURISM

Roger Riley
Ithaca College, USA
Dwayne Baker
Arizona State University, USA
Carlton S. Van Doren
Texas A&M University, USA

Abstract: Movies provide the objects and subjects for the gaze of many people, and for some
people, movies induce them to travel to the locations where they were filmed. The data gathered
at 12 US locations supports earlier anecdotal accounts of movie-induced tourism. This paper
extends from earlier studies by suggesting a variety of reasons for this type of gaze and
documents some of the impacts on movie-induced tourism locations. Visitation data were
gathered from a variety of settings and were aggregated to show the power of movies when
inducing people to locations. Data analysis showed at least four years of visitation increases
after movies were released. Keywords: movies, cinema, tourism, locations, movie-induced
tourism. Þ 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Re sume : Le tourisme motive par le cine ma. Les films offrent des objets et des sujets au regard
de beaucoup de gens; certaines personnes sont motive es a voyager aux endroits ou un film a e te
tourne . Les donne es recueillies a douze sites ame ricains appuient des re cits anecdotiques du
tourisme motive par le cine ma. L|article porte plus loin la recherche ante rierure en sugge rant
plusieurs raisons pour ce genre de regard, et documente quelques impacts locaux du tourisme
motive par le cine ma. Des donne es au sujet des visites on e te recueillies de plusieurs sites et
puis agre ge es pour montrer le pouvoir du cine ma a fair aux gens visiter les sites. Une analyse
des donne es a montre au moins quatre anne es d|accroissements de visites apre s la sortie des
films. Mots-cle s: films, cine ma, tourisme, sites, tourisme motive par la cine ma. Þ 1998 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION
In The Tourist Gaze, Urry suggests that tourists seek environments
and experiences that contrast non-tourism realms. One of his baseline
arguments is that:
. . . places are chosen to be gazed upon because there is an anticipation,
especially through daydreaming and fantasy, or intense pleasures, either on
a different scale or involving a different sense from those customarily
encountered. Such anticipation is constructed and sustained through a
variety of non-tourist practices such as film, TV, literature, magazines,
records, and videos which construct and reinforce the gaze (1990:3).
Through movies, people are sometimes induced to visit what they
have seen on the silver screen. If this gaze is directed at objects or

Roger Riley is Associate Professor at Ithaca College (Department of Therapeutic Recreation

and Leisure Services, Ithaca NY 14850, USA. Email: rriley@ithaca.edu) with interests in movie-
induced tourism, prestige and tourism, and qualitative methods. Dwayne Baker is Assistant
Professor at Arizona State University with expertise in youth at risk, service quality, and research
methods. Carlton Van Doren is Professor Emeritus from Texas A&M University.

919
920 SILVER SCREEN AND TOURISM

features which are extraordinary and thus distinguish the {{site/sight||

of the gaze from others, then the properties of a movie location*
whether scenic, historical, or literary*qualify as icons for tourists to
gaze upon. That is, in the sense that people are seeking sights/sites
seen on the silver screen, they become movie-induced tourists.
Through magazine and newspaper articles, the concept of movie-
induced tourism has received popular support, but most of the evi-
dence has been gathered from singular instances, hearsay, or anec-
dotal accounts (Barth 1991; Datton 1995; Gordon 1995; Gross and
Green 1995; Hogg 1995; Mayfield 1993; Rice 1994; Sloan 1995; War-
neke 1994). What has been missing in the discussion of this phenom-
enon is a larger body of data to support the idea that motion pictures
induce tourists to visit film locations. The body of data presented in
this paper cannot predict movie-induced tourism for all motion pic-
tures but it can provide additional data that is compelling enough to
warrant further research. By broadening the conceptual scope, it
suggests additional reasons why movies induce people to travel. It was
originally thought that this influence was limited to natural scenery
attractions (Riley and Van Doren 1992), but storyline themes, exciting
sequences, and human relationships may also cause the public to visit
locations with these attractions. The paper also discusses some of the
unique impacts caused by visitation to particular movie locations.
These impacts range from economic windfalls to sites picked clean by
souvenir hunters. By reviewing the research of others and gathering
location data, the paper provides a glimpse at the phenomenon, widens
the scope of the movie-induced tourism concept, and describes some
of the elements associated with this phenomenon.

FROM SILVER SCREEN TO LOCATION SCENE

Within the community of film commissioners, tourism promoters,
and media writers, the notion of movie-induced tourism has been
acknowledged (Golden 1995; Graham and Grossman 1993; Grossman
1995; Heavens 1995a, 1995b; Lyall 1995; Miller 1995; Orris 1984;
Rickey 1994; Steinberg 1995), although little has been done to use
this knowledge until recently. Taking advantage of it has only occurred
in recent years when videos and movie maps have been produced by
tourism bureaus seeking to attract visitors (British Tourist Authority
1995). These marketing efforts have been done with the intent of
profiting from movie-induced tourism.
It must also be acknowledged that major entertainment companies
have been {{cashing in|| on movie-induced tourism for many years.
Universal Studios and DisneyworldÐMGM have added to the extensive
attractions of Orlando, Florida, by placing visitors within {{real|| movie
sites such as ET, Jaws, King Kong, Star Wars, and Indiana Jones (see
Table 1 for details about all movies or televised shows mentioned in
this paper). They have also been able to provide visitation to {{fanciful||
locations such as those portrayed in Beauty and the Beast, The Lion King,
and The Hunchback of Notre Dame. Beyond the borders of the United
States, Movie World of Queensland, Australia, cashes in on the allure
 RILEY, BAKER AND VAN DOREN 921

Table 1. Details of Movies Cited

US World
Release Revenue Revenue
Movie Name Date ($US mil) ($US mil) Location/s

A River Runs Through It 1992 44 n.a. Montana, USA

Beauty and the Beast 1991 144 347 n.a.*cartoon
(cartoon)
Bergerac 1981 n.a. n.a. Channel Islands
(British television)
Brideshead Revisited 1981 n.a. n.a. Yorkshire, UK
(British television)
Bridges of Madison County 1995 71 176 Iowa, USA
Bull Durham 1988 51 n.a. North Carolina, USA
By The Sword Divided 1983 n.a. n.a. Northamptonshire,
(British television) UK
Close Encounters of the 1979 128 300 Wyoming, USA
Third Kind
Dances with Wolves 1990 184 424 South Dakota, USA
Driving Miss Daisy 1989 106 n.a. Georgia, USA
E.T.: The Extra Terrestrial 1982 399 701 California, USA
Field of Dreams 1989 64 n.a. Iowa, USA
Firm, The 1993 158 262 Tennessee, USA
Forrest Gump 1994 329 673 Georgia, USA
Four Weddings and a 1994 52 244 Several sites in UK
Funeral
Fried Green Tomatoes 1991 80 n.a. Georgia, USA
Fugitive, The 1993 183 354 Chicago and North
Carolina, USA
Gettysburg 1993 10 n.a. Pennsylvania, USA
Heartbeat 1991 n.a. n.a. North York moors,
(British television) UK
Home Alone I 1990 286 534 Illinois, USA
Hoosiers 1986 29 n.a. Indiana, USA
Hunchback of Notre Dame 1996 100 184 n.a.*cartoon
(cartoon)
Jaws I 1975 260 470 Massachusetts, USA
JFK 1991 70 205 Dallas, Texas, USA
Last of the Mohicans, The 1992 72 n.a. North Carolina, USA
Little Women 1994 50 n.a. Mass., USA & British
Columbia, Canada
Lion King, The (cartoon) 1994 312 771 n.a.*cartoon
Middlemarch 1994 n.a. n.a. Stamford, UK
Rain Man 1988 173 412 Several sites in USA
River Wild, The 1994 46 n.a. Montana, USA
Star Wars I 1977 460 513 n.a.*special effects
movie
Somewhere in Time 1980 n.a. n.a. Michigan, USA
Steel Magnolias 1989 84 n.a. Louisiana, USA
Thelma and Louise 1991 45 n.a. Colorado & Utah, USA
To the Manor Born 1979 n.a. n.a. Somerset, UK
(British television)

Source: Internet Movie Database(1998). http://us.imdb.com

n.a. = revenue not applicable or not available
922 SILVER SCREEN AND TOURISM

of movies by advertising itself as {{the only movie theme park outside

of the United States|| (Castaway Travel 1997).
In the arena of research, movie-induced tourism data has been less
apparent. Riley and Van Doren (1992) suggested this phenomenon by
assessing visitation increases at locations of selected motion pictures.
They used this information as justification for film commissions who
actively promote the use of locations in their vicinity. Until this time,
film commissions had justified their existence by documenting money
spent by companies while filming on location.
The original article also likened major motion pictures to Ritchie|s
concept of {{hallmark|| or special events. For Ritchie, {{hallmark
events|| are:
Major one-time or recurring events of limited duration developed to pri-
marily enhance the awareness, appeal, and profitability of a destination in
the short and/or long term. These events rely for their success on unique-
ness, status, or timely significance to create interest and attract attention
(1984:4).

With one exception, major motion pictures met Ritchie|s definition

of hallmark events as they related to tourism: movies were not pro-
duced with the prime intent of inducing people to visit locations.
However, it was thought that major motion pictures enhanced the aware-
ness, appeal, and profitability of locations and they were of limited duration
in terms of viewing time and days at cinematic venues. Further,
motion pictures were likened to recurrent events through their re-release
on mediums such as cinemas, videos, laser disks, and television and
cable networks. Successful films also relied on their uniqueness, status
and timely significance to distinguish themselves from counterpart pro-
ductions.
According to Riley and Van Doren, motion pictures had several
advantages over hallmark events when inducing people to visit: longer
periods of location exposure when compared to the advertising and
promotion of hallmark events and locations; vicarious involvement
and identification with locations through movie storylines which allow
greater personal meaning to the beholders of the gaze; enhanced
location images through the use of special effects, movie stars, and
picture perfect camera angles; enhanced location awareness by dif-
ferent market segments through a universally popular medium such
as movies; movies as a non-sales form of communication that allowed
discovery of the location as opposed to the hard sell of advertising ;
and in-home access to the locations shown in the movies. Since Riley
and Van Doren|s (1992) paper, additional research has identified a
range of movies that have induced visitation to locations. In the case
of Cousins and Andereck|s study, similar conclusions were drawn
about the power of movies. Bull Durham was attractive because,
part of baseball|s allure is that it represents a collective dream of America
in a simpler, more innocent time. Not only does Bull Durham capture this
image, it successfully marries it with the addition of humor and sex
(1993:82).

For the Durham Bulls (minor league) baseball team, Andereck noted
 RILEY, BAKER AND VAN DOREN 923

a significant increase in paid spectatorship and a healthy rise in

merchandise sales. For The Last of the Mohicans, annual attendance
increased 25% the year after the movie|s release. The allure for this
movie was the spectacular natural scenery of Chimney Rock Park,
North Carolina, and its presentation of early American cultures.
Cousins and Andereck|s findings were not as spectacular as attend-
ance increases reported for the primary location of Close Encounters of
the Third Kind. When compared to pre-movie status, there was a 74%
visitation increase at Devils Tower National Monument in 1978 and
significantly larger crowds for subsequent years. In a study conducted
12 years after its release, more than 20% of visitors indicated knowl-
edge of Devils Tower National Monument from watching the movie
(Workman, Zeiger and Caneday 1990).
Recently, a series of case studies were conducted in the United
Kingdom to investigate television-induced tourism (Tooke and Baker
1996). These investigations studied four dramas and their subsequent
effect on location visitation, which, in each case, increased dramati-
cally. For example, the primary site for To The Manor Born was the
Cricket St. Thomas Estate in Somerset. With visitation restricted,
tourists used an adjacent site as the primary viewing area. This site
received a 37% increase in visitation over a two-year period. By The
Sword Divided used Rocking Castle in Northamptonshire as its primary
location. The story about the English Civil War led to a 93% visitation
increase over a two-year period. For the Stamford setting of Mid-
dlemarch (1994), visitation increased 27% in the first year with tele-
phone inquiries increasing 102%, and mail inquiries 69%. While
increases were expected, this increase was significant because the
town did not promote itself as the Middlemarch location. The fourth
case study was Heartbeat, a crime drama set in Goathland, on the
North York moors. Tooke and Baker reported rapid increases in
visitation to Goathland while surrounding areas remained static. They
further reported that 27% of all visits were initiated after viewing
Heartbeat. Additional sources quoted in Tooke and Baker|s article
suggested similar effects. For Bergerac, a police drama set on the island
of Jersey, 40% of summer visitors and 30% of winter visitors reported
being influenced by the television show. Traditional tourism attrac-
tions on Jersey received more visitors and many new sites were estab-
lished as a result of the show. For the site of Castle Howard, featured
in Brideshead Revisited, visitor increases of 30% were witnessed. These
studies, coupled with many anecdotal accounts provided impetus for
this investigation. People living around movie locations or affected by
the business of movies and tourism are convinced about the phenom-
enon, but evidence has been sporadic and small in volume. What the
various studies have revealed is a wide range of reasons for visiting
locations and an array of attractions that lure people.

The Icons of Movies

The types of attractive qualities that induce people to travel are as
diverse as the movies in which they reside. It would seem that if some
924 SILVER SCREEN AND TOURISM

part of a movie is extraordinary or captivating, it serves as an icon

which viewers attach to a location shown in the movie. By using the
word {{icon||, it is implied that a movie|s symbolic content, a single
event, a favorite performer, a location|s physical features, or a theme
can represent all that is popular and compelling about a movie. Icons,
abstract or tangible, become the focal point for visitation and the
associated location is tangible evidence of the icon. Table 2 provides
a list of motion pictures along with the locations and suggested icons
that have attracted visitors.
Some icons can be recurrent or continuing images within a movie
while others can be single climatic or exciting events with which
viewers identify. Movie icons may not be visual as they may be storyline

Table 2. Movie Icons

Movie Location Iconic Attraction

A River Runs Through It Montana Rivers and Fishing

Mountains
A River Runs Through It Montana Rivers and Natural Scenery
Mountains
Bridges of Madison County Covered Bridges, Love Theme
Winterset IA
Bull Durham Baseball Diamond, Baseball
Durham NC
CloseEncounters Devils Tower WY Alien Encounters
Crocodile Dundee Kakadu National Park, Australian Bush Culture
Australia
Dances with Wolves South Dakota Plains Native American Culture
Dances with Wolves South Dakota Plains Natural Scenery
Deliverance Georgia Rivers Canoeing
Field of Dreams Dyersville IA Baseball History and
Mystique
Forrest Gump Park Bench, Savannah GA Underdog Makes Good
Theme
Fried Green Tomatoes Juliet GA Self Liberation Theme
Fugitive Chicago IL Nightscape of Chicago
Fugitive Great Smoky Mt. Railroad Train Crash
NC
Gettysburg Gettysburg VA Historic Event/Site-Battle
Home Alone Chicago IL Suburban Home of Kevin
JFK Book Depository, Dallas Shooting of JFK
TX
Last of the Mohicans Chimney Rock Park NC Native American Culture
Somewhere in Time Grand Hotel, Mackinac Colonial Love Story
Island MI Theme
Steel Magnolias Natchitoches LA Women|s Relationships
Thelma and Louise Arches National Park UT Self Empowerment Theme
The River Wild River in N.W. Montana Rafting and Natural
Scenery
Weekend at Bernies II US Virgin Islands Tropical Paradise

NB: Movies may have multiple icons for one or for various locations
 RILEY, BAKER AND VAN DOREN 925

themes that become associated with locations. Examples of visual

icons may be the scenery of Montana (A River Runs Through It, and The
River Wild) or the rock formations of Chimney Rock Park in North
Caroline (The Last of the Mohicans). Thematic icons include the various
hues of female bonding that attracted many people to Natchitoches,
Louisiana (Steel Magnolias), or the struggle for self-determination that
was witnessed in Fried Green Tomatoes (Juliet, Georgia). Major movies
may also have more than one icon that people associate with locations.
In The Fugitive, the train crash and the jump from the dam were icons
associated with locations in North Carolina, but so too was the final
scene that showed a panoramic view of Chicago at night.
The effect of a physical icon was clearly illustrated for the inves-
tigators by the reaction to A River Runs Through It. After the movie
opened, the Chamber of Commerce in Livingston, (Missoula,
Montana, in the movie) was flooded with requests from people who
wanted to move there permanently. One of the Chamber members
told a reporter: {{The calls came from everywhere*Chicago, New
York, Florida, California. You name it. People don|t like where they
live|| (Gordon 1995). While many anecdotal accounts are similar to
those reported for Livingston, data has never been collected on a
systematic basis.
To provide support to the phenomenon of movie-induced tourism,
data for 12 different movie locations (all in the United States) were
gathered. The 12 movies were chosen because of their respective box
office success and an identifiable location to which people could travel
(Table 3). Four criteria guided the selections of movies and associated
locations. One, the movie was a box office success. The investigators

Table 3. Movie Locations

Data Site Data Type Location Movie

Gettysburg Nat|l NPS Visitor Count Pennsylvania Gettysburg

Battlefield
Badlands Nat|l Park NPS Visitor Count South Dakota Dances with Wolves
Historic Fort Hays Admissions Fort Hays KS Dances with Wolves
Canyonlands Nat|l NPS Visitor Count Utah Thelma and Louise
Park
Arches Nat|l Park NPS Visitor Count Utah Thelma and Louise
Devils Tower Nat|l NPS Visitor Count Wyoming Close Encounters
Monumt
Baseball Field Visitors Book Dyersville IA Field of Dreams
Natchitoches Visitors Book Natchitoches LA Steel Magnolias
Book Depository Admissions Dallas TX JFK
Chimney Rock Park Admissions Chimney Rock Last of the Mohicans
NC
Great Smoky Mt Train Passengers Dillsboro NC Fugitive
Railroad
Orchard House Admissions Concord MA Little Women
(Home of the
Alcotts)
926 SILVER SCREEN AND TOURISM

chose movies that were box office successes. That is, the movie made
more money than it cost to produce and received public acclaim
through attendance. Many moviegoers are not induced to visit
locations and thus a large volume of viewers was important. Two, the
movie had an icon that was clearly associated with an accessible
destination. The baseball icon of the Field of Dreams was easily associ-
ated with the diamond that was constructed in the cornfields of
Dyersville, Iowa. Even though this location was 30 miles from the
closest city, people visited in sufficient numbers to require the paving
of the access road.
The third selection criteria asked whether visitation data was col-
lected and if this was accessible for analysis. Many locations never
counted visitors because they had never been attractions before. This
problem eliminated many potential sites. Furthermore, some
locations were situated within cities with multiple ports of entry and
exit that made data collection difficult. Large population areas were
also avoided unless access to the location was controlled. The final
mitigating circumstance concerned for-profit locations. In situations,
proprietors were reluctant to supply visitation data that would then
be known by competitors. Other for-profit locations refused access to
their data because it may have indicated higher profit margins than
they had previously disclosed. These limitations precluded many
potential sites from investigation. The fourth selection criteria was
whether the location had collected visitation data before the movie
was released. Pre-release data was necessary so that pre- and post-
release attendance comparisons could be made. Pre-release data were
extrapolated beyond each movie|s release date using projected
regression lines. The projections were used as an estimate of visitation
had a movie never been released. The extrapolations were then com-
pared to actual visitation after the release of each movie. In most
cases, 10 years of prerelease data were collected so that attendance
aberrations were minimized.

Findings from Individual Locations

Using the four criteria for choosing movies and associated locations,
findings from individual locations are outlined below:

Gettysburg. The battle icon and the location of Gettysburg were

easily identifiable because they bore the same name. Visitation data
for Gettysburg National Battlefield were compiled from the statistical
abstracts of the United States National Park Service. During the first
year after the release of the movie, visitation decreased; however,
it increased dramatically in subsequent years and well beyond the
extrapolated line. The unexpected decrease was explained by an Octo-
ber 1993 release date. This date was the start of the off-season for
this National Battlefield. Therefore, immediate visitation impetus
was not evident in the 1993 attendance figures.

Dances with Wolves. The spectacular scenery in Badlands National

 RILEY, BAKER AND VAN DOREN 927

Park and the unique perspective on Native American culture were

some of the icons from Dances with Wolves. Visitation to Badlands
National Park increased 14.5% over the previous year, after a winter
release date in November of 1990 (National Park Service 1995). While
the chief park ranger spoke of being {{overwhelmed|| in the summer
of 1991, he explained that the summer heat of 1992 and the Midwest
flooding in 1993 were explanations for less than expected visitation
(personal communication with Glenn Livermont in 1995).

Thelma & Louise. The two locations chosen for an investigation of

this movie were Canyonlands and Arches National Park in Utah. One
particular icon was related to women breaking the bonds of male
dominated relationships. The locations and the theme were linked
when the women made a suicide plunge into a canyon. After being
released in May 1991, visitation increases at Canyonlands and Arches
were 22.6% and 13.7% respectively, with further increases of 16.6%
and 13.3% for the following year (National Park Service 1995).

Close Encounters of the Third Kind. Devils Tower National Monument

is located in northeastern Wyoming. In the first year after the movie|s
release, visitation increased 74% over the previous year. Subsequent
visitation decreased but never to pre-movie levels. Other increases
were witnessed when Close Encounters was released to video and tele-
vision viewers. When compared to the trend line, visitation out-
stripped previous increases by a large amount (National Park Service
1995).

Field of Dreams. The cornfields of Iowa provided the backdrop for

this movie about baseball. The baseball field served to represent the
glamour of a national past-time and the mystique of the Chicago
White Sox baseball scandal. There is also some suggestion of a spiri-
tual force at the field that attracts people through the allure of old-
time baseball (Hirsley 1995). With zero visitors before the release of
the movie to sequential increases of 8000, 26,000, and 65,000, the
field has become a popular location in Iowa (personal communication
with Betty Boekensted in 1995).

Steel Magnolias. Visitor book signings at the Natchitoches Parish

Tourism Commission (Louisiana) rose 48.1% the year after the release
of Steel Magnolias. In subsequent years, signings rose an additional
13.1% and 19.2% beyond the initial increase (Natchitoches Parish
Tourist Commission 1995). The registration book does not record all
people looking for the locations made famous by the thematic icon of
women|s relationships.

JFK. The movie about the assassination of John F Kennedy was

released in 1992. Visitors to the Sixth Floor Book Depository/Museum
increased by 45%, the site where the gunman discharged his bullets.
Attendance declined 10% in 1993 but was still 31% higher than the
year prior to the release of the movie. Visitors in 1994 and 1995 also
928 SILVER SCREEN AND TOURISM

exceeded the 1992 totals (personal communication with Sixth Floor

Book Depository and Museum in 1995).

Last of the Mohicans. Chimney Rock Park (North Carolina) is a

privately owned attraction that was used in many of the Mohican
scenes. From paid attendance receipts, it was found that visitation
increased 25% the first year and another 3% the next year. The owner
of this natural attraction said that many visitors asked specifically
about filming sites on the property, enough to warrant mention of the
movie in the Chimney Rock Park brochure (personal communication
with Todd Morris in 1995).

The Fugitive. Great Smoky Mountain Railroad (Dillsboro, North

Carolina) is a privately owned railway that provided the site for the
train crash scene in the movie The Fugitive. One year after the movie
was released, attendance figures showed that the number of train
passengers increased 11%. The owner was adamant that the increase
would have been much higher if the Great Smoky Mountain Railroad
and its location had been noted in the end credits as promised by the
movie production company (personal communication with Malcolm
MacNeil 1995).

Little Women. Orchard House (Concord, Massachusetts) was a

location for the screen adaptation of the famous novel written by
Louisa May Alcott. The Orchard House had a 65% increase in attend-
ance the first year after the release of the movie starring Winona
Ryder.

Location Analysis
Attendance figures for these 12 tourism film locations were com-
piled for 10 years prior to and the five years after the release of each
movie. In some cases, five years of post-release data were not possible
because the movies were released in 1993 or 1994. A baseline for
visitation attendance was established using figures from the year
prior to each movie|s release. To facilitate a comparison of multiple
locations, visitation data for each movie were transformed into a
percentage that was higher or lower than its baseline year. Due to the
small number of sites, a more conservative median value was used as
a measure of central tendency. The median of the percentage values,
for each year relative to the baseline, were calculated for all 12 movie
sites and also broken out by public and private parks.
Figure 1 provides a graphical representation of two important
points: the actual pre- and post- visitation as a percentage of the
baseline year for all 12 locations, and a linear trend line estimation
of expected visitation without the impact of the movie being filmed
at this location. The linear trend line was developed using the 10 years
of data prior to the baseline year and it was extrapolated five years
beyond the movie release date. The aggregated impact of movies was
significant. An estimated 54% increase in visitation was evident five
 RILEY, BAKER AND VAN DOREN 929

Figure 1. Impact of Movie Releases on Visitation to Public Parks and Private

Attractions. (Median of All 12 Sites)

years after the movie was released when compared to the linear
trend line. The Mann-Whitney UÐWilcoxon Sum W Test indicated a
significant difference between actual and estimated visitation (z
ranged from −5 to −2.65 and all p were ³0.05). Public parks had a
40% higher visitation rate after the movie release and private attrac-
tions had a 67% higher visitation rate after three years. Since data
were available for only one private location, four years after its movie|s
release, comparisons between actual and estimated attendance were
only calculated for private attractions for the three years.
The 12 sites were divided into public and private attractions, to
determine whether there were any differences between the two. Fig-
ures 2 and 3 illustrate that for the first three years after the movie,
there was a significant difference in impact between private attrac-
tions and private parks (z ranged from −3.46 to −3.16; all p ³ 0.05).
This may have been due to the ability of private attractions to be
more aggressive with their promotional budgets. Additional checks
were undertaken to ensure that increased visitation could not be
explained by other phenomena. Two sources were used for checks
related to outside influences. One, National Park Service visitation
data were used to ensure that the national parks were not experi-

Figure 2. Impact of Movie Releases on Visitation to Public Parks. (Median of

6 Sites)
930 SILVER SCREEN AND TOURISM

Figure 3. Impact of Movie Releases on Visitation to Private Attractions.

(Median of 6 Sites)

encing rapid increases in these regions as a result of a general increase

in popularity. Two, interviews were conducted with personnel at each
location to ensure that visitation changes could not be attributed to
other attracting factors such as special events or large scale pro-
motional campaigns.
A variety of seemingly unattractive locations have lured visitors
after the release of related movies. The Chicago home of Kevin in
Home Alone (personal communication with Chicago Film Office in
1995), the high school gymnasium from Hoosiers (personal com-
munication with Indiana Film Office in 1993), and the {{mom and
pop|| motel room in Rainman (personal communication with motel
owner in 1996) have received unexpected increases of people. In most
cases the residents were not prepared for the influx of people or for
their unceasing curiosity. For example, after the release of Forrest
Gump, visitors besieged the Savannah Chamber of Commerce when
Forrest Gump|s park bench could not be found (personal com-
munication with Savannah GA Chamber of Commerce in 1996).
For some locations, post-movie visitation resulted in an economic
windfall. Indeed, many sites have organized trips so tourists can see
all the locations. For Memphis and the sites of The Firm, tours have
been privately operated. For Natchitoches, Madison County, Iowa,
and Atlanta, Georgia (Steel Magnolias, Bridges of Madison County, Driving
Miss Daisy, respectively), tours have been organized by local auth-
orities. For some other locations, tours have consisted of self-guided
maps and brochures, while other destinations have used trained guides
especially for bus tours.
In Iowa, the covered bridge festival (Bridges of Madison County) has
been expanded to attract more visitors, while the stature of the Field
of Dreams baseball field has led to the site being used by corporate
team-building groups (Sheffield and Riley 1994). In these cases, mem-
orabilia sales have flourished for local entrepreneurs. Where hotels
were used as movie locations, business seems to have flourished also
(Bly 1996). On Mackinac Island, Michigan, visitors to the Grand Hotel
can see a continual screening of Somewhere in Time and recently the
hotel sponsored a 10-year reunion for fans. The room in the Crown
Hotel from Four Weddings and a Funeral was booked continuously until
 RILEY, BAKER AND VAN DOREN 931

1997 (Samuelson 1995). In at least one case, a movie has made a small
town into a boutique of movie memorabilia (Fried Green Tomatoes).
Location officials with an entrepreneurial spirit have packaged their
sites with additional attractions to extend the stay and spending
potential of visitors. The packaging strategy appears particularly wise
because the pulling power of movies tend to fade as other events
capture the viewing public|s eye.
As profitable as movie-induced tourism can be, there are several
problems that accompany this sudden recognition. While some of
these problems are typical of tourism destinations, others are peculiar
to movie-induced tourism. These problems range from exploitation
of locals and visitors to the lack of preparedness by locals when dealing
with tourist deluges. The first people problem typically occurs before
a movie is released. Actors, directors, and support crew need accom-
modation, food, and other services and these demands parlay into
profiteering which ultimately drives up local prices. Additional prob-
lems are caused when locations represent other places within a film.
For example, in The Fugitive, the train crash scene was a major icon
that was used in prerelease advertising. This scene was filmed in
North Carolina but the storyline situated it in Illinois. In recognizing
the tourism potential of the scene, the owners of the train line asked
for a contract clause requiring end-credits. For some unexplained
reason end-credits were not forthcoming and the potential for attract-
ing visitors was diminished (Great Smoky Mountain Railroad v.
Warner 1995).
Many locations have not recognized the pulling power of a movie
and have {{missed the boat|| with their pre-release promotion of the
location. Such was the case for the Iowa Division of Tourism which
did not anticipate the gaze generated by Field of Dreams. Nevertheless,
these tourism officials also caution against the use of movie locations
as headline attractions because many movies are not successful and
eventually the gaze will be superseded by other box office hits (per-
sonal communication with Iowa Division of Tourism in 1994).
Additional problems arise when movies are box office successes. In
rural or remote locations there is the dilemma of costly development
or dollar losses. In the case of Madison County, Iowa, there were
few commercial accommodations and little infrastructure to handle
tourists. While commercial ventures were developed, the lack of ser-
vices caused many dollars to be lost to nearby cities. For-profit oper-
ations can also cause their own set of problems. Cheap memorabilia
can inundate the location and quickly built structures can alter the
gaze of the location as viewed in the movie. The result can cause
tourists to be disappointed when the location does not have the look
they remembered.
For Thelma and Louise and The Fugitive train crash site, imitators and
souvenir hunters have been respective problems. Suicide attempts
were made in the style of Thelma and Louse even though they got
their location wrong and used the Grand Canyon instead (personal
communication with Arches National Park in 1995). At the train crash
site, management welded all movable components to the trains so
they could not be stolen. They also feared that souvenir hunters
932 SILVER SCREEN AND TOURISM

would cause liability problems if injuries were to occur (personal

communication with MacNeil in 1995). Icon hunters have also stolen
highway signs designating the train crash site.

CONCLUSION
Film companies and merchandisers have exploited the spin-off
effects of movies for many years. Most major movies sell sound tracks
on compact disc and various forms of memorabilia through retail
outlets. In some cases, these memorabilia are a part of the marketing
campaign. For merchandisers, movies can be used to promote motor
vehicles, drinks, food, and clothing, but only recently have people
thought that movies might promote tourism. It is here that Urry|s
contention would appear to be supported. Based on the data collected
for this study, the visual media of today appear to construct antici-
pation and allure that induces people to travel. In the case of major
motion pictures, the constructed gaze is not a sales strategy for tour-
ism promotion but an entertainment ploy where storylines, underlying
themes, exciting events, spectacular scenery, and characters create
hallmark events. These events create exotic worlds that do not exist
in reality but can be recreated through a visit to the location(s) where
they were filmed.
Through the analysis of visitation figures from the 12 sites, it
appears that each location|s allure is distinct. Some locations are
attractive for their inherent physical properties while others just
happen to be the site where the theme or event took place. In some
cases, particular locations were not considered to be tourism des-
tinations until they were seen on the silver screen (Tooke and Baker
1996). When the median increases of the aggregated data were
graphed, the span of movie inducement lasted for at least four years
and increased between 40 and 50%. Data not presented in this paper
would suggest that the induced effect could be longer at some sites
and not exist in other cases where locations were not identifiable or
accessible. The same may be true for movies that are not box office
successes.
Apart from the analysis of data, the idea of icons is important. The
icons of each movie may be visually concrete and can be located at a
specific site, or they may be thematic and merely associated with
them. Each beholder of a movie will be attracted by their own icon
and in some cases may be moved to visit the associated location. The
icons are as diverse as the range of movies and the people who view
them. Locations need not be beautiful nor the storylines positive in
order to attract visitors. While positive affect may well be important,
{{dark|| movies have also created visitation booms.
The tourism impacts created by movies have also been varied. For
some locations, the impacts have created economic windfalls while for
others they have caused safety concerns and overcrowding. Movie
locations appear to attract everyone from the merely curious to the
hard core {{junkie||. While the sight of the site may be sufficient for
some visitors, a re-creation of the action or a piece of the location may
be necessary for others to relive their favorite scene. As famous actors
 RILEY, BAKER AND VAN DOREN 933

complain about their loss of privacy to an adoring public, locations

appear to become a commodity for use by adoring visitors. Their debut
on a public medium also means their debut for public consumption in
many ways.
Despite the negative impacts wrought by tourism there is potential
for the many locations and populations to capitalize on their unique-
ness. The penchant for movie companies to use {{undiscovered||
locations and marginalized groups as subjects can only be positive for
them if initiatives are correctly planned. However, resting economic
development on the shoulders of a movie may well be folly, especially
if there is a need for significant monetary investment. Nevertheless,
wait-and-see strategies may be equally damaging as they minimize
the economic potential from the initial wave of visitor activity.
Additional research is important to document this largely unex-
plored phenomenon. In this regard, the visitation impacts of various
movie genres, various movie locations, and different icons must be
explored. It would also be helpful to assess the correlation between
relative box office success and visitation to locations, and box office
success and the length of the visitation impact. As yet, no studies
have documented the economic impact of one movie on a location or
community, and no studies have shown which has the greater impact
on a location, the movie or the media blitz that promotes the movie.
Although this paper has not documented an American pilgrimage to
movie sites nor economic windfalls for all movie locations, it has
suggested that people can be attracted to visit locations after they are
viewed in movies. With more people becoming spectators to various
sorts of screens, it is likely that movie and media induced tourism will
flourish in years to come. They may visit the scene they viewed on the
screen.  

Acknowledgments*The authors are indebted to the following for providing the annual
visitations at the sites that have been used to measure the impact of movies; the staff
of the Denver Service Center, National Park Service; Betty Boekensted of Dyersville,
Iowa; Historic Fort Hays, Kansas; Orchard House Museum, Massachusetts; Nat-
chitoches Parish Tourist Commission, Louisiana; the Sixth Floor Museum/Book
Depository in Dallas, Texas; Chimney Rock Park, North Carolina; and Great Smoky
Mountain Railroad, North Carolina. Assistance has also been received from the
Arches Film Commission; Greater Cincinnati Film Commission; Savannah, Georgia
Chamber of Commerce; Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Chamber of Commerce; and Iowa,
Wyoming, Utah, and South Dakota Film Commissions.

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Submitted 2 May 1996
Resubmitted 10 April 1997
Accepted 6 February 1998
Refereed anonymously
Coordinating Editor: Deirdre E. Evans-Prichard