Indian Society 1

NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF INDIAN SOCIETY

Indian society is old and it is extremely complex. According to a popular estimate it has covered a span
of five thousand years since the period of its first known civilization. During this period several waves
of immigrants, representing different ethic strains and linguistic families, have merged into its
population to contribute to its diversity, richness, and vitality.

Indian society is highly diverse. Several different levels of social evolution co-exist in contemporary
India: primitive hunters and food-gatherers; shifting cultivators who use digging sticks and hoes;
nomads of different types (breeders of goats, sheep, and cattle; itinerant traders; and artisans and
craftsmen); settled agriculturalist who use plough for cultivation; artisans and landed as well as
aristocracies of ancient lineage. India is also a home to most of the major religions of the world
Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhismare found here, and in addition there is bewildering variety
of cults and sects with different orientations in belief and ritual. Add to these the modern academic,
bureaucratic, industrial, and scientific elites and you will find the past, present and the future living
together.

Nature of Indian Society is assessed by knowing the earliest inhabitants of India. Historians believe that
the early human activity in India goes back to the second Inter-Glacial Period between 400,000 and
200,000 B.C. Anthropologist also speculate about the autochthons original inhabitants of India on
the basis of information provided by physical anthropology regarding the ethnic elements, i.e., the racial
groups, in population of India. The most authoritative and widely accepted classification is by B.S
Guha, a renowned social anthropologist who has a rich experience on the study of Indian society. He
identified six major racial elements in population of India: Negrito, Proto-Australoid, Mongoloid,
Mediterranean, Western Brachycephals, and Nordic. Of these, the first three are older residents of
the sub-continent. The later arrivals into India were the Mediterraneans, Western Brachycephals and
the Nordics. The Nordics (Aryans) were the last major ethnic element to arrive in India and make a
profound impact on its culture and society. But before they came a unique civilization had slowly
developed in India, known as the Indus Valley Civilization.

Historians and Anthropologist suggested that the emergence of Indus valley civilization was the
foundation to Indian society and its features, which is evidently seen to this day. Ancient period
remained to be a culturally stagnant phase, which witnessed less synthesis as compared with the
medieval period which looked outreligious assimilation between the Hindu and Muslim community.
During the British rule of India, prior to its independence, Indian society developed an awareness and
sensitivity of its inadequacies, weakness, and faults. In responding creatively to alien rule, Indian
society found itself generating new impulses for reform and social transformation. Later on, after its
independence, Constitution was established which brought uniformity in rule of law to curb all social
evils, problems and economic disparity.

A key aspect to note is that Indian Society, though known for its vastness remains under the domain of
religion, varna, caste, family, village and geographical structure which can be treated as the main
elements for the bases of Indian Society.

Indian Society has evolved through ages in a long period of its existence and has remained undeterred
with the core cultural and traditional values such asreligious and cultural tolerance; emphasis on a
peaceful living or will of living with Ahimsa; and finally, with the values of egalitarianism and
humanitarianism. Despite having many factors contributing to its continuity and change throughout
its existence, it has stood united against religious, cultural and traditional differences posed due to the
foreign invasions, alien rule and their settlements.

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EVOLUTION OF INDIAN SOCIETY: SOCIO-CULTURAL DIMENSIONS

India is said to be a grand synthesis of diverse social and cultural elements. It is a synthesis of
the Aryan and Dravidian cultures. The unity between the family, the village, and the legal
system was the outcome of this synthesis. The synthesis has created continuity from the ancient
period till today – continuity from the time of Indus-valley civilization (2500 B.C) through
Jainism, Buddhism and Islam, and from the time of British rule to post-independence India.
One finds the process of assimilation and synthesis in the fields of Art, painting, music,
religion, etc.
K.M Panikkar, in his book Essential Features of Indian Culture (1967), a staunch nationalist
keeping in view the historicity of synthesis and assimilation writes “I define culture as the
complex of ideas, conceptions, developed qualities, and organized relationships and courtesies
that generally exist in society”. He describes it as “a community of thought, a similarity of
conduct and behaviour, a common general approach to fundamental problems, which arise
from shared traditions and ideals”. Indian culture has been modified continuously by outside
contact, but remains essentially Indian, based on doctrines and ideas developed indigenously.
This forms and substance of Indian culture are found in literature, art and architecture. India
has had a tradition of religious and social tolerance. In the process of its evolution, Indian
society has acquired a composite culture, characterized by stable patterns of pluralism1.

STAGE-I STAGE-II STAGE-III STAGE-IV

Society in Ancient India Society in Medieval Society in British India India Since
India Independence
(a) Ancient literary (a) Islamic Culture (a) British Impact on (a) Equality before
sources and Traditions Indian Society law
(b) Indus-Valley (b) Impact of (b) Westernization (b) Progress in
Civilization Islam to Indian (c) Impact on Education
(c) Vedic Civilization Society Education (c) National
(d) Post-Vedic (c) Synthesis of (d) Urbanization and Consolidation
civilization Hindu and Industrialization (d) Socio-Economic
(e) Varna System Muslim (e) Impact of the changes
(f) Varnashrama Culture means of (e) Social
System (d) Changes in Transport and Legislation and
Islamic Communication progress
Traditions (f) Impact of
National and
Social
Awakening

1
Indian Society by Shyama Charan Dube, National Book Trust, India, reprinted & revised ed.2013.

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The following stages can be briefly classified as shown below:

I. SOCIETY IN ANCIENT INDIA

(a) Ancient Literary Sources: the main literary sources in the ancient period such as, the
Vedas, the Puranas and the Mahabharata were written in Sanskrit, Sanskritic
languages and Dravidian Languages. The ancient texts were also found in Prakrit and
Pali languages as well.
(b) The Indus Valley civilization: it was an urban civilization with a remarkable ability
and competence in planning. It covered more area than the civilization in the Nile, the
Tigris-Euphrates valley or in the Yellow river valley. From west to east, the Indus
valley civilization covered a distance of over 1,550 km and from north to south over
1,100 km. Systematic town planning is the most striking feature of this civilization. The
cities were well laid out. A house comprised a central courtyard, three to four living
rooms, a bath and a kitchen; while the more elaborate one contained even upto thirty
rooms and were often two-storeyed. The dwellings were commodious and material of
excellent quality were used in their construction. Several animals  the humped bull,
buffalo, the camel, and the elephant had evidently been domesticated. Besides cotton,
the hinterland grew vast quantities of cereals that were stored in the spacious granaries
built in cities.
Archaeologist believe that the Indus people lived in a full-fledged bronze age,
as it is evident from the use of domestic objects like sows, sickles, chisels, fish-hooks,
pins, mirrors, and weapons made of bronze; the object of worship reveal that Indus
people comprised of Mediterranean’s, Alpines, Proto-Australoids, and Mongoloids. It
was in fact, a cosmopolitan civilization. Anthropologist suggest that, the subsequent
development also testify to the existence of an ‘organized civic life’. The foundations
of Indian civilization were laid during this phase and some of the elements of that period
continue to this day.
(c) The Vedic civilization: the Vedas are the only literary sources from where one learns
about Aryans in India. The Rig Veda Samhita is the earliest book on the Aryans. During
this period the Vedic society was rural and agricultural. Temples and schools emerged
as the basic institutions of various socio-cultural and educational activities. The village
was an autonomous unit. During the fourth century B.C., seven castes were reported by
Megasthenes. However, the inter-caste marriages were common. The vice of drinking,
gambling and prostitution was regulated by state license.
Women had a greater access to all branches in Vedic period and had equal status
in par with men. The women of higher caste participated in yagna (sacrifice) with their
husband, they had the right to own a property and widows could remarry. A man could
marry more than one women, whereas a woman was only allowed to marry one man.
However, in the Buddhist period, women lost the right to pursue Vedic studies. Later
in the Gupta period, Svayamvara (choice made by the bride for a groom after a test of
valour) and Gandharva (free mutual choice) forms of marriage became unpopular, and
Arsa and Asura marriages (with dowry) became popular. Women had no right to own

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property and the widows were denied remarriages. The institutions of Purdah and Sati
emerged.
(d) The Post-Vedic Civilization: In the early centuries of Christian era, foreign invaders
mingled with Indian ruling families and came under their influence. The capitals of
foreign dynasties became centers of a cultural synthesis which gave Indian civilization
a cosmopolitan character. Puranic Hinduism rose during Gupta Age. The Buddha was
accepted as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Hinduism and Buddhism were reconciled
with each other. Hinduism, aboriginal belief and practices and foreign religious
symbols came closer. Hindu society became a federation of cultural and social groups
freely interchanging ideas and customs and living side by side in good neighbourly
relations.
(e) The Varna System: it seems to be a myth that pre-historic society was a casteless
millennium of equality, plenty and piety. Division of society into Aryans and non-
Aryans is the first indication of a stratified society as mentioned in the Rig Veda. The
Aryans or tribe was further divide into four groups based on the emergence of different
pursuits such as agriculture, cattle rearing and trade. The three varnas (castes) were
identified not by the colour of their skin but by their profession.

He who performed religious and ritual activities for the welfare of society were called
as Brahmana, he also studied the Vedas, and formulated norms (dharma) for all
sections. The Kshatriyas was assigned the task of defending the country and
maintaining law and order. Those who pursued activities related to trade and commerce
were known as Vaisya. The surplus wealth was diverted towards the maintenance of
the Brahmana and the Kshatriya. In course of time, these three varnas specialized in
their functions, and formed a social hierarchy in which the Brahmana were placed at
the top, the Kshatriyas ranked below and the Vaishya occupied the third rank. The
fourth rank was of Shudra or Dasa who served the three higher groups. The
Purusasuktha of Rig Veda gives a mythological story of origin of the four varnas- from
the mouth (Brahmanas), arms (Kshatriyas), thighs (Vaishyas) and feet (Shudras) of
Lord Brahma.
(f) The Varnashrama System: Hindu society’s main stronghold was the system of
varnashrama dharma. This refers to four different classes (varnas). According to the
Hindu tradition, four stages in man’s life were called as (ashramas). The four stages
were: Brahmacharya, Grahastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyas. The Brahmacharya stage
is of one learning and formation of good moral character and personality. The
Grahastha specifies the obligations of the man to get married and look after the family
as a religious duty. The Vanaprastha and Sanyas stages refer to the renunciation of the
world for devoting oneself to the pursuit of spiritual knowledge and for attaining
salvation, which is the ultimate goal of Hindu life. The ashramas were the principles
of equality and unity. They were devised to attain a full and complete cycle.

Along with these closely interlinked schemes was the scheme of the Purusharthas, the
basic principles of life, which defined the duties of man towards himself, his family,
and to the community on whole. These are: dharma, artha, kama and moksha. These

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principles can rightly be called value-themes or goals of life arranged in hierarchical

order. Of these, dharma or moral duty is basic to all human activities.

II. SOCIETY IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

(a) Islamic Culture and Traditions: Muslims are the second largest community in India.
Historically too, they are the oldest group with the exception of Hindus. Hindus and
Muslims have been living together for almost a millennium. The two represents two
different cultures, world-views and ways of life. Islamic and Hindu traditions have
interacted, synthesized and also remained insulated. Islam spread among tribal people.
However, subsequently, it became complex. From nomadism it turned to an agrarian
and mercantile economy. Islam expanded its base in several countries.

According to Yogendra Singh Islamic culture is in “Contradistinction to the structure

of the Hindu great tradition, the tradition of Islam is founded on a world-view which
is apparently non-hierarchical, is purely monotheistic and messianic-historical in
ethos.” The world view of Islam proselytizes the sphere of religion. It also makes Islam
holistic and socio-centric. In principle there are no priest in Islam. Islam is an insular
and exclusive religion. The Quran (the holy book) and various Islamic traditions have
contributed to this holism and collectivism. Thus, theoretically speaking, Islam has
elements of equality and egalitarianism.

(b) Impact of Islam on Indian Society: prior to the advent of Islam and after the reign of
Harsha, India witnessed a spell of political disintegration and intellectual stagnation.
The country was divided into several small states. People developed parochial outlook
and identities. The entry of Islam in India significantly changed the socio-cultural
composition in India. The historian Tarachand, in his book, the influence of Islam in
Indian Culture (1963), observes that the social and cultural revivalism in south was due
to the impact of Islamic culture. Muslims Arabs had trade relations with south India for
many centuries before the emergence of Islam in India. Indo-Iranian maritime trade had
reached its peak. Some of these foreign traders had even settled in Sri Lanka and on the
coast of Malabar. Some Arab Muslims also came to Sind and Gujarat, but impact was
limited. However, from the twelfth century A.D, a definite impact of Islamic culture on
Indian society is evident.

H.V Sreenivas Murthy and S.U Kamath in their book, Studies in Indian Culture (1976)
have highlighted both negative and positive aspects of Islam on Indian Society. They
write: “Islam was indirectly responsible for making Hindu Society Caste ridden and
exclusive. Hindu women were veiled and sati was made more strict. Child marriage
became more popular.”

(c) Synthesis of Hindu and Muslim cultures: the early Mughal rulers, mainly Akbar the
great strived at a synthesis of Hinduism, Jainism, Islam and Zorastrianism by
introducing Din-e-Illahi, a new faith. Amir Khusro, a literary figure, tried to incorporate

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Hinduism in the Muslim culture. Several poets wrote in Hindi, Hindi literature thus
developed. Urdu also grew as a hybrid of Hindi and Persian. Arabic also crept into this
new language. Many of them made appeals for cultural integration of the two religions
through their writings. Indian music was also much influenced by Islam. New schools
like Khayal, developed in Hindustani music due to the influence of Persian music.
Along with such cultural synthesis, Islam continued on orthodox lines with support of
administration and Muslim clergy. Muslims quazis (judges), muftis (preachers),
fuajdars (district administrators) and durbaris (courtiers) held economic power and
contributed to the emulation of the Islamic culture.

(d) Changes in Islamic Tradition: the Muslims lost their prestige during the British
period. Loss of political power and legitimacy was a severe jolt to the Muslim elite and
the Islamic tradition. Poverty descended upon them and their educational pattern
underwent a considerable change. The syncretic and liberal tendencies of Islam were
undermined and were being replaced by orthodoxy and revivalism of the eighth century.
Yogendra Singh in his book, Modernization of Indian Tradition (1973), observes that
the Muslim reform movement in the nineteenth century had two polar views: (1) for
liberalism and peaceful reform, and (2) for more orthodoxy and militancy. He believes,
perhaps the latter being responsible for the creation of Pakistan.

Even today, Muslims in India are a conservative lot. Economic inequalities are more
pronounced among the Muslims. They are very sensitive about personal laws, the
system of Purdah, and family planning. Muslims are more ‘backward’ than the Hindus
in cultural matters as the latter have shown more adaptive capacities. Muslims also
suffer from fear and suspicion of Hindu majority. With formation of Pakistan some
sections of Hindus feel that the Muslims should blend into India’s mainstream of
National life. The Hindu Community can certainly play a constructive role in generating
confidence among the Muslims.

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III. SOCIETY IN BRITISH INDIA

(a) British Impact on Indian Society: the British government, Christian missions and
English education were the three main sources of British impact on Indian society. The
British government replaced the indigenous system of administration and governance.
The missions made effort to convert Indians to Christianity. British educationist tried
to spread education to bring about a change in the outlook of the indigenous population.
The British community in India also had an influence on different parts of the country.
The port towns and coastal areas were more affected, at least at the beginning of the
British Raj in India. The emergence of a national consciousness, the realization of value
of organization and importance of agitation led to the formation of the India National
Congress (INC) in 1885, which ultimately led to the Indian Freedom struggle.

Earlier before the advent of Britishers, caste and class structure in rural India were rigid
and stagnant at the beginning of the British rule. The individual was considered
subordinate to the caste, the family and the village panchayat. The economy was
archaic. People lacked national consciousness. At such a time, the advent of the British
created a new situation which gave a different and radical social significance in Indian
tradition and culture.

(b) Westernization: the term ‘Westernization’ was coined and defined by an internationally
renowned Social Anthropologist M.N Srinivas, in his most celebrated book Social
Change in Modern India (1966), which gave him a global recognition in the Study of
Indian Society. M.N Srinivas defines ‘westernization’ in terms of the change in the
Indian society due to the impact of British rule in India. The areas of change include
technology, dress, food, and change in the habits and lifestyle of the people.

According to Srinivas westernization takes place at three levels namely: (1) primary
(2) secondary (3) tertiary. At primary level were a minority of people who came in
contact with western cultures, were its first beneficiaries. The secondary level of
westernization refers to those sections of Indian society who came in direct contact with
primary beneficiaries. At the tertiary level are those who came to know indirectly about
the devices introduced by the Britishers. However, the spread of westernization is
uneven and unequal among different sections of society. Though Srinivas has
mentioned humanitarianism and egalitarianism as its positive features, there are others
who consider westernization as a process of cultural and cognitive colonialism and as
a model of “impersonal, non-cultural, and non-sovereign state”. Westernization has
contributed to the re-emergence of pan-Indian culture on a new ground.

(c) Impact on Education: Lord Macaulay’s policy of 1835 to promote English education
and language, the emergence of missions to spread education and the first Indian
Education Commission of 1882 are the highlights of the British period. The British
policy put more emphasis on higher education. Education at the primary level was

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considerable neglected. Even today, in terms of course contents and management of

educational institution, India continues to follow the British model.

The Education Commission, set up in 1948 and 1964, under the chairmanship of-
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan and Dr. D.S Kothari, respectively, have not produced the desired
results. However, courses in some universities offer social sciences and humanities in
regional languages in recent years.

(d) Urbanization and Industrialization: impact of urbanization and industrialization in

India are generally concomitant. Several studies show that both the process reinforce
tradition. Urbanization is a slow process in India compared to developed countries.
However, urban population has increased over the years. Cities or urban centers have a
concentration of all the major infrastructural facilities and highly skilled professionals.
Urbanization has been uneven for different cities and regions, and so is the case in
industrialization. A number of institutional factors have hindered the rapid growth in
the past. However, the studies by Richard Lambert, Milton Singer, N.R Seth, etc., have
shown caste, joint family and other traditional values have not obstructed the healthy
pattern of social relations in factories and industrial organizations.

(e) Impact of means of Transport and Communication: means of transport and

communication have really ushered in an era of new social and cultural contacts.
Newspapers periodicals, magazines, particularly in regional languages, postal services,
movies and radio were all introduced by the British. The same is true of the railways,
roadways and airways. These new devices weakened the institution of caste, notions of
pollution-purity and migration. Spatial mobility was undoubtedly a concrete gain of
these means.

(f) Impact of National and Social Awakening: finally, national and social awakening
was created by the British. Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Mahatma Gandhi borrowed
several humanistic elements from the British tradition and used them for creating
national and political consciousness. The ideas of communalism, secularism and
nationalism borrowed from the western philosophers proved very useful in national
freedom movement in India.

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IV. INDIA SINCE INDEPENDENCE

India became a free country on 15th of August 1947. India was portioned, a new nation-
Pakistan-was created. India has adopted a democratic-socialistic path for its development
and progress. It adopted a new Constitution which was implemented on 26th January
1950. The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights to the citizens of India, ensuring
equality, freedom of justice. Besides the fundamental rights, the constitution also outlines
directives for state policy with a view to give a desired direction to social and economic
change in India.

(a) Equality before law: today there is ‘rule of law’ in India. All citizens are equal and
subject to the jurisdiction of the same authority. Birth is no more the basis of
recognizing status and power. Religion, language, caste or ethnicity are no longer
considerations for providing social honour and privileges. However, weaker sections of
Indian society, particularly the scheduled caste (SCs), the schedule tribe (STs) and other
backward classes (OBCs), have been provided special facilities and provisions for their
upliftment. They are protected against discrimination and exploitation by dominant
sections of Indian society. Women have equality with men. All citizens of India have
the right to vote at all levels of our political system.

(b) Progress in Education: there has been tremendous progress in the field of education.
More than 100 million children receive education at the primary level. The increase in
number at the secondary stage is impressive. Education at college and university levels
has also increased enormously. Diversification of education has also been taken up by
the government of India. Basic education is provided at the elementary level. Today, at
senior school and university levels vocationalisations, computer studies, applied
sciences, management and some other relevant and gainful fields of knowledge are
taught to tackle the problem of unemployment among the educated young men and
women.

In 1986, a new education policy was implemented by the government of India placing
greater emphasis on the quality of education particularly at school level. Special
attention is given to the SCs and STs, women and backward sections. Education has
promoted migration of people from villages to town and cities. There is an increased
emphasis on Hindi and other regional languages. The policy of learning three languages
at school level has been implemented on all states and unions of India.

(c) National Consolidation: States of India were reorganized in 1955 on the basis of
recommendations made by State Reorganization Commission. Since this was done on
the basis of language spoken by the people, each state has some cultural cohesiveness.
India was characterized by the unique type of feudalism under which the rajas,
thikanedars, jagirdars and zamindars were treated as Mai-Bap (parents). To begin with,

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the government abolished such patrimonial-feudalism, and subsequently also abolished

the privy purses and compensations granted to the rajas. This was really a revolutionary
step as tenants were granted ownership rights. The institution of zamindars as
intermediaries was removed with the stroke of a pen. Later on, the consolidation of
small landholdings and ceiling on maximum landholdings were taken up as measures
of land reform. The Green Revolution has been made possible because of these reforms,
and also because of adoption of new technology, fertilizers and seeds in the field of
agriculture. India is today self-sufficient country in food-grains.

(d) Socio-Economic Changes: in the field of industry as well, India has made a lot of
progress since independence. Heavy industries at Hatia, Rourkela, Bokaro, Sindri,
Bangalore and other places were established in the fifties and sixties. Small-scale and
cottage industries have also received the attention of the government. Industrialisation
has been possible because India has adopted the path of economic development and
social change. The planning commission of India was assigned the task of planning.
India has adopted mixed economy, a policy of balanced growth of the private, public
and the joint sectors.

The community development programs (CDPs) were started with specific intent of
uplifting the rural and backward classes in the year 1952. To over come some of the
impediments in the implementation of schemes, the panchayat raj schemes were
introduced on 2nd October 1959, initially in the state of Rajasthan and Andra Pradesh.
The elected leaders of rural people worked at three level, viz., the village, the block and
the district, were given responsibility of implementing the development schemes in
view of ‘felt needs’ of the rural classes. Presently the Panchayat Raj Institutions (PRIs)
enjoy the statutory status like the legislature and Lok Sabha based on the provisions of
the Constitutional Amendment of 1993.

(e) Social Legislation and Progress: the British government enacted social legislations,
particularly for preventing child marriages, sati, infanticide and for encouraging the
widow remarriage, etc. The government of India passed the Hindu Remarriage Act of
1955 and the Succession Act of 1956. Legislation were also enacted to discourage child
labour. There is now stringent legislation against the institution of dowry. According to
the Constitution of India, untouchability is a criminal offence. The legislation for giving
fair wages to wage-earners and to eliminate the intermediaries and the institution of
zamindari have helped poor workers in towns and villages to get maximum wages.

Despite these developments in the post-independence period, the concentration of

power in the hands of a few families and individuals have increased. The poor are not
getting the due share and their right. The living conditions are quite appalling. The poor
are, even today, victims of the dictates of the rich upper caste and class landlords.
Dowry is still a serious evil, mainly in towns and villages. Social consciousness about
these is still lacking.

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Religion, ethnicity and caste are considered important factors in elections. Much
reliance is placed upon one’s caste members to win an election. Factional disputes
originate from alliances based on caste, religion and community-based affiliations.
Even urban and educated people are not free from these social problems.

Conclusion: to understand the patterns of continuity and change in India, it is necessary to

evaluate the socio-cultural dimensions of Indian Society. Traditional society in India was
characterized by division of labour, virtues in social life, and recognition of man’s virtues and
objectives of life. Life was not static; it had both order and change as its essential features.
Cultural synthesis and transmission has been seen through various stages of social evolution in
a fairly unprecedented manner. The socio-cultural transition is witnessed from the beginning
of its origin in the ancient period, followed by the synthesis among Hindu and Muslim
community in medieval period, which is evident even today; later by the impact of Britishers
in the post-medieval period which brought an overall significant change in the cultural tapestry
of India. Many scholars attribute some positive results to this impact, but others think otherwise
because of the rapid cultural and traditional transition brought during their rule.
Today, India is a free country. It has Constitution which guarantees rule of law to its citizens.
Five-year plans and other developmental schemes are implemented for making progress in the
fields of education, industry, upliftment of weaker sections and women. However, it has not
been possible, so far, to provide ‘distributive justice’ to all citizens of India. Casteism,
factionalism, communalism and regionalism at times hamper the progress of the country. In
some case, the benefits have not reached the needy and the downtrodden. Social legislation has
somewhat remained ineffective. Yet, people of India with a diversified culture, history, heritage
and tradition, stand hand in hand with each other despite many social challenges posed by the
society.

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GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES OF INDIA

The name ‘India’ is derived from ‘Sindhu’ (Indus) – the great river in the North-West. In
traditional and legendary Hindu literature, India is known as Bharathakhanda; some times
also called as Jambudivpa, one of the seven concentric legendary islands comprising in the
earth. India is a vast country which extends up to 3,200 km from south to north and 3,000 km
from east to west. The entire area spans over 3.3 million sq. km making it a 7th largest and 2nd
most populous country in the world. Its coastline stretches up to 7,600 km. India is also a
composition of diverse landforms such as Mountains in the north and north-east, Plains in the
north and middle India, Deserts in the west, Plateaus in central and southern India,
accompanied by Coastal strips & Islands, in spite of diverse geographical features India looks
like a single natural geographical entity. Geographical unity of India is reinforced by
religious centers spread all over the country. The Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians and all
people of the other faiths with their respective places of worship are spread all over country
and they live together and greet each other on festivals, etc. signifying India’s geographical
diversity as well. They also participate together in socio-political and economic activities in
spite of vastness in their culture, traditions, customs, beliefs and religious practices etc. due to
their geographical unity. Though there are regional differences, the political unity of India has
been maintained by a uniform administrative organs, constitutional set-up and law of land.
N.K Bose, a renowned social anthropologist, in this book Culture and Society in India, (1967).
Has listed five geographical features which have had a direct or indirect bearing upon the
history and civilization in India. They are mentioned below:
i. the mountain ranges;
ii. the character of two coast of the peninsula;
iii. the tropical heat and rainfall;
iv. the character of the soil, and
v. the presence of extensive alluvial soil in the north, and of a plateau in the south.
Some of the significant geographical features, are discussed below:
1) The Himalayas and the Gangetic Plains: the Himalayas separate India from Sinkiang
in the extreme south of China and from Tibet. The Himalayas are known as abode of
god and sages. Mount Kailas and Mansarovar lake are considered as one of the holiest
pilgrimages for Hindus. The Ganga, the Sindhu and the Brahmaputra originate from the
Himalayas. The Himalayas have contributed to large extent to the development of Indo-
Aryan Civilization. The outer ranges of the Shivaliks (also know as the lower
Himalayas), the first step upwards from the plains, are significant for their geological
wealth, further contributing to India’s geographical diversity on the whole. It also acts
as a physical barrier, preventing harsh climatic conditions and foreign invasions from
the North.
Ganges also known as the mighty river of India, has flowed through the ages in an
unceasing process of regeneration of the soil, spreading life and strength among the
millions who venerate her as Mother Ganga and purify themselves in its sanctifying
tirthas of Hardwar, Prayaga and Varanasi. In the basin of the Ganga many chief
kingdoms of the plains, the most ancient cities, earliest centers of Indo-Aryan
Civilization, industries and wealth have been founded. This basin is extraordinarily
fertile with immense agricultural wealth. The Ganga, the Brahamputra have ensued

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fertility and wealth from the plains in the north up to the plain of west Bengal. The
Yamuna, Chambal, Narmada, Son stretch across some parts of the central plains. The
Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari flow through the southern states. All these have contributed
to the agricultural prosperity of India.

2) The Aravalli Range: the Aravalli range is the oldest mountain range in western India.
In the north-west, the Thar desert has protected the country from the foreign infiltration.
Another range of mountains contains the Vindhyas, connecting the north with the south.
A number of pre-Aryan tribes, with their distinct cultures and languages, have lived in
this rugged mountainous range. The Narmada valley connects the Vindhyas on the
north with the Satpura Mahadeo-Mailaka range on the south. The Tapti flows parallel
to Narmada to the west and the Mahanadi to the Bay of Bengal in the east. Many tribes
such as the Santhals, were habituated to this environment and geographical conditions
and became permanent inhabitants to this region.

3) Peninsular India and Plateaus: peninsular India comprises of Kanyakumari, and the
Coromandel regions on the eastern coast; the Malabar and the Konkan regions on the
western coast. There are a few good and natural harbour along both coasts. Kochi, Goa
and Mumbai are on the western side, offering safe anchorage to the ships. Whereas
Kolkata, Vishakhapatnam and Chennai are on the Eastern side. Peninsular India
developed and maintained fairly a brisk and maritime trade with rest of the world.
Important towns and cities have come up on the banks of rivers, on sea coasts, trade
and pilgrim’s routes.
A plateau is a large flat area of land that is higher than others area of land that surrounds
it. The peninsular plateau of India is also called as Plateau of peninsular. Rocks, ranging
from Satmala-Ajanta ranges to the Nilgiris, are special features of this part of India.
This is, in fact, plateau bounded by the Western and Eastern Ghats. The peninsular
plateau chiefly consists of Deccan plateau and Central highlands, which are sub-divided
into Deccan trap, Western and Eastern Ghats; Malwa, Bundelkhand, Baghelkand and
Chotanagpur plateaus respectively. People belonging to different sects, communities
and racial groups have widely distributed themselves according to their suitable
conditions in this region.
Conclusion: despite the variety of geographical and climatic features, India has remained a
unified social formation. The Himalayas, Ganges plain, the Central belt of hills, Deserts, and
the Peninsula are the main geographical and cultural parts of Indian subcontinent. This feature
is fostered in Indian cultural variety and variations, among the communities who inhabited the
area. The northern part of India did not remain a closed and rigid social formation due to many
external influence from the north-west. Whereas the southern part of India experienced less
external influence as compared with the north. The geographical features of India express
geographical diversity of India as well. India with its diverse physical features has retained its
diversity from ancient time to till date, it represents endless varieties of geographical and
cultural pattern. It is a land of diversity not only in its geographic attributes but also its race,
religion, caste, language, landforms, flora, fauna and so on. Its unique geographic
demographics, which also host a unique eco-system rich with vegetation, wildlife, rare herbs,
and a large variety of birdlife make it a diverse geographical platform. In short, India is “the
epitome of the world”, in its Geographical diversity.

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UNITY IN DIVERSITY: THREATS AND CHALLENGES

India is a plural society both in letter and spirit. It is rightly characterized by its unity and
diversity. This overworked cliché has become the part of India’s self-identity.
India is a grand synthesis of cultures, religions and languages of the people belonging to
different castes and communities has upheld its unity and cohesiveness despite foreign
invasions, and the Mughal and later the British rule. National unity and integrity have been
maintained even though sharp economic and social inequalities have obstructed the emergence
of egalitarian social relations. It is this synthesis that has made India a unique mosaic of
cultures. India withstood many foreign invasions, immigration from other parts of the world,
and existence of diverse languages etc., cultures and religions have made India a culturally
tolerant nation, on the one hand, and a unique continuing and living culture, with its specificity
and historicity, on the other. India’s unity can be showcased, when it stood unite and fought
against the British Raj as a unified entity.
Indian society is panorama, to a large extent a unique one, which has absorbed diverse
languages, cultures, religion and people of different social origins at different points of time in
the past. Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Islam, Sikhism and Christianity are the major religions
in India, contributing to its religious diversities. There are twenty-two national languages,
besides several hundred dialects, showcasing its linguistic diversities. There is diversity not
only in regard to religious and linguistic distinctions, racial compositions, but also in patterns
of living, style of living, land tenure system, occupational pursuits, inheritance and succession
laws, rites related to birth, marriage, death etc.
Indian society is not simply a conglomeration of various ethnic, religious, linguistic, caste and
regional collectivities. It is also quite complex in terms of differentiation in each one of the
collectivities and their historical and socio-cultural specificities. A discussion on the pattern of
unity and diversity focuses on continuity and change as well in Indian Society. However,
Indian society witnessed changes due to foreign invasions, migrations, natural calamities,
struggle for power, and policies of the Mughal and the British empires. Post-independence
India is a nation united against several odds and obstacles. The idea of unity in India seems to
be evident in all its historical and socio-cultural facts as well as in its cultural heritage.
Conclusion: the idea of unity is inherent and prevalent today in Indian constitution which
pronounces values of secularism, socialism and democracy as its main ideals. Besides
constitution, the five-year plans, the spread of egalitarian values, a central government and
common body of civil and criminal laws strengthen India’s unity and plural character.
Distinction based on caste, race, creed are no longer the basis of special power and privileges.
The weaker sections of society, including the SCs, the STs, and the OBCs, have been granted
special concessions and avenues for elevation of their depressed status and position. Women
enjoy equal rights to men in respects. Besides the legal provisions, various social movements
and actions by the non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have created socio-political
awakening among the deprived sections and victims of atrocities and exploitation. Challenges
posed in the society has been countered by adopting several governmental provisions to aide
weaker sections, thus providing equal opportunities cementing the unity of our country and
leading a path to national integration.

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BILIOGRAPHY
Selected Text references:
Dube, S.C (1990), Indian Society, Young India Library, National Book Trust, India, Reprinted
and Revised ed. 2013.
Sharma, K.L (2007), Indian Social Structure and Change, Jaipur: Rawat Publications,
Reprinted ed. 2017.
Nagla, B.K (2008), Indian Sociological Thought, Jaipur: Rawat Publications, second ed.2013,
Reprinted,2017.
Ahuja, Ram (1999), Society in India: Concepts, Theories and Recent Trends, Jaipur/New
Delhi: Rawat Publications, Reprinted, 2018.

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