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41 References 12 Figures

microclimate through hydroponic design and refurbished thermal energy by phase change material

n Journal of Cleaner Production 211 · November 2018 with 204 Reads 

8.11.192

adi
iversity of Tunis El Manar

adila
Wahid Ghorbel
entre des Recherches et des Technologies de l'Energie

Guizani

g demand for agricultural food needs coupled with rising energy costs marked challenges for ensuring
previous period. Therefore, greenhouses agriculture is a main focus for farmers, engineers and
ers in view of ways of improvement that provides. Compared to the conventional greenhouses,
better quality, greater nutrient content, higher yield, efficient water and fertilizer use, but also more
A new Hydroponic Greenhouse was designed and installed in the Research and Technology Center of
Solar Air Heater with Latent thermal storage using Phase Change Material was also realized for the
se heating taking into account the thermal heat loads of the specific application. In this work, the
ydroponic Greenhouse without heating was pursued to evaluate the performance of the hydroponic
reenhouse allowed better environment than conventional greenhouses. During daytime, the new
ture exceeded 18 °C and the difference between the inside and the outside reached mostly 6 °C. The
ed between 20 and 35% the day and 70–85% at night. Several measurements were also carried out
ursue the Solar Air Heater contribution. The temperature of the hydroponic greenhouse during
ating raised by 6 °C and the nocturnal temperature was mainly over 15 °C. The diurnal temperature of
ic Greenhouse was generally higher than 32 °C. Compared to conventional solar heating, the two
t storage energy improved the indoor greenhouse environment especially during harsh and nocturnal

research

bers
ications
rojects
 See all › Author content
wa Bouadila See all ›
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References
copyright. 12 Figures

+8

ics. The PCM thermo-physical nstrumentation and The irrigation system of the
characteristics. uncertainties details. HG.

Salwa Bouadila Author content

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ct to copyright.

Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Cleaner Production

j o u r n a l h o me p a g e : www. e l s e v i e r . c o m/ l o c a t e / j c l e p r o

ous greenhouse microclimate through hydroponic design

bished thermal energy by phase change material
a, * a b a
di , Salwa Bouadila , Wahid Ghorbel , AmenAllah Guizani
sses Laboratory, Research and Technology Center of Energy, Tunisia
echnology of Borj Cedria, Tunisia

i n f o a b s t r a c t

The rapidly increasing demand for agricultural food needs coupled with rising
018 challenges for ensuring food bigger than any previous period. Therefore, green
form
main focus for farmers, engineers and greenhouses designers in view of way
provides. Compared to the conventional greenhouses, hydroponics warrant
mber 2018
November 2018
nutrient content, higher yield, efficient water and fertilizer use, but also more e
new Hydroponic Greenhouse was designed and installed in the Research and
Energy in Tunisia. A Solar Air Heater with Latent thermal storage using Phase Ch
ouse realized for the hydroponic greenhouse heating taking into account the thermal h
h latent thermal storage application. In this work, the microclimate of the Hydroponic Greenhouse withou
to evaluate the performance of the hydroponic design. Hydroponic greenhous
g ronment than conventional greenhouses. During daytime, the new greenhouse
18  C and the difference between the inside and the outside reached mostly 6 C
ranged between 20 and 35% the day and 70e85% at night.

S l t l i d t ft th h ti t th
 Several measurements were also carried out after the heating to pursue the
See all › See allbution.
› The temperature of the hydroponic greenhouse during nighttime after th
and the nocturnal temperature was mainlyDownload
over 15citation
 Share
C. The diurnal temperature Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
ponic Greenhouse was generally higher than 32 C. Compared to conventional
packed beds of latent storage energy improved the indoor greenhouse environ
harsh and nocturnal periods.
© 2018 Elsevier

n higher food production (Allardyce et al., 2017

urity is a topic of much interest. As world popula-
creasing, there is a growing demand for food (Sims
fact, the world population is expected to raise,
0 years, by 8.7 billion people (Gerhard K. Heilig,
rding to the State of Food Security and Nutrition
e global hunger increased in 2016 and affects 815
FAO IFAD UNICEF, 2017) and the global demand for
d to increase by 50% until 2030 (FAO, 2011). One of
nges of our time is to feed the growing and more
rld population (Pittelkow et al., 2014). This task
er-increasing development of new technologies for
author.
sara.baddadi@gmail.com (S. Baddadi).
2012). Indeed, agricultural productivity must
(Stevens and Gallagher, 2015).
To ensure the food security, greenhouse f
potential alternative for feeding continuous
around because of its ability to intensify prod
Martin, 2014). In fact, greenhouse cultivation
the optimum environment to cultivate the d
enclosed structure where all plant growth fact
and maintained at optimum level to create a
mate (Esen and Yuksel, 2013; Jain and Tiw
greenhouses are becoming more and more p
production, and around 405 0 00 ha of greenho
the continents (Savvas et al., 2013).
Agriculture is the major consumer of fres
United, 2009) and around 80% of water res
devoted to agriculture sector (Martinez-Ma

016/j.jclepro.2018.11.192
Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

ature Greek symbols

l thermal conductivity (W/m 2 K)
2
(m ) t temperature reduction coefficien
orientation and inclination coefficient
thickness (m) Subscripts
exposure to wind coefficient abs absorber
correction factor amb ambient
solar energy reduction factor c convection
solar transmission factor d-w door and windows
gain (W) ex external
global exchange coefficient (W/m2 K) eq equipment
thermal loss coefficient (W/ C) h holes
heating requirements in inlet
Heated Hydroponic Greenhouse Inf infiltration
Hydroponic Greenhouse int internal
global losses coefficient (W/m2 K) glass glass
thermal losses (W) max maximum
number of occupants min minimum
permeability out outlet
heat outputs per occupant (W) p person
Phase Change Material r radiation
air flow rate (m3/h) R air renewal
relative humidity (%) s solar
Solar Air Heater with Latent storage tot total
temperature ð CÞ Tr transmission
wind velocity (m/s) Un unheated place
 See all › of exposure
coefficient Seetoall ›
wind
height (m)
41 References 12 Figures
he large quantities of water needed for irrigation
, 2008), cultivation in soil presents numerous disad-
nventional greenhouses require large areas which in
gh concentrations of nutrients and pesticides (Barbosa
Killebrew and Wolff, 2000). Moreover, pollutants and
aste released during the cultivation may have
fects such as soil degradation, erosion, and contami-
ghellini et al., 2003).
hnics for food production must evolve. Hydroponic
s to be the solution to many problems associated with
onal greenhouse. Actually, hydroponic crop production
ntly increased worldwide (Hickman, 2017) and various
have been successfully grown hydroponically. The
ops include the most popular vegetables as cucumber
, 2011), lettuce (Cometti et al., 2013; Ioslovich, 2009),
ez-Galvez et al., 2016), tomato (Lopez-Galvez et al.,
et al., 2015).
ions into hydroponic alternatives could be beneficial
y feed fresh crops all the year irrespective of seasons
er yields using minimal land area, (ii) efficient use of
ers and chemicals for disease and pest control and (iii)
with inferior environmental impacts and specific
gas emissions.
g the improvement of hydroponic yields (i), Bradley
da described a simplified hydroponic technology for
nger. They mentioned that simplified hydroponic re-
ximately 25% of the area used for soil cultivation
Marulanda, 2001). Barbosa et al. demonstrated that
ments of the hydroponic technology can even be ten
quantitative comparison of the lettuce production
this technique of culture offered over eleven times
s compared to conventional agriculture (Barbosa et al.,
grow hydroponically into stacked trays as vertical
S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379
nsive greenhouse energy requirements make the
issue for producers around the world. Indeed, an
g system is necessary to maintain the optimum
ide the greenhouse in cold climate especially dur-
hen the temperature drops below the optimal range
2013).
nergy sources come along as the most prospective
e for reducing the energy load for greenhouses
and covering the heating needs. Thus, the scientific
ver the world have tested several systems.
uksel designed and set up biogas, solar and a
heat pump greenhouse heating system with hor-
round heat exchanger to heat a greenhouse and
ifferent energy sources can be successfully tested
heating (Esen and Yuksel, 2013). Joudi and Farhan
greenhouse formed mainly with a conventional
d six solar air heaters connected in parallel and
f the greenhouse roof. The solar air heater pro-
heating load of the greenhouse. The stored energy
v volumetric
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
farming for more growing spaces to multipl
for higher yields (Link, 2017).
The second benefit (ii) of hydroponics
efficient fertilizer consumption and reducin
for pest and disease control (Hussain et al.,
ponic farming has a significant potential to s
systems are highly efficient in recycling wa
be easily captured for reuse (Carmassi et a
hydroponic system delivering water and n
crops found that cucumber and tomatoes
reusing 33% of drainage water which red
consumption for irrigation (Grewal et al., 20
For safer culture with less environment
culture is considered as the beneficial tech
droponic farming can substantially reduce p
drainage water discharge (Grewal et al., 2011
contained and recycled, there is no residua
ment (Bradley and Marulanda, 2001). Mor
system presents a low risk of contaminatio
2016). In fact, hydroponic greenhouses o
against some causes of enteric bacterial an
nation factors which makes the hydroponic
open field (Orozco et al., 2008). Also, and as
remain clean and do not need washing (Co
more, compared to soil cultivation (0.23 kg C
emissions are notably inferior for the hydrop
CO 2 equivalent) (Martinez-Mate et al., 2018
Despite of the numerous advantages pr
hydroponic culture, the specific energy con
culture form is 17% higher than land culti
et al., 2018). Among the greenhouse annual
mand of heat corresponds to 95.3% of the to
the electricity consumption corresponds to o
that this system is appropriate for the green
important savings were realized (Benli, 20
inserted a solar air heater with latent storag
small chapel-shaped greenhouse during the
showed that the internal temperature was un
the ambient temperature. The amount of h
collector presented about 56% of the day total e
greenhouse and ensured 30% of the total heat
night (Bouadila et al., 2014).
Barley is one of the most important c
Mediterranean region and is widely cultivate
arid regions especially in the North of Af
scarcity of fresh water, the climate change
cultivation practices promote the interest of
greenhouses for barley culture. In order to
groundwater consumption, some action sho
ensure pasture management, livestock and
ability. A national project funded by Ministry
and Scientific Research (Tunisia) focused on t
 andSee
theall
solar
› heat inside
Seethe
all ›greenhouse covered
ating requirements with an surplus around 46%
41 References 12 Figures
han, 2014b). Hussain et al. compared linear and
ns solar collectors with similar storage capacities
ns surface areas for the heating of identical
der the same weather and operating conditions.
provided heating load exceeding the greenhouse
d. The excessive heat was stored in the storage
ghttime heating. The thermal efficiency for the
s collector was higher than for the linear Fresnel
nd the spot Fresnel lens collector performance
12% higher than that of linear Fresnel lens col-
ussain et al., 2015). Attar and Farhat have proved
the efficiency of a solar water system based on
xchangers integrated in the greenhouse for the
ground heat storage. For a greenhouse of 10 m 3 ,
em efficiency was around 64.9% in December and
April (Attar and Farhat, 2015).
newable energy forms (solar, wind, …) are inter-
e and not available all time, searching for suitable
mal energy storage as new sources of energy is a
for reducing the mismatch between the energy
mand and improving the energy systems perfor-
et al., 2009). Thermal energy storage as sensible
has attracted a lot of attention since it plays an
n conserving energy and can be applied to several
y systems for reducing the wastage of energy. The
y Phase Change Material (PCM) presents a greater
pared to sensible storage, such as rock and water
PCM has an important potential to store larger
during the phase change with smaller temperature
een storing and releasing heat (Sethi and Sharma,
h energy storage densities over narrow tempera-
e PCM attractive for greenhouse heating (€Oztürk,
esearches have studies different systems of PCM
uirements of greenhouses.
urmuş tested an experimental device constructed
air collectors with latent heat storage system. The
f collectors integrated PCM provided 6e9  C higher
side the greenhouse compared to outside. This
allowed until 23% of total daily thermal energy
f the greenhouse for 3e4 h compared to the con-
ng systems (Benli and Durmuş, 2009a). Benli have
nd source heat pump heating system with a latent
orage tank and investigated the use of the phase
ls for energy saving in the greenhouse. He found
S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379
G losses during the winter. The supplementa
SAHL
of a technically feasible, economically v
acceptableDownload
strategy citation Share
for a sustainable mana Download full-text PDF
productivity in Tunisia. The 3-year project is
oration between two partners: the Researc
Center of Energy (CRTEn) and Centre of Bio
Cedria (CBBC) (2014e2017).
As hydroponics are highly sophisticated sy
climate management is seldom, nay absent,
acclimatization researches. The novelty of this
improved hydroponic greenhouse indoor cli
growth availing the hydroponic greenhou
benefiting from the solar heating using a solar
change material during cold periods. To comp
of temperature at night which may severely
necessary to use the additional heating: the SA
uses exclusively solar energy for greater acclim
culture conditions. Considering these issues, th
an eco-friendly hydroponic greenhouse and a
using two packed beds of latent storage en
realized in the Thermal Processes Laboratory
This study seeks then to determine the fe
vative Hydroponic Greenhouse (HG) and a n
with Latent storage energy (SAHL) for its n
sections (2) and (3), the experimental set-up
equipment will be described. In section (4),
thermal analysis of the hydroponic greenhou
mate evaluation, the SAHL comportment and th
be illustrated in section (5). In the conclusion
will be reported.
2. Experimental set-up
The experimental prototype is a new
Greenhouse (HHG) composed of two compon
mental Hydroponic Greenhouse (HG), and (
Heater with Latent storage energy on two bed
shows the real device of the experimental sys
2.1. The experimental hydroponic greenhouse de
The experimental Hydroponic Greenhouse (
of area and 3 m of height with Southern-Easter
hydroponic greenhouse is constructed with
structure (Z300) covered by a sandwich panel w
insulator. It is characterized by a light weight,
strength, a low toxicity and a thermal conductiv
frontage. This window ensures the transmi
ation for the crops growth. The Northern wa
windows (simple glazing) with the sa
removable opaque shading screens with 2 m
the windows to reduce the radiation int
overheating of plants during the summer a
ensured by four lamps used at night and whe
not available or not sufficient. In fact, th
essential to ensure the photosynthesis proc
 SAHL
See all › See all ›
2.2. The Download citation
control panel Shareand ventil Download full-text PDF
of irrigation
41 References 12 Figures
The second compartment occupies a tota
is fitted out with the germination equipmen
irrigation and ventilation systems as shown
g. 1. The experimental Heated Hydroponic Greenhouse.
composed of electric cabinet, Hunter X-cor
water filter, dosing pump, DAB water pump
Hunter solenoid valves and chint inverter.
composed of two isothermal boxes; the principal
t is destined for the hydroponic culture and the small
- The electric cabinet contains push butt
or the germination and the control systems.
circuit-breakers, (3) electric switches, (8
pal compartment has 54 m 3 of volume and destined
Off, power transformer and (2) tempera
ponic culture (Fig. 2). A metallic support is installed to
- The Hunter X-core controller regulates cu
ulture trays. The dimensions of the tray are: 4mm of
run time and water days for the automa
mm of width and 350 mm of length. The trays are
- The cartridges water filter (XS Type SEN
o rows, each row is composed of five vertical levels
water flowing in the irrigation system.
m. The metallic support is constructed in such way
- The dosing pump Green Line model D
s of each level are placed with a low inclination. The
nutriment solution to enrich the water.
f all trays are perforated in extremities for the water
- The DAB 0.5HP Peripheral Centrifugal w
30/16 M actuates the water circulation.
equipped with a double-glazed window with an area
- The AquaOxy 4800 aerator with a power
nd a thermal transmittance U < 1.3 W/m 2 K placed in
60 W and a maximum flow rate of 4800 l/
n wall and represents 30% of the total area of this
during the germination.

Solenoid valve

Culture tray

Support

Extractor

Shading screen

Lamp

Manual valve

Drip tubing

Recovery pipe

Fig. 2. The real view of the experimental HG.

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

 See all › See all ›
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41 References 12 Figures

(a) Control panel

(a)

(b ) X-core Controller (e) Inverter

(b) (e)

(c)
(f)
(d) (g)

(c) Dosing pump (f) Cartridges water filter

(d) Aerator (g) Pump

Fig. 3. The different components of the control system.

PGV 24V scheduling solenoid valve used for the uniformly a measured quantity of water in
ment. ensure that the plants do not suffer from st
VF2-1.5/TS4 inverter modifies the velocity of the air watering. The trays holes allow the flow wa
ged with the fans. another until reaching the recovery pipe and th
(Fig. 4).

ontrol system 2.2.2. Ventilation control system

n technique chosen for the HG is the drip irrigation
uitable, economical and effective water use. The
ram of irrigation assured by the Hunter X-core
3 (b)) which schedules the solenoid valves to allow
ation. Water circulates from the water tank to crops
ne drip tubing. The drip tubes branch out into ten
d pipes equipped with drippers, each pipe contains
that permits the water flow. The drippers deliver
Generally, the natural ventilation is not suf
timum climate inside the greenhouse. A ventila
to maintain favorable levels of relative hum
excess heat. To homogenize the temperatur
within the greenhouse, three THERMIVEN
distributed into greenhouse. A fan is placed at 2
Northern wall of the germination room and tw
the Northern and the Southern walls respectiv
 See all › See all ›
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41 References 12 Figures
S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

Table 2
The PCM thermo-physical characteristics.

PCM CaC

Physical state Liquid Solid

Heat of fusion (kJ/kg) 192.6 192.6
Specific heat (kJ/kg K) 2.22 1.42
Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 0.58 1.05
Density (kg/m 3) 1710

2.3. The solar air heater with latent storage e

The heating system used to control the i

the HG during the nighttime, is a new sola
storage energy (Fig. 5). The SAHL is design
Research and Technology Center of Energ
exterior near the Southern wall of HG.
composed of spherical capsules confining p
The capsule coat is molded with a black
Solenoid valve Drip tubing
Line of emitters 0.002 m of thickness. The nodules (312 nodu
Manual valve
Recovery pipe superposed beds arranged on two metal
Tank Culture tray
galvanized parallelepiped box. The num
necessarily satisfy the maximal greenhou
Fig. 4. The irrigation system of the HG. during the coldest climate period, it was dete
analysis assessed hereafter. The energy ne
period quantify the required amount of p
aracteristics. necessary to maintain the desired environm
house and then determine the satisfactory
80 V
sules. The solar air heater with latent stor
e 0.6 A determined as follows; the mass of phase
y 50 Hz obtained through dividing the required am
power 150/250 W
olutions per minute) 1360 r/min
heat fusion of the PCM. Subsequently, the n
measured considering the amount of PCM p
quently, the sizing was accomplished by ch
design of the absorber and then the solar a
The packed beds absorber is the most
ensuring the solar thermal energy storage. A
parent glass cover (emissivity of 94% and a
placed 0.04 m apart from the absorber. The S
layer polyurethane with 0.05 m of thickness
metallic support with a Southern orientatio
the horizontal. Indeed, the intensity of inci
the solar collector is affected by the azimuth
influence the incident angle of sunlight on i
a panel vary from one geographic latitude t
also on the atmospheric composition, th
period. The most reasonable values of the a
are based on several studies having worked
energy applications as (Tlijani et al., 2017) a
The SAHL operating on two processes (
ing). During the day, the charging process,
openings are closed and the PCM is heate
(melting temperature). The phase change m
ergy as sensible and latent heat. At night, th
begins, the air inlet and outlet orifices are o
is actuated to blow the hot air with a fixed sp
is properly sized to allow suitable heating
speed was chosen low in order to achieve a l
Fig. 5. The schematic view of the SAHL.
heat. Moreover, a Pt100 sensor in associated
detect the internal temperature and actuate
temperature reaches its limit and exceeds
r. The fans are actuated automatically if the optimum perature range, the fan will be immediately
is not available. The inverter (Fig. 3 (e)) adjusts the The new SAHL with latent storage ener
eed from 0.5 m/s to 5 m/s. Table 1 summarizes the fans nected to the hydroponic greenhouse by a
s. stored thermal energy (Fig. 1). The length of
 See all › See all ›
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41 References 12 Figures

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

(a) (b)

( c) (d)
g. 6. DSC measurement curve of latent heat of fusion and melting temperature of CaCl2.6H2O at different cycles (Tyagi and Bud

m and insulted with 0.05 m of glass wool to reduce have a remarkable life span of more than 10 00
es. 27 years of normal use) (Cristopia, 2013).

ge material 3. Measurement methodology

hange material used is the calcium chloride hexa-
6H 2O with additive. The CaCl 2.6H 2 O is a promising
aterial utilizing latent heat of fusion. It is a proper
tent heat, good thermal conductivity and inflam-
hermo-physical properties of the calcium chloride
e tabulated in Table 2. The additives were used to
em of supercooling and minimalize changes in the
ansition phase during thermal cycling processes of
oride hexahydrate. The PCM used is characterized
An experimental study is performed to e
parameters of the HHG heated by the solar air
storage energy (SAHL). Measurements have be
month of February 2017. To accomplish
measuring diverse instrumentations were use
3.1. Measuring equipment in the HHG

h d i d i d
 theSee
desired
all › operating temperature
See range and a
all › It melts
hange during phase transition. in a stable The measurement device was
Download citation equipped w Download full-text PDF
Share
41and
ature References 12 Figures
has shown minor variations in the latent struments and sensors noted as:
during the thermal cycling process; only about
% average variation respectively during the 1000 - (2) HMP155A sensors, the first one was pla
Tyagi and Buddi, 2008). Fig. 6 illustrates the DSC 1.2 m above the floor to measure the tem
urve of latent heat of fusion and melting tempera- relative humidity (T HMPin and RH HMPin )
H2O at different cycles. The CaCl2.6H2O nodules the second HMP155A sensor was placed ou

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2

X 0 0.5 1.35 2.2 3

Y 1.5 3 4.5

Z 0 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.7 2.2

Fig. 7. The thermocouples distribution in the HG.

temperature and relative humidity (T HMPex and
. vertical position from the ground.
meters KIPP & ZONEN measured the horizontal global
ation: one was placed at 1.2 m inside the greenhouse
econd pyranometer was fixed in horizontal plane at
e the greenhouse.
ocouples to measure temperature in the center of the
se at different vertical levels (T1, T 2, T 3, T4 and T 5),
ocouples (T6, T7, T8 and T9) placed in the horizontal
2 m above the floor to measure the air temperature at
uth, Est and West sides,
ocouples placed on different windows glass sides (T 10,
and T 13),
 Z ¼ {0, 2, 1, 0, 1 or 2} presented the
3.2. Measuring equipment in the SAHL
To measure the temperatures of the SA
type thermocouples were used (Fig. 5).
- (2) thermocouples to measure the inlet (T
temperatures of the SAHL,
- (2) thermocouples to measure the surfac
perature in the center of the first bed (T
 See to
ocouple allmeasure
› theSee all ›
temperature of the floor (T 14). perature (Tglass),
matic41layout illustrated 12
in Figures
(Fig. 7) describes (14) local- Download citation
- (6) thermocouples Share
were integrated in the Download full-text PDF
References 
f K-type thermocouples (accuracy ± 0.01 C) distrib- the last nodules of each bed named re
e the greenhouse at different triple positions (X, Y, Z). T bed1 bed2
13 ) and (T1 , T bed2
7 , T bed2
13 ).
ence center of the localizations parameters corre-
the middle of the greenhouse at 1.2m above the
corresponds to the thermocouple T3 position. 3.3. The meteorological station

rmocouple position is defined by (X, Y, Z) detailed as
1, 0, 1 or 2} presented the values that define the po-
he thermocouple -from the North to the South.
or 1} presented the values that define the position on
m the East to the West.
The NRG weather station of the Research
of Energy of Borj Cedria is equipped with
recording every 10 min the average, the m
and the standard deviation values for the am
global sun flux on a horizontal plan and the
rection at 20 m. The wind velocity at other hi
from the wind speed measurement at 20 m u

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

d uncertainties details.

ymbole Unit Sensor Position Uncertainty

umidity RH HMP-in % HMP155A in the center of the greenhouse at 1.2 m above the floor ±2%
humidity RH HMP-ext % HMP155A outside near the collector (Fig. 5) ±2%
2
ar radiation e W/m KIPP & ZONEN pyranometer in horizontal surface at 1.2 m inside the greenhouse ±
2
lar radiation e W/m KIPP & ZONEN pyranometer in inclined surface near the collector (Fig. 5)

ture T amb C K-type thermocouple outside at 3 m above the floor ±0.01

ure T1 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 2.2 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T2 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 1.7 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T3 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 1.2 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T4 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 0.7 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T5 C K-type thermocouple in the center of the greenhouse at 0.2 m (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T6 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the northern side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T7 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the southern side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T8 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the eastern side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T9 C K-type thermocouple at 1.2 m in the western side of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T10 C K-type thermocouple on the internal southern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T11 C K-type thermocouple on the external southern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T12 C K-type thermocouple on the internal northern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T13 C K-type thermocouple on the external northern glass (Fig. 6) ±0.01

ure T14 C K-type thermocouple on the floor in the center of the greenhouse (Fig. 6) ±0.01

eT glass C K-type thermocouple the glass of the solar heater (Fig. 5) ±0.01

perature T out C K-type thermocouple (Fig. 5) ±0.01
bed i 
T j C K-type thermocouple the j position of the bed i, i ¼ {1,2}, j ¼ {1,7,13} ±0.01
e e CR 5000 data logger inside the hydroponic greenhouse ±0.1

2Þ ¼ ðz 1 =z2 bÞ where U is the wind speed, z is the
e power law exponent and the subscripts 1 and 2
erent heights (Nightingale et al., 2013).
and measured parameters of HHG system are
a Campbell Scientific CR5000 measurement and
ger connected to a microcomputer with LoggerNet
ram. Due to the shortcut interface and the CRbasic
rogram measuring the different parameters every
g the average values every 10 min was realized. The
system recorded the measurements during all the
eriod.
analysis
ted measurements, experimental results may have
uncertainty analysis is then needed to estimate the
4. Thermal analysis and efficiencies
4.1. Thermal analysis
The thermal analysis corresponds to the hyd
before the cultivation (without crops). The iso
as described above can be assimilated to a bui
this section, the thermal analysis is developed
ternal thermal gains and losses inside the HG
the heating requirements of the greenhouse
period (Fig. 8).
The amount of energy provided via the
chosen to maintain the desired environment c
the greenhouse losses and gains. Otherwise, it
thermal losses minus the sum of useful gains
and internal energy sources (Cassagne and
mentioned, energy requirements are generally
 uncertainty analysis is then needed to estimate the
See all › accuracies and
asurements See to
all increase
› the precision
d experiments. Download citation
X Share X Download full-text PDF
41 ReferencesExperimental
12 Figures errors came mainly Heating requirements ¼ Losses  Gain
ure, relative humidity, solar irradiation measure- 0 Heat Req ¼ Ltot  Gtot
sensitiveness and measurement error of data
em (type CR 5000). Table 3 itemizes the details of The total thermal losses are assumed as th
and uncertainties.
eness were obtained from a catalog of the in-
e uncertainties were likely to be related to instru-
es as measurement inaccuracy, sensitivity and
rtainties.
ed uncertainties of the dependent parameters were
(1). The result R is a given function in terms of the
riables. Let w R be the uncertainty in the result and
be the uncertainties of the independent variables.
given function of the independent variables x 1 , x2 ,
ertainties in the independent variables are all given
dds, then the uncertainty in the result having these
ed by (Holman, 1994):
2  2  2
vR vR
þ w2 þ ,,, þ wn 1=2 (1)
vx2 vxn
Fig. 8. The thermal balance of the H

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

The external convective heat transfer co

Ti Þ (3) take the form as (Duffie et al., 2003):

T i Þ is the difference between interior and exterior hec ¼ 5:2 þ 3:8 Vamb
( C) and H is the total thermal loss coefficient of the
greenhouse expressed in (W=m 2). H includes the where Vamb is the ambient wind velocity (m
ms of thermal losses, it can be written as: The useful gains include all source prov
ergy to the greenhouse. These gains contain
f þ H Un þ HTr (4) and all outputs heat inside the greenhouse (o
lighting …).
ents the coefficient of losses by specific air renewal. It The useful gains are determined as follo
m of:
Gtot ¼ GS þ GP þ Geq
V (5)
GS : is the solar inputs calculated as fo
Wh=m 3 K) is the value of the volumetric heat capacity of GICQUEL):
C, Qmin and Q max are respectively the minimum and X
alues of the total extracted air flow and Q V is the Gs ¼ ðAFtr F red CÞI
olumetric flow rate (m 3 =h) and expressed as
where A is surface of each wall(m 2), F tr is
þ QmaxÞ=6 (6) factor of the wall, F red is the solar energy re
coefficient of orientation and inclination o
he coefficient of losses by infiltration. These losses can solar irradiation intensity (W=m 2 ).
: The internal gains include G eq and GP .
X Geq : is the internal gain of equipment:
ðP : wÞ (7)
Geq ¼ Pel f
permeability of each façade and written as:
P el is the heat outputs supplied by the d
X correction factor.
þ ðmA dwÞ (8)
GP : is the internal gain of occupation d
are respectively the ventilation holes and the opening GP ¼ n P occ
ndows) surfaces, m is a permeability coefficient ðm=hÞ
coefficient of exposure to wind. where n represents the number of occupan
he coefficient of losses by transmission through un-
t t td i it (W
 outputs per occupant during its presence (W
s. See all › See all ›
se, we consider H Un 12
0HFigures
T: denotes the transmission Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References
ient. They are given as follow: 4.2. The HG thermal performance

The greenhouse microclimate is directly

AÞ
ace of the transmission area (m 2 ) and K is the global
ient (W=m2 K) and it is equal to:
e 1
þ (10)
l he
ness of each material constituting the wall (m) and l is
onductivity (W=m K ).
external exchange coefficient, he , includes the heat
y convection and radiation, and expressed as:
er
internal exchange coefficient, h ,i can be written as
s of the convective heat transfer coefficient, hic , are
n accordance with the heat flow direction (Morel and
ou, 2009). h ic equals to 5 W/m 2 K if the heat flow is
pwards, 2.5 W/m 2 K if it is horizontal and 0.7 W/m 2 K
flow is directed downwards
(9)
conditions. Then, to define the heating r
cover all the heat desired, the thermal perf
ponic greenhouse was evaluated during
predict the nocturnal heating requiremen
taining the nighttime temperature over 16 
greenhouse, the previous equations were
useful gains and the thermal losses of the H
testing day (Fig. 9).
Thermal losses are determined by Eq
summarized in the Table 4 for a typical day
showed that windows were the responsib
thermal losses with around 38% and the w
29% of the total losses. The door and
respectively to 7 and 5% the least value of t
(11)
rest was distributed practically equally
renewal and infiltration. The repartition o
showed the important role of the souther
the solar radiation. Contrarily to the therm
(12) glazing brought almost the half of the usefu
roof participated with 14% as the internal
they contributed to more than 15% of sola
part for the sunny walls than not sunny
capitulates the useful gains determined b
(see Table 7 ).
The distribution of the thermal losses a
shows the big importance of the greenhouse

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

700 40
Solar radiation Ambient temperature
Temperature inside the HG
600 35

500 30
Solar radiation (W/m )
2

Temperature (°C)

25
400

20
300

15
200

10
100

5
0
0
00:00 04:00 08:00 12:00 16:00 20:00 24:00
Time (hh:mm)
8/12/2016 (Reference da y)

Fig. 9. Weather parameters for reference.

i d t t th i d h ti
 See allthe
› HG. See all › was sized to warrant the required heating ev
ses through favorable climatic
Downloadconditions. InShare
fact, the amou
41 References 12 Figures to compensate for citation
the greenhouse requir Download full-text PDF
hermal loss (W)
defined the quantity of encapsulated phas
110
around 95 kg, considering the amount of heat s
144
40
nodule. The 310 nodules necessary to satisf
19 defined then the packed beds absorber confi
26 after the SAHL sizing.
nd infiltration 40
379
5. Economic analysis

The basic aim of every agricultural produ

ains of the HG. products and decrease costs. Thus, the financia
ces Useful gains (W) assess the production efficiency. Optimum en
ture can be reflected in two ways; increasing t
lls 100
the same level of energy inputs or reduc
walls 35
window 375 affecting the productivity.
window 80 In this context, the energy use and the co
110 hydroponic greenhouse heating was evaluated
quipment 110
heating (SAHL þ fuel boiler) and conventional
810
The payback period PP of the heating syste
by dividing the amount of the investment cos
r increasing the energetic gains and decreasing the
ergy gain cost (Cenergy gain ) as follow:
n cold periods.
o Eq. (2), to maintain the optimal temperature at Cinvest
g system must insure around 430 W at nighttime PP ¼
C energy gain
HG. Then, the solar air heater was designed to
heating requirement during the nocturnal period Wherein the investment cost C invest includes
energy losses and benefits calculated, the SAHL the operation cost C op and the maintenance co

le 6
mmary cost analysis.

Solar heating (SAHL þ boiler) Conventional heating (boiler)

stem cost (V) 900 600

perating cost (V) 35 130
aintenance cost (V) 30 20
ergy gain cost (V) 165 e
(year) 5.8

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

45 18 1000
Ambient temperature Wind speed
Solar irradiation 900
40 16

800
35 14
700
Solar irradiation (W/m2)

30 12
Temperature (°C)

600
Wind speed (m/s)

25 10 500

20 8 400

300
15 6
200
10 4
100

5 2
0
 See all › 0 See all ›
41 References
00:00 12 Figures
00:00 00:00
18 Feb 19 Feb 20 Feb
Da et a nd time
Fig. 10. The climatic parameters evolution.
urn is defined as the costs of equipment, installation
on. The operation cost C op corresponds to the boiler
ump for the conventional system (fuel boiler), and the
n costs for the solar heating (SAHL þ backup system).
ance cost C maint corresponds to the annual cost of
each component of the systems. Capital costs of the
ms were based on the price quotations obtained from
demand required is the amount necessary to keep the
within the appropriate temperature range, between
7  C, during five months (November to March). In
ntirely possible to remove the need for heating during
ods. Then the heating duration is about 1800 h. The
nergy that must be supplied by the heating system is
Wh.
marizes the main results.
tion of the annual energy production due to the solar
over 4600 kWh. The average mean life of the SAHL was
be 20 years and the payback period of using the SAHL
years and this period of time could be shortened by
most suitable methods to increase the annual yield
ndicate that important energy saving benefits were
m the reduction in consumption of the fuel used
ly to provide energy. Due to the solar air heater with
nt storage, the total energy inputs were reduced and
emands were satisfied freely. The solar heating led to
mprovements in the energy use efficiency.
the saving in heating costs of the SAHL, the environ-
fits of using this system are considerable due to the
CO 2 emission. Therefore, the use of the SAHL in the
heating process would be an appropriate system.
d discussion
rimental measurements of this study were taken in
7. They concerned the climatic conditions, the solar air
rmance, the phase change materials states and the
S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379
45
Ambient temperature Solar irradiation
Temperature inside the HG
40
35
30
perature (°C)
25
0 -100
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
21 Feb 22 Feb 23 Feb 24 Feb
thermal behavior of the HG (without heatin
heating).
The external global solar radiation, the
and the wind velocity at 2 m above the h
during one week in February 2017 are pres
climatic weather prevailing in the experim
terized by significant fluctuations. The sol
during this period attained mainly 80 0 W/m
and the 23rd of February marked perturb
tensity were characterized by the lower val
600 W/m 2. Concerning the ambient tem
period, the maximal diurnal values ranged b
In accordance with the solar intensity variat
of ambient temperature was recorded in 20
day. At night, the outdoor temperature va
15 C but it was mainly lower than 10  C.
The wind velocity in the experiment's sit
standards which equals 4 m/s. However, the
characterized by unstable rates and varied w
and 11.6m/s. The least values of wind veloc
tween the 19th and 20th of February when
sunny and the temperature exceeded 23 C.
recorded in 22 February at 16 h.
6.1. Performance of the hydroponic greenhous
To evaluate the hydroponic greenhouse p
heating, measurements have been taken du
10 February 2017) with fluctuated weather c
temperature evolution inside the hydropon
temperature inside the HG and the external
illustrated in (Fig. 11).
Fig. 11 shows that the internal air temp
trend as the ambient temperature and it
global solar radiation. For a diurnal ambien
among 14 and 27 C, the HG air temperatu
and 34 C. During this testing week, the diur
the HG was always higher than the outdoor
800
700
600
Solar irradiation
500
400
 Temp

n (W/m )
See all ›20 See all › 300
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
15 200

2
10 100

5 0

0 -100
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
04 Feb 05 Feb 06 Feb 07 Feb 08 Feb 09 Feb 10 Feb
Dat e and time
Fig. 11. The air temperature evolution inside the HG.

mperature varied among 20 and 23 C while the HG
s over 34  C at 13 h. The 9th of February, when the
didn't attain 270 W/m 2 and the ambient temper-
16  C, the HG temperature was around 19  C. The
side the HG was permanently higher than the
ature and the difference was around 11  C and even
during the early hours of the day the difference
the temperature of the HG was even colder than
till mostly over 12  C. At night, the ambient tem-
between 10 and 13  C and the HG temperature was
between 12 and 16  C.
ates the temperature of three positions (T1, T2 and
high levels (respectively 2.2, 1.7 and 0.7 m) inside
the HG (Fig. 6 section 2.1). The stratification
from midday till the sunset and almost absent
higher air temperature corresponded to the u
ever, from 10 h to 13 h, temperatures in lower p
greater than other positions which can be e
position and the irradiation direction during t
As acknowledged, it is crucial to control th
humidity. In fact, it is a critical factor affectin
demics of certain crop diseases and inappropri
humidity threaten growth plants and damage
Fig. 13 exhibits the shape of the external,
midity and ambient temperature curves during
previous conditions. Temperature and hum

45 800
Ambient temperature Solar irradiation
T1
40 700
T2
T4
35 600 Solar irradiation ( W/m )

30 500
Temperature (°C)

25 400

20 300

15 200
2

10 100

5 0

0 -100
04/02/2017 00:00 05/02/2017 00:00 06/02/2017 00:00 07/02/2017 00:00 08/02
D at e andtime
Fig. 12. The vertical stratification inside the HG.

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

40 110
Ambient temperature Internal humidity
External humidity 100
35
 See all › See all › 90
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References
30 12 Figures
80

Ambient temperature (°C)

Relative humidity (%)

25 70

60
20
50

15 40

30
10
20
5
10

0 0
13/02/2017 00:00 14/02/2017 00:00 15/02/2017 00:00 16/02/2017 00:00 17/02/2017 00:00
Date and time

Fig. 13. The relative humidity inside and outside the HG.

Low humidity values accompanied the maximal 6.1.1. The shading screen effect on the HG (wi
during the sunny periods. Fig. 14 exposes the HG temperature evol
of the relative humidity inside the HG is visibly more temperature before and after the use of
he external humidity, this fact explains the importance screen in practically comparable weathe
ulation in reducing the weather fluctuation effect and February, when the hydroponic greenhouse
e interior humidity. The internal humidity was mainly the sun through the Southern double glazin
he relative humidity outside. The higher difference was greater than ambient temperature by
internal and external humidity attained was recorded reached 34  C in 13 February at 14 h when th
it was over 30%. The lower internal humidity was was about 15.6  C. After using the mov
4 h and it was around 23% while the temperature continuously during 15 and 16 February, th
C. Then, the humidity started to increase and attained inside the greenhouse didn't attain 28 C
s from midnight to the sunshine until reaching over irradiation intensity exceeded 1000 W/m 2.
e emplacement of the greenhouse (to close to the sea) Using the shading screen decreased the
high values of relative humidity. the day by reducing the amount of sol

45 1200
Ambient temperature Solar irradiation
Temperature inside the HG 1100
40
Without shading With shading 1000
35 900
Solar irradiation (W/m 2)

800
30
Temperature (°C)

700
25
600
500
20
400
15
300

10 200

100
5
0

0 -100
13/02/2017 00:00 14/02/2017 00:00 15/02/2017 00:00 16/02/2017 00:00 17/02/2017 00:00
Date a nd t ime
Fig. 14. The temperature evolution inside the HG without and with the shading.
 See all › See all ›
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

he greenhouse. The movable screen of the HG

sun intensity incoming inside the greenhouse by Ti;max  T i;min
TLL ¼
sition of the screen covering the double glazing. T i;max þ T i;min
allowed a good solution when it is sunny but there
The performance of the hydroponic greenh
igh solar radiation intensity.
in terms of daily variation of thermal load le
Figs. 16 and 17. The TLL of the HG was mai
exceeded 0.5 in 8 February (Fig. 16). The lowes
of the hydroponic greenhouse with heating in the 9th of February. After using the solar air
HHG didn't attain 0.4 and varied mainly be
ed above, the greenhouse conception and design (Fig. 17). Compared to the TLL without heating
y internal temperatures permanently higher than load leveling was significantly lower which si
ature. However, temperature may suddenly drop at tuations of greenhouse air were reduced an
ch makes the heating necessary. To confront the ronment was improved after the heating. H
and improve the nocturnal climate under the effective for reducing the daily swings of temp
solar air heater with latent thermal storage was HG and then enhancing the greenhouse micro
e HG from the 18th of February.
s the air temperature evolution inside the heated
enhouse with the ambient temperature and the 6.3. The SAHL performance
n intensity from 22 to 28 February. The integra-
L to the HG increased significantly the temper- To pursue the behavior of the solar air hea
e HHG. At daytime, the temperature was mostly the SAHL inlet, outlet and absorber tempera

C and reached 37  C at 13:50. The higher diurnal February are presented below (Fig. 18).
ring this week was recorded in 24 February. The The daytime, the air inlet and outlet openi
ture was recorded in 28 February when the solar SAHL cover trapped the solar irradiation and
ity didn't attain 400 W/m 2 and it was over 21  C. the excess of the solar energy as latent heat to b
od of heating, the SAHL was activated overnight sun is not available. At evening, the air inlet
the drop of temperature. The nocturnal temper- were opened and the heater worked contin
HHG varied between 17 and 20 C. The heating thermal energy heat stored due to the phase c
crease of temperature by more than 6  C the day was after that recovered the nocturnal
greenhouse.

ad leveling (TLL) 1
mperature is a function of time, the fluctuation of 0.9
e inside the greenhouse plays a crucial role. Hence, 0.8
to determine the thermal load leveling (TLL) to 0.7
wings in temperature. The TLL is a relative index 0.6
about the fluctuation of temperatures inside a 0.5
is an important factor for optimizing heating in 0.4
d is defined by equation Eq. (19). For a greenhouse 0.3
g with minimum fluctuations, the thermal load 0.2
should have low values due to the increase of 0.1
well as the decrease of T i;max  Ti;min (Sutar and 0
4/2 5/2 6/2 7/2 8/2

Fig. 16. Variation of thermal load leveling

1000
T Solar irradiation
ature inside the HG 900

800
1
700
0.9
Solar irradiation (W/m2)

600 0.8
500 0.7

400 0.6

300 0.5

200 0.4
0.3
100
0.2
0
0.1
-100
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 0
3 Feb 24 Feb 25 Feb 26 Feb 27 Feb 28 Feb 22/2 23/2 24/2 25/2 26/2
Date an d itm e

15. The air temperature evolution inside the HHG. Fig. 17. Variation of thermal load leveling o
 See all › See all ›
Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

60 1000
SAHL intel temperature Solar irradiation
55 SAHL outlet temperature 900
Absorber temperature
50 800
45
700
40

Solar irradition (W/m 2)

Temperature (°C)

600
35
500
30
400
25
300
20
200
15

10 100

5 0

0 -100
00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00 00:00
18 Feb 19 Feb 20 Feb 21 Feb 22 Feb
Date and t ime
Fig. 18. The SAHL air temperature evolution.

ws that the SAHL temperatures were closely related to Fig. 19 depicts the phase change materials
dition. The daily average thermal efficiency of the SAHL in nodules13 and 7 of the bed_1(T bed 1
and T
13
days is also given. 2 bed 2
and 1 of the bed_2(T bed
13 and T 1 ) of the s
nny days, the absorber temperature exceeded 30  C
charging and discharging processes (Fig. 5 se
et temperature was over 40  C. The 20th of February
The PCM temperature variations of the d
rized by the important values of temperatures. For an
slight difference concerning the charging an
perature of 24  C and a solar radiation intensity over
as well as the fusion and solidification peak
he absorber temperature reached 35  C and the SAHL
Concerning the nodules temperatures pl
rature-was above 43  C at 13 h. The lowest tempera-
in both beds (Fig. 19 (a)), the PCM tempera
n 22 February when the ambient temperature was
2 more important than the PCM temperature
and the solar intensity didn't attain 600 W/m . The
 phase change material constituting the fi
ter allowed mainly 20 C higher output temperature
solar intensity than the second bed which
bient temperature. The absorber temperature evolu- 1 2
T bed
13 exceeded 58  C while T bed
13 didn't
marked distinct pace which can be explained by the
nodule is near the transparent cover of the
phase change materials encapsulated in the spherical
temperature is greater.
he absorber.
Comparing two nodules temperatures in

70 45
bed1 bed2
T 13 T 13 Tbed1
7
Tbed1
13 T
bed2
1
Charging process Charging process 40
60 Charging process

35
50
PCM temperature (°C)
PCM temperature (°C)

30
40
25

30
20

20
15
 See all › See all › 10 10
Discharging process Download citation
Discharging process Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
5
0
0 18:00 06:0 06:00 18:00
06:00 18:00 06:00 Time (hh:m
Time (h h:mm) Time (hh:mm)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 19. The PCM temperature evolution.

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

40
bed2
T 13

35

T melting
Hysteresis Supercooling
30
PCM temperature (°C)

25
Tcrystallization

20

15

10

5
19/02/2017 06:00 19/02/2017 18:00 20/02/2017 06:00 20/02/2017 18:00 21/02/2017 06:0 0
D at e and time
Fig. 20. The PCM phenomena.

temperatures in upper location are greater than discharges faster. The PCM temperature T be 1
res in lower position. The thermo-siphon effect was rapidly than other nodules and drop less than 1
e upper part of the collector which explains the fact discharging duration of nodules near the cold
ore important than Tbed 1
(56.6  C against 38.7 C at than nodules of upper locations which disch
7
bed 2 2 period (after 7 h).
b)) and T 13 is higher than T bed
1 (36  C against
(Fig. 20) clarifies the phenomena of the
(Fig. 19 (c)).
phenomena of the supercooling presented d
charging process, the PCM temperature started
discharging processes in the nodule 13 of th
til reaching around 27 C at 10:30. Then, temper-
section 1.3).
constant about 2 h when the PCM stored an amount
During the sunshine when the PCM stored
ent heat. This phenomenon is more perceived in
from the solar irradiation, its temperature
er positions by the thermo-siphon effect. For the
until reaching the melting temperature, ap
cess, more the nodule is near the air inlet more it

160 0.7

140 0.6
ciency (%)

120
0.5
heat (kJ)

100
 Daily thermal effic
Accumulated h
See all › See all › 0.4
80 Download citation Share Download full-text PDF
41 References 12 Figures
0.3
60
0.2
40

20 0.1

0 0
18 Feb 19 Feb 20 Feb 21 Feb 22 Feb
Date

Accumulated useful heat Accumulated absorbed heat Daily thermal efficiency

Fig. 21. Thermal efficiency of the SAHL.

S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379

rst drops of liquid appeared. During the changing 6.3.1. The thermal efficiency of SAHL
PCM, the melting temperature was slightly greater The daily average thermal efficiency of th
stallization temperature; and then, the temperature the quotient of the amount of the accumulat
raise until reaching about 37 C. This particularity the collector during the discharging process
to the phenomenon of hysteresis. The hysteresis is accumulated absorbed heat during the cha
d by a lag of the solidification temperature compared the form as:
ion. It is due to some thermo-physical properties of
s the slow formation of the crystalline lattice, the Extracted heat amount
P
of the crystalline organization of the solid during h ¼ P
Absorbed heat amount
ange. P
QExtracted
e discharging process, the temperature of the PCM Discharging process
low the solidification temperature and the PCM was in 0h ¼
QAbsorbed
P
state. This state was maintained over a period of time Chargin gprocess
temperature evolved slowly and remained constant
wer temperature than the temperature of the melting Fig. 21 illustrates the daily thermal effi
the total crystallization. The PCM temperature mulated useful and absorbed heat. The daily
terward till dropping less to 15 C. This state corre- ciency of the solar air heater with latent
he supercooling which is a delay in crystallization; the between 0.29% and 0.38%.
ed to a temperature below the theoretical phase
mperature (sensible heat of the liquid phase) because
tal did not appear. Supercooling is generally charac-
difference between the melting temperature and the 7. Survey of greenhouse heating applicati
emperature of appearance of the first crystal.

ouse heating systems studies.

ating system description Findings

Sensible heat technique by storing solar energy - the average daily rates of the thermal energy and exergy recovered
ik using the volcanic material were 601.3 and 20.9 W during the charging period
- the heat storage unit assured 18.9% of the total heating requiremen
wari Inner thermal curtain and natural flow of - the air temperature surrounding plants under thermal blanket was m
geothermal warm water through the floor 23  C during winter night and early morning
Solar-assisted ground-source (geothermal) heat - the greenhouse air had a maximum diurnal temperature of 31.05 
005) pump system 14.54 C and a relative humidity of 40.35%.
arma, Aquifer coupled cavity flow heat exchanger system - the average greenhouse room air temperature was maintained at 7e
during winter nights
- the average relative humidity inside the greenhouse decreased by
muş Ground-source heat pump-phase change material- the heat pump increased the temperature by 5e10.8 C and the ch
latent heat storage system by 1e3.8  C

T l ll t ith l t th t t d ith th ti lh ti t th ll t id
 muş, Ten solar collectors with latent heat storage - compared with the conventional heating systems, the collectors provide
See all › See all ›
Horizontal and vertical ground- source heat
41 References 12 Figures
pumps
han Six solar air heaters with a single glass cover on the - the greenhouse inside air temperature was kept at 18 C
roof
015) Seasonal solar soil heat storage system - the energy saving realized by using the seasonal solar soil heat storage sys
n Linear Fresnel lens (LFL) and Spot Fresnel Lens
) (SFL) solar collectors
na PCM as a root zone temperature control system - significant environmental and economic benefits were obtained
) - an increase of 18% of farmers net benefit was obtained
Solar collector system for low and high
temperature applications
Ground source geothermal heat pump with to
photovoltaic panels
al., Evacuated tube solar collector as a solar water
heater assisted an electric heat pump
udy New solar air heater with two packed beds of
latent storage energy
S. Baddadi et al. / Journal of Cleaner Production 211 (2019) 360e379
ty of an innovative Hydroponic Greenhouse (HG)
Air Heater with Latent storage energy (SAHL) has
The novelty of this work is to warrant an enhanced
eenhouse microclimate due to an hydroponic
ilot unit with latent thermal storage using exclu-
rgy.
nic greenhouse guaranteed a suitable microclimate
le daytime with internal temperatures exceeding
mperature by around 6 C. The diurnal temperature
nhouse ranged between 18 and 34 C. To compen-
nal temperature drops, a solar air collector with
nergy was connected to the greenhouse. The packed
the sun radiations and stored the excess of the
as latent heat. The PCM used proved to be a
ion for this energy storage application and melted
iations in the appropriate operating temperature
the SAHL recovered the stored energy and obvi-
the indoor climate. The temperature was increased
he nighttime and the nocturnal temperature varied
20  C. The daily average thermal efficiency of the
with latent thermal storage varied between 0.29%
ppeared to be cost effective compared to the con-
ng systems and good improvement has been
greenhouse. Annual energy production due to the
s reduced by over 460 0 kWh. The payback period
HL system was 6 years. By using this kind of solar air
c terms show considerable good manners. Subse-
of the SAHL and the HG could be a beneficial option
mal microclimate, improved energy saving benefits
2 emission.
daily thermal energy requirements of the greenhouse for 3e4 h
Download
- the overall system efficiency rangedcitation
between 2.7Share
and 3.3 for hori Download full-text PDF
pump and 2.9e3.5 for vertical ground-source heat pump system
- the daily heating load of the greenhouse was provided
conventional solar heating system was 27.8 kWh/m2
- SFL collector performance was about 7e12% higher than that of LF
- the thermal efficiency was higher for the SFL than for the LFL colle
- crop productivity increased of 20%
- the system was able to cover up to 65% of the annual greenhouse h
- solar collector and thermal energy storage efficiency for the low
significantly higher than that of the high-temperature system
- the overall system efficiency obtained, starting from the amount of s
daylight hours was 11%
- the internal air temperature in the greenhouse raised by 2e3 C, wh
decreased by 10%
- the system provided more than 35% of the annual required heat.
- the thermal efficiency of the solar collector was 0.49.
- the solar air heater increased the temperature by over 6 C all the
- the nocturnal temperature inside the greenhouse varied between
- the thermal efficiency of the SAHL reached 0.38%
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41 References 12 Figures

eferences (41)

ar collector assisted heat pump for heating greenhouses

ble
NGS
m Hassanien · Ming Li · Yilian Tang

desalinated seawater as an alternative farm-productive proposal in water scarcity areas: Energy

missions analysis of lettuce production in southeast Spain

D
ernardo Martin-Gorriz · Victoriano Martínez Álvarez · Jose Maestre
house-integrated
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See all › on crop production
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41 References 12 Figures

hristian Fankhauser · Shaik M. Zakeeruddin · Paul J. Dyson

in solar energy applications – A review

ble
ENERG REV

ment of a small scale photovoltaic, hydrogen and geothermal stand-alone system for greenhouse

ble
G
Andrea Colantoni · Simone Pascuzzi

herichia coli in reclaimed and surface water used in hydroponically cultivated greenhouse
nce of fertilizer solutions

ROL
z· María I Gil · Francisco pedrero salcedo · Ana Allende

to reduce global hunger

ar soil heat storage system for greenhouse heating: Design and pilot study

· Jiachen Mao · Jianguo Shi

eenhouses with Renewable Energy Sources a Case Study in Crete- Greece

ble

omic analyses of linear and spot Fresnel lens solar collectors used for greenhouse heating in

sain
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