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CAMOUFLAGE AND
DECEPTION
INTRODUCTION TO
CAMOUFLAGE AND
DECEPTION
JV Ramana Rao
Director (Retd)
Defence Laboratory
Jodhpur
JV Ramana Rao
Series Editors
Editor-in-Chief Associate Editor-in-Chief Associate Editor
SS Murthy M Singh Ashok Kumar
The views expressed in the book are those of the author only. The
Editors or Publisher do not assume responsibility for the statements/
opinions expressed by the author.
ISBN: 81-86514-02-7
Preface
Acknowledgements
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 2
MODERN MILITARY TECHNOLOGY AND ITS FUTURE
TRENDS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Land Warfare
2.2.1 Main Battle Tank
2.2.2 The Infantry
2.2.3 The Artillery
2 2.4 Role of Air Defence
2.2.5 Nuclear, Biological and Chemical Warfare
Surveillance and Target Acquisition Systems
Command, Control and Communication (C3)
Air Warfare
Air Defence
Aircraft Survival in the Enemy's Airspace
Combat Aircraft and Weapons
Future Air Warfare
Naval Warfare
Submarines
Antisubmarine Warfare
Future Trends
CHAPTER 3
CAMOUFLAGE IN NATURE
3.1 Introduction
c3.2 Concealment
3.2.1 Colour Matching
3.2.1.1 Variable Colour Resemblance
Studies on Animal Colouration
Countershading
Disruptive Colouration
Shadow Suppression
Role of Concealing Colouration
Concealment in Offence
Studies on Concealing Colouration
Advertisement
The Warning Colouration
Disguise
Resemblance to Objects in the Background
Diverting Attention to Non-vital Part
Mimicry
Other Forms of Camouflage
Camouflage in Plants
Evolution of Camouflage
Conclusion
CHAPTER 4
VISUAL CAMOUFLAGE
4.1 Introduction 41
4.2 Visual Camouflage 41
4.3 The Human Eye 41
4.3.1 Visual Acuity 43
4.3.2 Dark and Light Adaptations 43
4.4 Characteristics of Light Relevant to Visual Camouflage 45
4.4.1 Colour 45
4.4.1.1 Geometrical Representations of Surface Colours 46
in Terms of Lightness, Hue and Saturation
4.4.1.2 Measurement of Colour 46
4.4.2 Texture 47
4.4.3 Brightness (Contrast) 47
4.5 Sensors in the Visible Region 48
4.5.1 Electrooptical Instruments
4.5.1.1 Image Intensifiers
4.5.1.2 Low Light Level Television
Lasers
Rangefinding
Target Designation
Target Illumination
Tracking
Photography
Platforms
Photo-reconnaissance - Aerial
Factors Affecting Photographic Reconnaissance
Aerial Camera
Advantages/disadvantages of Photographic
Reconnaissance
T V Cameras
Optical Mechanical Scanners
Linear Imaging Self-scanning Sensor (LISS)
Military Satellites
Factors Affecting Recognition in the Visible Region
Shape
Size
Colour
Texture
Shadow
Pattern
Site
Association
Basic Principles of Camouflage in the Visible Region
Hiding
Arboriculture in Desert Region
Screens
Obscurants (Smoke Screens)
Blending
Colour Matching
Countershading
Disruptive Colouration
Shadow Elimination
Deception
Camouflaging of Military Objects by Disruptive
Pattern Painting
Studies on Disruptive Pattern Painting
Dual Texture Gradient Pattern Paintings (DTG)
Computerised Generation of Disruptive Patterns
Camouflaging by Nets
Properties of Net Materials
Applications of Nets
Manufacturers of Nets
Psychological Camouflage
Neurophysiological Principles of Visual Perception
Studies on Target Characteristics and Target
Context on Detection
Psychological Studies Related to Camouflaging of
nfilitary Objects
Miscellaneous Camouflage Devices
Foams
Reflectance Camouflage
Antishine Devices
Vehicle Track Erasers
Computer-based Evaluation of Camouflage
New Areas of Visual Camouflage
Metarners
Spectral Camouflage
CHAPTER 5
INFRARED CAMOUFLAGE
Introduction
What is Infrared Camouflage?
Infrared Radiation
Sources of Infrared Radiation
Natural Sources
Man-made Sources
Carbon Arc
Tungsten Lamp
Xenon Arc Lamp
Laser
Nernst Glower
Globar
Terminology
Radiant Energy (U)
Radiant Flux or Radiant Power (P)
Radiant Emittance (W)
Radiant Intensity (J)
Radiance (N)
Radiant Photon Emittance (Q)
Irradiance (H)
Spectral Radiant Flux (P, )
Radiant Emissivity (E)
Radiant Reflectance (p)
Radiant Absorptance (a)
Radiant Transmittance (T)
Laws Governing Radiation Emitted by Heated Objec
Kirchhoff s Law
Stefan-Boltzmann's Law
Wien's Displacement Law
RayleighJeansJ Law
Planck's Law
Properties of Infrared Radiation
Propagation Characteristics
Extinction Coefficient
Atmospheric Windows
Emissivity
Measurement of Infrared Emissivity
Ernissivity and Temperature Effects on Contrast
Relative Effects of Temperature and Emissivity
Differences on Radiant Flux Per Unit Area
Infrared Sensors
Pre- World War I1 Scenario
Post- World War I1 Scenario
Principle of an Infrared Sensing System
Classification of Infrared Sensing Systems
Infrared Detectors
Thermal Detectors
Quantum Detectors
Far Infrared Materials
General Discussion on IR Detector Materials
Performance Characteristics of a Detector
Noise Equivalent Power (NEP)
Detectivity (D)
Infrared Sensing System
Infrared Telescope
Vidicon
Photothermionic Image Converter
Infrared Photography
Evaporograph
Thermal Imaging System
Basic Elements of a Thermal Imaging System
Objective Lens System
Optomechanical Scanner
Detector Bank
Electronic Signal Processing and Display
Performance Characteristics
Applications of Thermal Imaging System
Land Applications
Air-borne Applications
Sea Applications
Manufacturers
Differences Between Thermal Imaging System
and Image Intensifier
Future Trends
General Considerations Concerning IR Operations
with Thermal Imaging Systems
Image Processing
Single-element Scan
Multi-element Scan
Parallel-Scan
Serial-parallel Scan
Focal-plane Processing Arrays (FPAs)
Staring Arrays
Schottky Barrier FPAs
Charge Transfer Device Focal Planes
IR Signatures of Military Objects and Backgrounds
IR Signature of Aircraft
IR Signature of Ship
IR Signature of Tank
IR Signature of Personnel
IR Signature of Backgrounds
Thermal Scenes - Characterisation of
Backgrounds
Scene Objects
Computer Generated Imagery
Components of Synthetic Scenes
Paradigm for IR Synthetic Image Generation
IR Signature Suppression (IRSS) of Warships
Spectral Characteristics of IR Signature(s) of Ships
IR Signature Suppression
The Dres Ball
The Eductor Diffuser
IR Signature Suppression of Aircraft
Suppression of Plume Signature
Suppression of the Signature of Hot Parts
Suppression of Signature of Aircraft Body
Suppression of Signature of Unresolved Aircraft
IR Signature Suppression of Tank
Passive Countermeasures
Reactive Countermeasures
Signature Suppression of Ground Objects
Suppression of Signature of Non-hardware
Thermal Camouflage Equipment and Materials
Disruptive Patterns
Camouflage Screens
Thermal Blankets or Tarps
CHAPTER 6
MICROWAVE CAMOUFLAGE
Introduction
What are Microwaves?
Properties of Microwaves
Microwave Spectrum
Radar Frequencies
Historical Development of Microwaves
Generation of Microwaves
Microwave Vacuum Tube Devices
Applications of Microwave Tubes
Microwave Solid State Devices
Microwave Sensors
Principle of Radar
Historical Development of Radar
Radar Equation
Typical Radar
Types of Radars
Continuous Wave (CW) Radar
Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FM-CW)Radar
Pulse Doppler Radar and Moving Target Indicater (MTI)
Tracking Radar
Side Looking Air-borne Radar (SLAR)
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Millimeter Wave Radar
Role of Radar in War
Types of Radars Used in War
Battlefield Surveillance Radar (BSR)
Weapon Locating Radar (WLR)
Air Defence Radar (ADR)
Other Types of Radar
Radar Cross Section (RCS)
Expression for RCS
Methods for the Prediction of RCS
RCS of Flat Plate
RCS of Re-entrant Bodies (Corner Reflectors) 20 1
General Discussion on RCS of Simple Bodies 203
RCS of Military Objects 203
RCS of Aircraft 203
RCS of Ship 203
RCS of Tank 207
Advantages a n d Disadvantages of Prediction Techniques 207
RCS of Targets - Experimental Determination 208
Outdoor Ranges 209
Indoor Ranges 210
Methods for Reduction of RCS 210
Shaping 21 1
B-2 Bomber and F- 117A Fighter 212
Ship 2 12
Radar Absorbing Materials (RAMS) 2 13
Theory 2 14
Practical Radar Absorbing Materials 2 14
Types of Radar Absorbing Materials 215
Salisbury Screen 215
McMiIian Absorber 216
Dallenbach Layer 218
Jaumann Absorber and Graded Dielectric Absorber 218
Magnetic Absorber 2 19
Radar Absorbing Structures (RAS) 22 1
Circuit Analog Absorbers (CAs) 222
R-cards 223
Passive Cancellation 224
Active Cancellation 224
Current Research on Radar Absorbing Materials 224
CHAPTER 7
DECEPTION
7.1 Introduction 229
7.2 What is Deception ? 23 1
7.3 Disinformation 231
7.4 Psychological and General Aspects of Deception 232
7.5 Deception Equipment
7.5.1 Dummies
7.5.2 Decoys
7.6 Candidates for Dummies and Decoys
7.6.1 Criteria for Selection
7.6.2 General Criteria
7.6.3 Sensor-specific Criteria
7.7 Background for a n Effective Deception Strategy
7.8 Dummies/Decoys of Military Objects
7.8.1 Dummies and Decoys of Visible Region
7.8.2 Decoys (IR & Radar)
7.8.2. I Chaff Decoy
7.8.2.2 Infrared Flares
7.9 Various Decoys (Published in Literature)
CHAPTER 8
MATERIALS FOR CAMOUFLAGE APPLICATIONS
Introduction
Radar Absorbing Materials (RAMS)
Magnetic Materials
Dielectric Materials
Artificial Dielectrics
Conducting Polymers
Chiral and Two-dimensional Polymers
Schiff Base Salts
Infrared Camouflage Materials
Physical Principles
Attenuat~onof Infrared Signatures
Obscuration
Surface Treatment
Coating Materials for Camouflage in Infrared Region
Coating Materials for Camouflage in Visible Region
Paints
Pigments for Forest and Jungle Areas
Pigments for Desert Regions
Pigments for Ocean Environment
8.4.2 Antireflective Coatings
8.4.3 Aqueous Foam
8.4.4 Smoke
8.4.5 Nets
8.5 Materials for Multispectral Camouflage
8.5.1 Surface Coatings
8.5.2 Composites
8.5.3 Multispectral Camouflage Nets
8.6 Materials for Acoustic Camouflage
8.7 Futuristic Camouflage Materials
8.7.1 Chromogenic Materials
8.7.2 Luminescent Materials
8.7.3 Polymers and Composites
CHAPTER 9
STEALTH TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
What is Stealth?
Historical Background of Stealth Technology
Military Objects Requiring Stealth
Stealth Aircraft
LockheedJAirforce F- 1 17A
Constructional Details of F-117A
NorthropJBoeing B-2 Advanced Technology
Bomber (ATB)
Stealth Warships
Acoustic Signature
Radar Cross Section
Infrared Signature
Magnetic Signature
Electric Signature
Other Signatures
Stealth Tank
Stealth Submarine
Stealth Helicopter
Stealth RPVs
9.11 Stealth Missiles 312
9.12 Airship 312
CHAPTER PO
R&D WORK ON CAMOUFLAGE AND DECEPTION IN DRDO 3 1 5
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Visual Camouflage
10.3 Infrared Camouflage
10.4 Microwave Camouflage
10.5 Multispectral Camouflage Materials
10.6 Naval Camouflage
10.7 Force Multipliers
CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION
Appendix - A
Appendix - B
Index
PREFACE
This introductory book on camouflage and deception is
primarily intended for dissemination of knowledge and information
in the field. The subject is a military science that has no counterpart
in the civil sector, and a s such, no university teaches and gives
degrees in the field.
Camouflage and deception is an integral part of nature. For
self-preservation,which is the central problem of biological evolution,
all animals, small and big, both in offence and defence, adopt
strategies and counterstrategies. These very principles significantly
form the basis of camouflage in war. The means adopted by animals
in nature have bewildering diversity and complexity all of which do
not seem to have counterparts or could be duplicated even in the
modern war of today. One typical example is that of the chameleon
which almost instantaneously changes its colours in order to blend
with its background. A s yet, there does not seem to be any means
in the present day war by which a military vehicle can change its
colour automatically in order to blend with the background, as it
moves from one background to another.
Countermeasures, signature s u p p r e s s i o n / s i g n a t u r e
management, stealth, low observables: these are the modern terms
being employed in place of the classical terminology - camouflage,
concealment and deception. The author, however, has entitled this
book in the classical terminology.
J V Ramana Rao
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The word 'camouflage7h a s its origin in the French word
camoufler which means 'to disguise7'. When the word entered the
English dictionary initially, it had a limited meaning, implying
concealment or disguise of military objects in order to prevent
detection by the enemy. The only sensor available in the early days
was the human eye. The means to camouflage a military object
were foliage and other locally available material.
The concept of camouflage is a s old a s nature, and it has been
an integral part of it. All animals, small and big, are found to employ
several methods of concealment and disguise for self-preservation,
both in defence and offence. Practically no animal is safe, since for
every animal there is a predator. Both the predator and the prey
have to adopt strategies for their survival. Thus there is a n
evolutionary arms race between different species and also within
the same species. In the progress of biological evolution, both the
predators and the prey have to constantly and equally improve their
strategies and then pass them from generation to generation2s3.In
the arms race in nature there exists a bewildering diversity in the
strategies and counterstrategies adopted by different animals. All
these techniques may be termed as camouflage and deception in
nature2r3.Although there may not be a counterpart in the present
day arms race to each and every strategy adopted by animals in
nature, these very principles, by and large, form the basis of
camouflage in war. Whether it is concealment or disguise, deception
is inherent in all the methods.
Human civilization, beginning with primitive man, has been
using camouflage, concealment and deception in various forms for
different purposes, particularly in wars. The basic philosophy
remaining one and the same, the changes that have come are in the
methodology of application and the levels of sophistication.
Several examples can be cited from ancient wars in which
camouflage was extensively utilised with great advantage. The
2 Introduction to Camouflage and Deception
REFERENCES
1. Hinkle, C. W. The Encyclopedia Americana. The International
Reference Work. Americana Corporation, Washington DC,
1958. p 268-70.
2. Owen, D. Camouflage and mimicry. Oxford University Press,
1980.
3. Cott, H. B. Adaptive coloration in animals. Methuen & Co.
Ltd. London, 1966.
4. Jurgen Erbe. Thoughts on camouflage and deception. Milita y
Technology. 1987, XI(9),85-87.
5. Now you see me, now you don't - military camouflage.
Defence, 1993, XXIV(2), 10-14.
6. Goetz, P. W. (Editor-in-Chief). The New Encyclopedia
Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc., 1988. p 77 1.
7. Hudson, R.D. Infrared system engineering. John Wiley &
Sons, New York, 1969.
8. Soviet Electronic National Defence. 1985, 35-42.
9. Soviet military thought. Militay Review. 1982, 6, 25.
Introduction 5
for both offensive and defensive actions is the missile. The French
Exocet is a n antiship missile (ASM)which can be ship-launched as
well as air-launched. The Soviet antiship missile 'Shaddock' has a
nuclear warhead. The US Navy's Harpoon has penetration blast
warhead. In general, antiship missile guidance is programmed in
such a manner that the missile hits at the central portion of the
hull so that the vital services of the ship are damaged.
There are however countermeasures to antiship missile, such
as chaff decoys which provide a screen around the ship, and infrared
flares which provide alternate targets to the incoming surface and
air-launched missiles. Besides missiles, other armaments include
modern naval guns, such a s the US Navy's Phalanx CIWS (Close-
in Weapons System). The characteristic feature of this system is
that it has extremely fast reaction time and heavy volume of fire.
With regard to aircraft carrier scene, the wkstern navies have
dominated for many years. The vertical/short takeoff and landing
V/STOL aircraft are comparatively inexpensive. The primary role
of sea-based aircraft are Antisubmarine Warfare (ASW), strike/
attack, Air Defence (AD), electronic warfare and Airborne Early
Warnilng (AEW).
2.4.1 Submarines
The submarine is an effective underwater weapon platform.
Submarines have both acoustic and non-acoustic signatures. In
order to reduce the chances of detection, their signatures have to
be suppressed. Research efforts are being directed towards
comparatively less noisy submarines with better speeds and deeper
diving capabilities. Nuclear propulsion is one of the greatest
achievements in the submarine technology of the post World War
I1 period. Now the submarine does not have to come to surface for
refilling its air requirement and recharging its batteries, and its
speed far exceeds that of attacking surface vessels.
The torpedo has been the underwater weapon for attack and
patrol submarines since long. In comparativeIy recent years, new
weapons are being added. Submarine-Launched Cruise Missile
(SLCM) is one such weapon which can have a range u p to 1,000
km. One important role being played by the submarine is mine
laying. The important sensors of a submerged submarine are sonar
and hydrophone.
2.4.2 Antisubmarine Warfare
Submarine detection technology is critical to antisubmarine
warfare. The characteristics of a moving submarine provide the
necessary means of detecting it. Navies of the world a r e
f:4 Introduction to Camouflage and Deception
3.2 CONCEALMENT
Concealment is a widely adopted method of camouflage. In
nature, there are a variety of backgrounds characterised by
homogeneity and heterogeneity in colour, and structural simplicity
and complexity. The predominant colours of various backgrounds
are green and brown, besides sea blue and grey. These colours occur
either singly or in combination, along with tonal and hue variations.
Forests, woodlands, mountainous and rocky regions are complex
backgrounds while deserts, seas and snow regions are simple.
Cott gives a n excellent account of camouflage in nature in his
book2, 'Adaptive Coloration in Animals'. The various principles that
are found to operate by which different animals are concealed in
their respective backgrounds are:
Colour matching
Countershading
Disruptive colouration and
Shadow suppression
3.2.1 Colour Matching
The first and the foremost requirement for a n animal to blend
with its background is to have on its body the prevailing colour of
the environment.
Several varieties of caterpillars, butterflies, grasshoppers,
mantids, frogs, and birds are predominantly green in colour, which
reduces their probability of detection in their green background.
Lizards and several other species living on boughs, tree trunks and
barks are usually brown in colour. Animals living in deserts have
on their bodies dusty brown coats. In snow-bound areas white colour
is predominantly seen on birds and mammals. Fishes which dwell
in water have transparent bodies. Those living on sea shore and sea
bottom bearr OPE their bodies appropriate colours h m a ~ s i n with
g
their backgrounds. Multicolours are found on species which Eve
on flowers.
Thus concealment is attained in animals in nature, broadly,
by bearing colour resemblance to their respective environment.
sticks, pebbles etc, are leaf insects, stick insects, walking sticks,
and leaf-like frogs.
3.2.2 Countershading
The principle of countershading is also found to be operative
in the camouflage scheme of animals2. An animal possessing colour
matching with its background can still be recognised by the unequal
illumination of different parts of the body. Figure 3.3 shows a white
cock against white background; yet, it is conspicuously seen and
recognized. The back of the bird receives more light from the top, its
breast receives less light, and its vertical parts have the same
illumination a s that of the background. This gives rise to unequal
illumination on different parts of the body. The light and shade effects
so produced completely offset the colour matching of the bird with
the background and renders the animal recognisable. Thus, despite
22 Introduction to Camouflage and Deception
Flipre 3.11.1Megalixalusfomasinii.
Besides patterns which produce disruption of form and size, there
are patterns which join together separate parts of the body, rendering
recognition difficult. When component parts like legs, wings, eyes,
mouths and fins are separately seen, recognition is easier. But if by
some means these parts are brought together, giving the impression
of a single entity, recognition becomes difficult. The tiny frog
30 Introduction to Camouflage and Deception
3.3 ADVERTISEMENT
A s anti-thesis to concealment in nature, there are several
animals which by their appearance are conspicuous. Although this
characteristic is the opposite of concealment, it serves the same vital
needs - food, safety and reproduction. By being conspicuous the
animal advertises its inedible qualities. Thereby it is avoided by the
predator. The colours red, black and yellow in combination are utilised
for drawing attention.
3.4 DISGUISE
Disguise is employed both in defence and in offence.
3.4.1 Resemblance to Object's i n the Background
Many animals resemble objects of their background. Some
fishes resemble dead leaves, some ,other categories acquire the
appearance of thin leaves either by compressing or by depressing
their bodies or by a combination of obliterative shading and
disruptive patterns. Butterflies have wings resembling thin leaves.
Camouflage in nature 35
3.8 CONCLUSION
The present chapter h a s provided several examples of
camouflage in nature in the form of concealment, advertisement
and disguise. But not in all the cases has it proved beyond doubt its
protective value against predators, enemies etc. In order to obtain
clear proof in every case extensive field and laboratory studies are
necessary. However, a few general conclusions about camouflage in
nature may be drawn, based upon the existing evidence in support
of the protective value ascribed to it3. These are:
(a) Camouflage is of widespread occurrence in nature;
(b) Camouflage combined with appropriate behaviour
characteristics provides adequate protection;
(c) A single strategy alone is not always successful; and
Whatever be the means adopted for sustenance and security
by animals in nature, deception is inherent in all of them.
REFERENCES
1. Owen, D. Camouflage and mimicry. Oxford University Press,
1980.
38 Ihtroduction to Camouflage and Deception
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Despite all the developments in sensor technology - both
electromagnetic and non-electromagnetic, and their potentialities -
the eye, unaided or aided, still remains a most frequently used
sensor. A s such, visual camouflage still occupies a very important
place in modern war.
This chapter deals with visual camouflage embodying the
properties of the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum
relevant to the topic and sensors employed, revealing features of
various military objects, and detailing principles and methods
employed in visual camouflage to reduce target detectability and
thereby to enhance survivability.
4.2 VISUAL CAMOUFLAGE
Visual camouflage deals with all possible methods, devices and
techniques which prevent or delay the recognition of the true nature
of the military object, when the human eye, naked or aided is the
sensor employed by any optical device.
Visual camouflage is concerned with the wavelength range
0.4 - 0.7 pm of the electromagnetic spectrum. The physiology of
human vision, visual acuity, and dark and light adaptations of
the eye are discussed below.
4.3 THE HUMAN EYE
Figure 4.1 gives the principal parts of human eye1v2.The
essential structural components of the eye are:
(a) A crystalline lens, consisting of a gelatinous transparent
material which focuses the rays of light from a n object into
the interior of the eye;
(b) Vitreous humour which is located on the backside of the lens;
(c) Aqueous humour located in front of the lens and covered by
the cornea;
42 Introduction to Camouflage a n d Deception
RETINA
\
VBTREOUS LENS
HUMOUR \/F
AQUEOUS
'HUMOUR
FOVEA
OBPsC
NERVES
I
BLIND ClLlARY
SPOT MUSCLES
Figure 4.1. Principal parts of human eye.
Source: Surveillance and target acquisition systems. A.L. Rodgers, I.B.R.
Fowler, T.K. Garland-collins, J.A. Gould, D.A James a n d W. Roper
(reproduced with perm~ssionfrom Brassey's, London). 0 : 1984,
Brassey's (UK)Ltd, London
(d) Ciliary muscles which control the shape of the eye lens for
focusing objects located at different distances. Actually, it is
the curvature of the cornea which is primarily responsible for
effecting the necessary bending of light into the interior of the
eye;
(e) The retina extends over the posterior of the sphere of the eye
and has a complex structure consisting of several layers. It
converts light falling on it into electrical signals which are
conveyed by the optic nerve to the cortex of the brain where
the sensation of vision is produced;
(f) The rods and the cones lie in the bottom layer of the retina.
Rods are responsible for visual perception at luminance levels
as low as Cd/m2.The sensitivity of the rods enables us to
see even in moonlight and starlight. Low level luminance
perception is known as scotopic or night vision. In scotopic
vision, colour perception is not possible, i.e., the rods provide
only neutral colour perceptions - white, grey or black. The
upper luminance level at which rods cease to function is
approximately 10 Cd/m2. The cones cause the sensation of
colour. Cones get activated at higher levels of luminance such
a s daylight vision. Colour vision is known as photopic vision.
The cones become active at about Cd/m2. The region of
luminance levels within which both the rods and the cones
are active is, 10 Cd/m2.This vision is known a s mesopic.
Visual Camouflage 43
Luminance (CdmJ)
Figure 4.2. Variation of visual acuity with luminance.
Source: Surveillance and target asquisition systems. A.L. Rodgers, I.B.R. Fowler,
T.K Garland-Collics, J.A.Gould, D.A.James and W Roper (reproduced with
permission from Brassey's, London).@ ; 1984, Brassey's (UK)Ltd, London.
has a contrast threshold between 2 and 3 per cent3. The eye has
ability to detect a black line as thin a s 1 second of arc, located in a
bright background. The science of human vision is quite complex
and it has been the subject of several investigation^^-^ for purposes
of evaluating visual camouflage.
4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF LIGHT RELEVANT TO
VISUAL CAMOUFLAGE
Colour, texture and brightness are the important object
characteristics of light which enable u s to distinguish one object
from another or any object from its background.
4.4.1 Colour
Som' has given a detailed account of colour, polour vision and
colour measurement. Colour perception is caused by a physio-
psychological response of the eye-brain system.
According to the Young-Helmholtz theory of colour vision, there
are three basic receptors in the cones having maximum sensitivity
in the red, green a n d blue regions of the visible spectrum,
respectively. All colour sensations are produced by the variations
in the magnitudes of the response of these three receptors to external
stimuli. This theory h a s been supported by experimental
observations that a given colour can be produced by mixing red,
green and blue radiation in certain proportions. Although colour
sensation involves a physio-psychological process, we can correlate
the sensation of colour to the spectral composition of the light causing
the sensation. When the spectral energy distribution gets altered,
the corresponding light appears to produce a different colour
sensation. Let u s examine the colours produced by the spectral
components of the white light spectrum. Spectral components having
wavelengths from 630 to 700 nm are red in colour, from 590 to 630
nm are orange, from 570 to 590 nm are yellow, from 550 to 570 nm
are yellow-green, from 5 10 to 550 nm are green, from 450 to 480 nm
are blue, and from 400 to 450 nm are violet.
Hue is the gradual change of colour from one to the next. Hue
is determined by the position in the spectrum of those radiations
that are stronger than the remainder. The depth or the saturation
is determined by the degree to which these radiations predominate
over the remainder.
The quality and intensity of visual sensations are influenced
by the quantity of light. In the case of a self-luminous cbject, the
greater the amount of the emitted radiation, the brighter it would
appear. In the case of diffusely reflecting objects, as is the case with
most of the objects, the lightness or darkness of the object depends
upon its reflectivity.
46 Introduction to Camouflage and Deception
RED
From the Table 4.1, it is seen that in order to raise the luminance
level from overcast starlight to twilight, the gain required is los.
Optical aids such as night binoculars can enhance the vision to
some extent, but they are not adequate. In order to enhance the
Visual Camouflage 49
7
/\
0 A
Target Objective
lens
shell homes on the reflected light from the target. It can work u p to
10 km range. The accuracy of designation depends upon the
narrowness of the beam. The designator can be used by a soldier on
the ground or it can be used from a n aircraft.
4.5.2.3 Target Illumination
Laser illuminators enhance the performance of image
intensifiers by illuminating the target when the ambient light is not
adequate.
4.5.2.4 Tracking
Laser tracking is highly advantageous especially for operations
at night and low level light conditions. The requirements for tracking
vary with the nature of the target, viz., missile, aircraft, hostile target,
and cooperative target. In all the cases, along with a conventional
radar, the laser tracker is used. Initially, over a wide field of view,
radar is used to acquire the target. Once it is acquired, then it is
handed over to a laser tracker. The principle of laser tracking is the
same as radar tracking. A laser beam has high directivity compared
to microwaves used by radar. The visible and the near infrared
waves used by laser are much shorter, and hence the size of the
laser tracker systems is smaller. The smaller wavelength and good
directionality associated with laser systems make them less
susceptible to interference than the radar systems where multipath
effects become pronounced.
Further developments in lasers include application of laser
holography with the help of which three-dimensional view of a scene
can be displayed in front of the pilot in a n aircraft.
4.5.3 Photography
Photographylo is widely used in military reconnaissance.
Cameras of different types which can be mounted on different
platforms are used in photographic reconnaissance. The mission
can be strategic or tactical. Photography has several distinct
advantages over other sensors.
4.5.3.1 Platforms
The platform can be either: (i) ground-based, (ii) airborne, or
(iii)space-borne.
Ground-based cameras are not different from carnezas used in
normal photography. The airborne platforms are aircraft, drones
and remotely piloted vehicles (RPVs).The space-borne platforms are
satellites.
Visual Camouflage 53
&' 5'
1. Two High Altitude//Long-Range 5. Night llluminat~onEquipment
Cameras (Flash Systems)
2. Four Low-AltitudeCameras 6. ECM Data Registration Units
2 TV Cameras
2 Positions
Figure 4.7. Pod with cameras.
Source: Military Reconnaissance - Methods and Devices. Barracuda Camouflage,
1982, DlAB Barracuda, Solna, Sweden.
4.5.3.3 Factors Affecting Photographic Reconnaissance
The various factors l o which influence photographic
reconnaissance are:
Scene characteristics
Atmosphere
Camera characteristics
Platform characteristics
Film characteristics
Scene characteristics
The important scene characteristics are: illumination,
brightness contrast, colour contrast and shadows. Unless the scene
has adequate illumination, either from sun or by artificial means,
Visual Camouflage 55
hours from the time the mission starts till decisions can be
made on the basis of the information obtained from the
photograph. Although in-flight processing a n d d a t a
transmission to the ground are possible, they are not used to
a great extent.
(d) Since the data are not available directly in the electronic form,
they are not immediately amenable to digital processing. For
unmanned space flight, the film has to be ejected out for
recovery which complicates the system.
4.5.4 TV Cameras
TV cameras located in the nose of an RPVIO can be used for
aerial reconnaissance. The picture can be relayed to the operator
on his monitor. It can also be recorded for later evaluation.
Tiros- 111, a meteorological satellite launched in 1960, carried
a vidicon camera for routinely viewing the earth for world weather
studies. The best example of high resolution TV camera was the
return beam vidicon (RBV) used in the LANDSAT series". The
spectral bands (LANDSAT 1 and 2) were 0.475 - 0.575 ym, 0.580 -
0.680 pm and 0.698 - 0.830 ym.
4.5.5 Optical Mechanical Scanners
O n a multispectral scanner (MSS), the radiation reflected/
emitted from the scene is intercepted by a scan mirror which diverts
the radiation to a collecting telescope from where it enters a spectral
dispersing system. The radiation dispersed into different spectral
bands falls on the corresponding detectors. In the visible region,
both photomultipliers and photodiodes are used as detectors. These
cover the range 0.4 to 1.1 pm.
Typical examples of airborne MSS include 1P Channel M2S
developed by Bendix (USA).The best possible improvement has been
probably achieved in Thematic Mapper (TM). It has seven spectral
bands in visible, near infrared, middle infrared and thermal infrared.
It provides 30 m resolution in the visible, near and middle infrared
bands, and 120 m resolution in the thermal infrared from an orbiting
altitude of 705 km.
4.5.6 Linear Imaging Self-scanning Sensor (LISS)
In this the basic sensor is a linear array of solid-state
detectors1'.The array may be made ofphotodiodes, phototransistors
or charge-coupled-devices (CCDs). CCDs are discussed in the
chapter on infrared camouflage. The French Space Agency launched
an observation satellite system (SPOT)which carried a CCD-based
camera. This camera has a resolution of 10 m in the visible region
and 20 m ia? the near infrared region a t a flight altitude of 805 km.
60 Introduction to Camouflage and Deception
4.6.3 Colour
The light reflected by a n object depends on its colour. Different
objects reflect different amounts and wavelengths of light energy.
The contrast that is produced by differential reflection of light by
different objects and its background aids in interpretation.
4.6.4 Texture
Two objects may have the same colour, but if their optical
textures are different, they can be distinguished a s two separate
objects. The optical texture depends on the surface condition - degree
of smoothness and roughness. The light and shade effqcts are
produced by texture.
4.6.5 Shadow
Even if the object is not clearly seen, it can be identified from
the shadow of the object. This is especially an useful clue in aerial
photo-interpretation.
62 Introduction to Camouflage and Deception
4.6.6 Pattern
The pattern is a characteristic feature of many man-made
objects and of some natural features. Individual objects in a pattern
may not be discernible but if the pattern is perceived, the objects
constituting the pattern can be inferred.
4.6.7 Site
Knowledge of location of the object with respect to terrain
features or other objects is helpfubl in object identification.
4.6.$ Association
All solid objects are presented to the eye a s elements of colour,
varying in size, shape, texture and hue and saturation, and lightness
and darkness12.These differences enable us to distinguish one object
from another. If these differences are made to vanish, one object
cannot be distinguished from another. Some of the objects are so
commonly associated with one another that the presence of one
indicates or confirms the other (e.g., tank with its associated track
and gun barrel).
All military objects, e.g., a tank, a n aircraft or a ship, have
their characteristic shapes, sizes, textures, site and association and
shadows from which (if they are not adequately camouflaged), they
can be identified by visual means with the naked eye or an eye
aided with a n optical instrument or electrooptical system or a
photograph.
4.7 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CAMOUFLAGE IN THE
VISIBLE REGION
The various methods by which military objects are camouflaged
in the visible region may be divided into four groups:
Hiding,
Blending,
Deception, and
Miscellaneous techniques.
Any single method may not adequately camouflage the object,
and, a s such, in any actual situation, two or three methods are
simultaneously used.
4.9.1 Hiding
In hiding, the objects are physically hidden by the use of
natural materials such as vegetation -natural and cut - and artificial
materials such a s nets, screens etc.
Visual Camouflage 63
Acacia tortilis and Frosopis julifora species are the best suited
for arid zone afforestation. Of the two, Prosopis julifora h a s
tremendous regenerating capacity in nature. This species has been
found to colonize in all the habitats of desert regions including the
saline areas. Ecological observations have indicated that Prosopis
julifora density per unit area on the wastelands increases during
drought years compared to normal years. With continuous prolonged
droughts, Acacia tortilis succumb, with majority of its saplings
becoming casualities, but it is comparatively sturdy. A. juliflora is
more salt-tolerant. Acacia tortilis has large crown size in arid tract.
Majority of Prosopisjulif2om are shrubby, and amongst the population
a few plants bear clear bole and distinct spreading crown in umbrella
shape. Selection of seed from such species will be ideal for camouflage
purposes. Amongst exotic shmb species, Dichrostachys nutans and
Colophospermum mopane are promising in desert tract. The former
is exceptionally drought-hardy and under stress it throws root
suckers in all directions. Colophospermurn mopane is also a drought-
hardy, disease-resistant and self-regenerating shrub for sandy
terrain.
In general, a mixture of indigenous and exotic species may fulfil
the requirement of camouflage application. Depending upon the size
of the military objects to be concealed, species may be selected, and
their density and pattern of plantation may be decided. While growing
vegetation for camouflage purposes, care must be taken that the
vegetation should not become an isolated green patch, which might
attract attention and become a target.
4.7.1.2 Screens
A variety of screens, such as horizontal, vertical and overhead
types, are used for concealing stationary military objects. These
screens act as physical barriers between the target and the sensor.
Besides, there are smoke screens which provide temporary
concealment in situations such as movement of troops.
(a) Horizontal screens
The horizontal screen is put up over the object parallel to the
ground and provides protection against aerial reconnaissance. The
screen should merge with the natural surroundings. It should be of
irregular geometry and the size must be such that it adequately
covers the object. Its height from the ground and with respect to the
prevailing vegetation must be such that it should not stand out
under stereoscopic examination. The screen may be made out of
wire or rope, with proper supports and anchorage. It may be
garnished with artificial material which blends with the background.
66 Inttoduction to Camouflage and Deception
Obscurant Scattering
b
Background Transmittance
4.7.3 Deception
Deception, whether it is in nature or in war, is implicit in
camouflage. To make any object unrecognisable from its real form
is itself deception. But besides the various types of camouflage
methods and techniques we have discussed so far, there is another
form of camouflage in which dummies and decoys are used to
simulate real activity. This form of camouflage is specifically known
as deception. Quite often, deception equipment along with normal
camouflage is used for effective combat survivability of military
equipment.
Deception in the form of disinformation is also employed in
the battlefield. Deception in all its aspects is discussed in chapter 7.
4.8 CAMOUFLAGING OF MILITARY OBJECTS BY
DISRUPTIVE PATTERN PAINTING
By and large, all static military objects (vehicles,tanks, aircraft,
hangers, ships, etc.) are camouflaged by pattern painting. In visual
camouflage the three types of painting used are: (i)protetive painting
(ii)disruptive pattern painting, and (iii)imitative painting.
Protective painting which uses a single colour is used for
camouflaging military objects in areas with one overwhelming colour.
Disruptive patterns consist of elements of irregular geometry
of two or more shades painted a t random. The predominant colour
of the terrain is chosen a s the main colour, and the other colours,
some of them lighter and others darker than the background colour.
The size of the elements and the distance between adjacent elements
are determined by the distance from which the enemy is likely to
observe.
When a disruptively painted object is viewed from successively
increasing distances, initially the object can be clearly seen, but on
further increasing the distance, a stage is reached when there will
be maximum surface and contour disruption, and thereby the object
blends with the background. This is the distance for which the
pattern is designed. When the distance of observation is further
increased, because ofloss ofm1ution, the adjamt elenrents cannot
be seen as separate elements, disruption fails, colour differences
vanish, and dl the colours blend into a single colour. Until recent
years disruptive patterns were being dram manually and hence
were subject to personal preferences. Now-a-days they can be
generated in a great variety by computer techniques (as described
later).
Figure 4.13 shows a disruptive pattern generated by a computer
at the Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur, drawn over a mxtande.
In imitative painting, the background surrounding the object
is imitated on the object. This is done in the case of permanent
installations such as buildings,
Where
RA1,R,2, R; = overall reflectances in bands 1,2 & 3
A,, A, and A, = areas painted by paints 1,2 & 3
IZ1 RZAl, R~~ etc are reflectances of the paint No-1 in bands
I1 ' 1
Pabon, R.J.; Davison, R.A. & Parks, W.I. Analysis of phase IIA
of FE 43.8. Fort Leaven Worth, Kans: Army Combined Arms
Combat Developments Activity, Feb 1976. Rep. No. CACDA-
TR-2-76. NTIS NO. AD-A025 82316.
Baldwin, R.D. Relationship between recognition range and the
size, aspect angle, and color of aircraft. Alexandria, VA: Human
Resources Research Organisation, February, 1973. Hum RRO
Techn. Rep.
Farmer, E.W. & Taylor, R.M. Visual search through color
displays: Effects of target background similarity and
background uniformity. Perception and Psychophysics, 1980,
27(3),p. 267-272.
Drury, C.G. & Clement, M.R. The effect of area, density and
number of background characters on visual search. Human
Factors, 1978, 20(5), p. 597-602.
Bloomfield, J.R.; Wald, J . & Thompson, L.A. Visual search:
clutter and proximity effects. Minneapolis, MN: Honeywell Inc.,
1979. NTIS NO. AD-A1 15 79919. DAAK 70-79-C-0032.
Faulkner T.W. & Murphy, T.J. Lighting for difficult visual
tasks. Human Factors, 1973, 15(2), 149-62.
Mass, J.B.; Jayson, J.K. & Kjeiber, D.A. Effects of spectral
differences in illumination on fatigue. Journal of Applied
Psychobgy, 1974,59(4), 524-26.
Bloomfield, J.R. Visual search in complex fields: Size differences
between target disc and surrounding discs. Human Factors,
1972, 14(2), 139-48 .
Pollack, I. Detection of changes in spatial position: IV multiple
display fields, display aiding and interference. Human Factors,
1974, 16(2), 93- 116.
Brown, B. & Monk, T.H. The effect of local target surround
and whole background constraint and visual search times.
Human factors, 1975, 17(1),81-88.
Harcum, E.R. & Shaw, M.R. Cognitive and sensory lateral
maskings of tachistoscopic patterns. Journal of Experimental
Psychology, 1974, 103(4),663-67.
Wertheim, A.H. Distraction in visual search. Soesterberg,
Netherlands: Institute for Perception RVQ-TNO, June, 1981.
Rep. No. IZF- 1981-7, TBCK-75522. NTIS No. N82-2483013.
Lappin, J.S. & Bell, H.H. Perceptual differentiation of sequential
visual patterns. Perception & Psychophysics. 1972,12(2-4),
129-34.
Visual Camouflage 97
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Prior to World War 11, infrared camouflage did not seem to
have been employed. But as mentioned by Cott in his book 'Adaptive
Coloration in Animals'' and also referred to in Chapter 3, in nature,
there are examples, s u c h as certain green caterpillars like
Smerinthus ocellatus and certain tree frogs such as Hyla Coerulea,
which have in-built mechanisms in them by which they escape
detection in the visible region as well a s in the infrared region.
That is, these small animals blend with their green background
when observed by the normal eye which is sensitive to the visible
region, and also blend with the background even if they had been
observed by an infrared-sensitive eye.
Initially, by the term "camouflage in war" was meant the means
employed to defy detection of military objects by sensors available
in the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum, principally,
the human eye - unaided and aided. But with the development of
infrared false colour film, also known as camouflage detection film,
during World War 11, the need for camouflaging military objects
beyond the red end of the visible region arose. The infrared false
colour film, which is sensitive u p to 0.9 pm,can detect military
objects covered with cut foliage in a foliated background. The advent
of infrared false colour film provided impetus for research and
development in the field of infrared radiation. Since then, the field
has steadily grown, with the main thrust on its application to
military reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition. This,
in turn, has put great stress on infrared counter-measures to reduce
detection probability of military targets.
It may be said that any development in the field of infrared
engineering and technology is synonymous with the development
of military infrared. Subsequently these developments have found
application in industry, medicine and science. Open literature in
the field has been limited because of its application in defence.
100 Introduction to Camouflage& Deception
1
which they are expressed are the starting point for iscussing the
properties and measurement of the radiation. The te inology and
symbols of radiometry employed have variations a n d v s o undergo
changes. Those that are given here are based on the rep.o,rt of the
Committee on Colorimetry of the Optical Society of America which
were also used by Hudson2.
5.6.1 Radiant Energy (U)
It denotes the energy carried by electromagnetic waves. This
can be the energy radiated by a source or received by a detector in
a given time interval. It is denoted by the symbol U and its unit is
joule.
5.5.2 Radiant Flux or Radiant Power (P)
It is the rate at which radiant energy is radiated by a source
or received by a detector. It is denoted by the symbol P and its unit
Infrared Camouflage 103
where
w, - the spectral radiant emittance in W ~ mpm-I - ~
h -the wavelength in micrometers
h -Planck's constant
(6.6256 f 0.0005) x W sec2
- absolute temperature in K
- velocity of light
*
(2.997925 0.000003) x 101° cm sec"
- 2.rchcz (first radiation constant)
*
= (3.7415 0.0003) x lo4W ~ mpm4 - ~
- ch/ k (second radiation constant)
*
(1.43879 0.00019) x lo4 pm K
- Boltzmann's constant
*
= (1.38054 0.00018) x loz3W sec K-I
Figure 5.1 gives the variation of spectral radiant emittance of
a black body at various temperatures in the range 500-900 K.
Infrared Camouflage 107
Wavelength (microns)
where
W = radiant emittance (W ~ m - ~ )
0 = Stefah - Boltzmann constant
We can arrive at Wien's displacement law by differentiating
Planck's law and solving for the wavelength a t which the radiant
ernittance is maximum
h, T = constant 5-9
where
h, = wavelength a t which the spectral radiant emittance is
maximum. The value of the constant comes out to be 2897.8 0.4 *
CL~K
A s the temperature increases, the wavelength a t which
maximum spectral radiant emittance occurs decreases.
5.7 PROPERTIES OF INFRARED RADIATION
5.7.1 Propagation Characteristics
Infrared radiation travels with the speed of light, like any other
type of electromagnetic radiation, and, in its transit from the source
undergoes reflection, scattering, absorption, transmission,
diffraction and polarization.
In most of the cases, the intervening medium between the
source and the detector is the atmosphere. As the radiation passes
through the atmosphere, it gets attenuated by its interaction with
the various constituents of the atmosphere. This process is known
a s extinction.
5.7.2 Extinction Coefficient
If x is the path length and a the extinction coefficient, then
the transmittance z of the path through the atmosphere can be
expressed as2
2 = e-ax 5- 10
Two factors contribute to extinction. We can write
o=a+y 5-11
where
a is absorption coefficient which takes into account the entire
absorption by various gaseous molecules of the atmosphere;
y is scattering coefficient which takes into account the entire
scattering by various constituents of the atmosphere (including
haze, fog, etc)
90th a and y vary widely with the wavelength of the radiation.
Infrared Camouflage 109
I &(a)wa& 5-12
radiator
Wavelength
B
.r(
8 elective radiator
3
g
%
I?
Wavelength
rn
(where W = dP)
i.e., a relative change of 0.1 in temperature causes a relative
change of 0.4 in W which is equivalent to a relative change of 0.4 in
emissivity. This would imply that temperature changes are quite
influential. But for most ambient measurements where T is about
300 K, emissivity has the stronger influence.
Case-2 Variations in quasi-monochromatic radiation
Let u s take the case where the sensor spectral band is almost
monochromatic (1 pm wide) at 10 p.m.
In this case the radiant emittance is given by Planck's law
W, = ~ ( hc,X-~
) {exp(x)-1)-I W C ~pm-I
- ~ 5-17
where x = c2/hT
and the relative change is given by
CONDUCTION
BAND C
I:g ' i v
.
-- - -- ---
.- -.
v -----
--- .
; ----------..-.
-
E~
--
,..--
-
-- .-
-
,
,
..
.. .
.
--
- --
.
.
--_-+
- -. 1 .1 ' 1
+.- -.
! Qnls
v
2
VALENCE
BAND
upper limit for detection is 200 pm. But with developments that
are taking place in superconductor technology and with the
availability of high T, superconductors the longer wavelength limit
will further increase3,35-37.
Incident
Radiation
Ohmic
// contact
I
Magnetic field
L
Signal voltage or current
1
D' =D ( A ~ A =
~ ) NEP
~
Objective I Voltage
< > Visible output
Light
/
. ,
/I
,
.
, ! \ ---,
i ' @,>
input i\ /
: ii,
' Electrons
I
I
I
,t
\
\, 'R
1
, 3 ,,
. . ,7
' / ? \
,
Eyepiece
Photocathode ( S 1 )
Phosphor screen
m m * ) m L O U ) m
130 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
5.10.3 Manufacturers
Barr and Stroud have Limited designed and manufactured a
range of thermal imaging equipment44.One such system about
which information is available in open literature is SHORTIE. It is
an acronym for Short Range Thermal Imaging Equipment. It covers
a range of 10 km. It has the following features :-
Waveband for operation 8-14 ym
Objective lens system 150 mm diameter
germanium lens
FOV (horizontal) Over 100 millirad
Spatial resolution Better than 0.5 millirad
Thermal resolution 0.3OC
Scanner Mirror drum parallel scan
Detector Hg-C-dTe
No. of lines About 260
Cooling Liquid nitrogen
(8 hours/change or
Joule-Thomson minicooler)
Display CRT (can be remotely
viewed)
Frame rate 25/s.
Power 25 V batteries
-
--A -"-----+
+- -- 1
1. ------ b
is scanned in one direction a s , -
shawn in Figure 5.10. Scanning +
is done horizontally. The required t--- --+- - -----+
scanning speed i s therefore ------A
C--Lt-----9
slower. Figure 5.1 1 shows a
practical arrangement of parallel Figure 5.10. parallel-scan.
136 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
Oscillat~ngmirror
+-- -+--
1
, Infrared
I ' " id~at~on
$'
l l !
A n array of
LEDs
- - + - -----*--
Dewar window
-1 r: -- f - -, + - - - - - - T
i
i
\ Optics lfzround
I
,,$ 1 -.
Source
. - -- - - - -A
&
-
- \\,
\
'
\ -i
- -- Exhaust
1 2 3 4 5
Wavelength (microns)
IR missile s e e k e r s
IR S e a r c h a n d t r a c k
FLIR
The most intense spectral region for an aircraft is 3-5 pm. The
signature varies with the aspect angle or the direction from which
the aircraft is viewed47.Figure 5.17 gives the aircraft signature at
different aspect angles.
Infrared Camouflage I43
-
7
Wood
1 // \\ Trees
6 0 10 12 2 4 6 8
AM Time of day PM
/ \
Solar 1
Radiation
+ ~
exchange
ii \ Direct 1 '
\
'_
"\Diffuse
r-+=
4 Convection
--- \ .
.-
Conduction
I- West
AM PM
Time of day (hours)
Figure 5.20. Effective radiant contrast between the tank and the grass
background as a function of the time of the day for various
viewing directions in the 8-12 pm spectral band.
Source: NRL report 8311, May 1979 Characterisation of Thermal Imaging Scene-The
Fundamentals of Thermal Imaging Systems by Rosell F.A.
Ship
//-\
Air
Ship
n.
\
Air \ -..
/ < .- - - - - __---------______
-- ., ...
+--------_----=-_- = Z _ - :1 - . Sea
_ . _ - - - . _--
-'-:-=--
- --_---_
Time (hours)
Figure 5.21. Equivalent temperature of ship, the ambient air and the
sea in a semi-tropical and cold northern area vs time of
the day for a given set of operating conditions.
Source: NRL report 8311, May 1979 Characterisation of Thermal Imaging Scene-The
Fundamentals of Thermal Imaging Systems by Rose11 F.A.
Hull 20 1500 1 26
Plume 400 20 4
Exhaust d u c t 400 5 28 19
Source: Suppressing the Infrared Signatures of Marine Gas Turbines prcsentcd by Birk A X1
a n d Davis WR a t t h e Gas turbine and Aero-Engine Congress a n d Expositior..
June 5-9 1988. Amsterdam; reproduced with permission from ASME International.
New York, USA)
Infrared Camouflage 153
Note : For the plume radiation the percentage o f black body radiation is based
on the 4.3-4.55 pm waveband.
Source: Suppressing the Infrared Signatures of Marine Gas Turbines presented by Birk
A.M. and Davis WR at the Gas turbine and Aero-Engine Congiess and Exposition,
J u n e 5-9 1988.Amsterdam; (reproduced with permission from ASME International,
New York, USA).
diffuser. The role of the centre body is to optically block the view
down the exhaust uptake trunking i.e. it cuts off the direct line of
sight of the heated metal surface. All the metal surfaces are cooled
either convectively or by film cooling. The film-cooling layers get
mixed with the primary exhaust stream bringing down the
temperature of the plume. Air which is introduced into the centre
body through four hollow support struts cools the core of the
exhaust plume. Figure 5.22 gives the principal parts of the DRES
BALL IRSS device.
5.13.4 The Eductor Diffuser
This principally consists of a n ejector pump for entraining air
to cool the plume and a film-cooled diffuser to cool the metal
surfaces. This device has the drawback that it cannot suppress
the signature of the metal surfaces a t all viewing angles. It is
effective u p to viewing angles 70" above the horizontal of the metal
surfaces. Figure 5.23, shows the principal components of the
Eductor Diffuser.
Centrr
body
Exhaust
now ,
1
/
Mixing 1
length ' hffuser
v
Exhaust
gases
Fan
REFERENCES
1. Cott, H.B. Adaptive coloration in animals. Methuen & Co,
London 1966.
2. Hudson, R.D. Infrared system engineering. John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1969.
3. Gopel, W.; Hesse, J . & Zemel J.N. (Ed)., Sensors-
comprehensive survey-Optical Sensor. Vol 6, edited by
Wagner, E, Dandilkar, R. Spenner, K. V.C.H., Weinhkim, New
York, Bassel, Cambridge, 1992.
4. Spiro, I . J . & Schlessinger, M. Infrared technology
fundamentals. Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York and Basel. 1989.
5. Rocca, A. La & Zissis G.J. Field sources of black body radiation.
Rev. Sci. Instr. 1955 30, 200.
6. Simmons, F.S.; De Bell, A.G. & Anderson, Q.S., A 2000°C slit-
aperture black body source. Rev. Sci. Instr. 1961, 32, 1265.
Infrared Camouflage 165
300
MHz
ULTRA
CC HIGH
5 FREQUENCY
I I
3
GHz
&
CC
SUPRA
HIGH
FREQUENCY
U
EXTRA
HIGH
FREQUENCY
300
GHz
appeared the solid state device - the Gunn Diode in 1962. During
1970s transistors were utilised and then microwave printed circuits.
The development of radar is synonymous with developments in
microwave electronics.
6.4 GENERATION OF MICROWAVES
In contrast with the conventional electronics a t the lower radio
frequencies, microwave electronics features special characteristics,
in particular the associated short wavelengths, which are of the
same order of magnitude a s those of the circuit components and
devices employed.
As the frequency is raised to a point where the wavelength
becomes comparable to circuit dimensions, transmission delays
cannot be ignored. There will be relative increase in the impedance
of the connecting leads, terminals, etc, and the effects of distributed
inductance and capacitance between leads cannot be neglected.
Further, currents circulating in unshielded circuits which are
comparable in size with a wavelength start radiating. Thus the
conventional low frequency circuit elements do not work a t these
frequencies.
The open wire transmission lines used for energy transfer a t
lower frequencies become lossy due to radiation of energy at the
microwave frequencies. Even the coaxial line cannot be effective
due to increased dielectric and conductor losses. Thus in the
microwave region hollow metallic pipes known as "waveguides" are
employed for energy transmission in place of conventional
transmission lines.
The vacuum tube and solid state electron devices used a t lower
frequencies also do not work in the microwave region. Their
performance is mainly limited by the electron transit time, inter-
electrodeljunction capacitances and lead inductancer;.
The generation and handling of microwaves acquired great
importance during World War-I1 and afterwards because of the
necessity for narrow beam antennas required by the high resolution
radar. Since then rapid developments have taken place in the field
of microwaves-generation, transmission and detection.
6.4.1 Microwave Vacuum Tube Devices
The basic difference between the conventional vacuum tube
devices and the microwave vacuum tube devices is that the resonator
system (tank circuit) in the latter is a n integral part of the electrode
structure. Further, the electron transit time (time taken by a n
electron to travel from one electrode to another), the main factor
which limits the performance of conventional devices a t high
frequencies, is made use of in the working of microwave tubes.
174 Introduction to Camouflage& Deception
(TRAPATT)diode
Barrier injected transit time (BARITT)Diode
(iv) Based on quantum electronics (Stimulated emission of
radiation)
Ruby lasers
Semiconductor lasers
In general, solid state sources produce much smaller powers
(tens of milliwatts to a few watts) a s compared to vacuum tube
devices. However, with the solid state devices it is possible to reach
frequencies exceeding 100 GHz, entering into rnillimetre wave region.
Further, amplifiers with low noise figures like GaAs FET amplifiers
can be advantageously used in the receivers. Also, these devices
require low operating voltages and are suitable for portable ground-
based radars requiring short ranges. These are also suitable for
integrating the source with radiating elements in phased array
radars.
6.5 MICROWAVE SENSORS
Microwave sensors may be broadly discussed under two classes,
active and passive, radar belonging to the former and radiometry to
the latter. Radar is the primary long range sensor for surveillance
and target acquisition in the air, on land, on the sea and in space.
An active sensor illuminates the target and utilises the characteristics
of the reflected signal to get the required information. A passive
sensor such a s a microwave radiometer depends for its action on
the natural radiation emitted by the target by virtue of its
temperature. Microwave radiometry, unlike infrared radiometry, is
yet to find application in defence. The principal limitation of
microwave radiometry is the low intensity of radiation emitted by
terrestrial objects. Advances in microwave radiometry depend
primarily upon the improvement of the sensitivity of the radiometer.
6.5.1 Principle of Radar
The word radar is a n acronym for Radio Detection And Ranging.
Broadly, it deals with the process of detection of radio objects and
finding their distances (ranging). The basic principle behind the
operation is the fact that electromagnetic waves get reflected
whenever there is a change in the properties of the medium. The
properties involved are the conductivity, the permittivity and the
permeability. Radar sends a burst of electromagnetic energy and
records the reflected signal (the echo) from the targeW.
If T is the time interval between the instant of transmission of
the electromagnetic pulse and the instant of the reception of the
Microwave Camouflage 177
+. Echo Signal
amplifier
A I
DISPLAY
1
-1 Transmitter 1 <--I Pulse
Modulator
weak echo signal from the target, a mixer (a local oscillator which
converts the microwave signal to a signal of a more convenient lower
frequency), a n IF amplifier which amplifies the converted signal,
second detector which eliminates the intermediate frequency
(convertedvalue) leaving the base band information, a video amplifier
which amplifies the base band signal and a display which displays
the received radar echo signal in visual form for interpretation by
the operator.
6.5.5 Types of Radars
The following types of radars will be briefly d e s ~ r i b e d ~ . ~ .
i) Continuous wave (CW)radar
ii) Frequency modulated continuous wave (FM-CW)radar
iii) Pulse doppler radar and moving target indicator
(MTI)
iv) Tracking radar
v) Side looking air-borne radar (SLAR)and
vi) Synthetic aperture radar (SAR)
6.5.6 Continuous Wave (CW)Radar
A radar transmitter in its usual concept sends pulses of
electromagnetic energy, but it can also transmit waves continuously
towards a moving target and measure the Doppler shift for
determining the relative velocity between the target and the radar.
This is the principle of the CW radar6.
Iff, is the frequency of the transmitted signal, then the frequency
of the signal reflected back from the moving target (toward or away)
is Cf, *fJ where fd is known as the Doppler shift.
fd = 0.666 vf0, HZ 6-3
where vr is in km and fo in MHz. The relative velocity vr may be
written as v,=v cose where v is the speed of the target and 8 is the
angle between the line joining the radar and the target and the
trajectory of the target. If the target is moving about the radar in a
circular trajectory, f, = 0 . As the operating frequency of the radar
transmitter increases, the Doppler shift increases. Figure 6.4 (a)
shows the block diagram of CW radar and 6.4 (b)gives the frequency
response of the beat frequency amplifier. The signal fo +fd is mixed
with f, to produce a Doppler beat note of frequency f,. The sign of
therDoppler shift is lost in the process? The amplifier eliminates
echoes from stationary targets and amplifies the echo signal
sufficiently to operate the display (indicator).The indicator may be
an earphone or a frequency meter.
180 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
fo
<--- ----
< fo
CW
Transmitter
fo
..---- P
fo * fd
1
.-
Frequency
Transmithng
antenna
Reference signal
Receiving
antenna
, counter ,
Figure 6.6. Block diagram of a FM-CWradar.
Source: Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill. Introduction to Radar Systems
by M.I. Skolnik.
Time
----->
1 Pulse
1 modulator
I - - --
\ Power CW
/ji
/
4I amplfier oscillator
f,
Reference signal
- -
V,,
i
= A3 sin 2n-(f, + f d )t - -
C R"
4rift I
where A, is the amplitude of the signal received from a target
at range Roand f,the Doppler frequency shift. The reference signal
and the Doppler-shifted echo signal are heterodyned in the mixer
stage of the receiver. The low frequency component of the mixer is
of concern and the voltage difference is given by
the Doppler frequency shift& will be zero. Hence Vd8does not vary
with time and takes a constant value lying anywhere between +A,
to -A, including zero. In the case of a moving target f, ;t 0 and the
voltage corresponding to the difference frequency from the mixer
will be a function of time (Fig 6.9a).
(i) When f d > ;,1 the Doppler signal can be readily identified from
the information contained in a single pulse. (Figure 6.9(b))
1
(ii) When fd < ,; the pulses will be modulated with an amplitude
given by the equation above and many pulses will be needed to
1
extract the Doppler information. Situation of the kind fd < ,; is
encountered in the case of aircraft detection radar, whereas f, > ',
is applicable to the situation where the primary function of the
radar is the detection of extra-terrestrial targets such as ballistic
missiles and satellites. (Fig 6.9(c))
(4
Figure 6.9. a) FW echo pulse train.
bj Video pulse train for Doppler frequency fd > -.
1
r
1
c) Video pulse train for Doppler frequency fd < 7.
Source: Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill. Introduction to Radar Systems
by M.I. Skolnik.
resolution. The principle is given in Fig 6.11. Let u s say that from
time t = t, to t = t2, the aircraft has covered a distance L. At t = t, the
object P on the ground is just on the edge of the radar antenna
beam. The beam has a width 6, corresponding to this situation. At t
= t2the object is leaving the other side of the beam. During the time
interval t2 - t, for a range R a resolution Re, is achieved. This
corresponds to a n apparent beam width of 0,. Although this
beamwidth is narrow, it is equivalent to that available if the antenna
had actually had an aperture size L. Hence the system gets the
name synthetic aperture radar. At t = t, the target return has a
small positive Doppler shift. Figure 6.12(a)gives the SAR processing.
Aircraft
tract
Pixel
Good
resolution
by SAR
processing
with very little warning. A radar can be very effective against such
threats. The role of air defence radar is to detect and destroy the
airborne system before it hits the ground object. Air defence radars
can be discussed under four groups - strategic, long range, medium
range and short range4.
The strategic radar must be able to detect intercontinental
ballistic missiles or submarine-launched ballistic missiles or even
orbital vehicles. Obviously, these radars should have ranges of several
thousands of kilometers.
The long range radars have ranges beyond 370 km and face
threat from aircraft including missiles. The medium range radars
have ranges over 200 km. The short range radars have a detection
range of 55 km.
6.6.5 Other Types of Radar
Other radars4which are used in war include: (i)active homing
guidance radar which is incorported in the missile in its homing
head. The surveillance radar provides the target parameters to the
missile and the tracking radar locks on to the target to be destroyed.
Simultaneously, a ground radar continuously monitors the target
and guides the missile to the target; (ii)a semi-active homing radar
on the ground illuminates the target such that a strong echo is
obtained from the target. A tracker on the missile uses the echo for
homing on to the target; (iii) a track via missile guidance radar
employs a combination of command and surveillance guidance, and
(iv)a n identification friend-or-foe (IFF)radar sends a signal that is
picked u p by a receiver on board of a friendly aircraft. The receiver
triggers a response which is picked u p by a surveillance radar on
the ground. This response contains the necessary information in
order to find out whether the aircraft is a friend or foe.
Other miscellaneous radars4 which may be used in battlefield
are: (i)unmanned aircraft radar which employs low power millimeter
waves; (ii)remotely piloted vehicle tracking radar which is of short
range, used by a pilot or the operator to control the vehicle; (iii)an
antitank homing missile radar which utilises millimeter waves for
homing missiles to attack MBT; (iv)a millimeter wave radar homing
head which will be incorporated in guided weapons for homing on
to a target; (v)a passive radar homing head which utilises the passive
microwave radiation emitted by the target, and (vi)tank automatic
defence radar which automatically activates a gun in the tank upon
locating a missile approaching a tank.
6.7 RADAR CROSS SECTION (RCS)
Radar Cross Section (RCS)is a n important physical quantity
associated with targets where the s e n s o r employed for
196 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
able 6.4 gives the typical values of RCS of some common (including
military) objects.
Object RCS in m2
Jumbo jet 100
B- 17 Flying fortress 80
B-47 Bomber 40
B-52 Bomber 10
B-1 Bomber 1.O
Large fighters 5-6
Small fighters 2-3
Small single engine plane 1.0
Man 1.O
Small bird 0.01
Insect 0.00001
F- 117A Stealth fighter 0.6
B-2 Stealth bomber 0.01
Source: "Reprinted by permission of the society for the Advancement of Material and
process Engineering" Stealth Aircraft and Technology from World War I1 to
Gulf War History and background by Roger A. Stonier.
Vertical polarization 1
; Horizontal polarization
10 1.
0
Qeometric diffraction
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-*0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 6.17. RCS pattern of a 100°dihedral comer with square face 17.9 cm along a side
measured at 9.4 GHz.
Source: 'Reprinted with permission from Radar cross section by E.F.Knott, J. F. Shacffer and M. T.Tuley, Artech
House, Inc. Norwood, MS, USA, http://www. artech-house.com
Microwave Camouflage 203
Fuselage
I
I
!
Trailing edge
Leading edge
of wing I 1 of wing
Azimuth angle
go0
n
Port board
board
Disadvantages
(i) Predicted values cannot take all factors into consideration and,
as such, these values are always underestimates;
(ii) The method cannot be used for complex bodies for which
electromagnetic modelling is difficult.
On the whole, the prediction method based on mathematical
modelling and subsequent confirmation with high speed computers
would be of great help both for designing a controlled RCS target
and radar equipment design.
-
6.7.8 RCS of Targets Experimental Determination
Mathematical modelling methods are applicable only to simple
geometrical structures. An actual target has to be broken down into
a number of simple structures before the prediction techniques can
be applied. Although experimental determination is more expensive,
it is comparatively easier, once a model of the target, either full
scale or small scale, can be made. Broadly, there are two methods,
viz., (i)The outdoor method, and (ii) the indoor method.
Knott, et aZZ5have discussed a t length the various aspects of
RCS measurements employing outdoor and indoor ranges. The
objectives of carrying out RCS measurements are broadly a s follows:
Measurement Objectives
These measurements enable u s to understand the basic
scattering processes and are useful for checking the validity and
the limitations of the theory of RCS. Secondly, RCS measurements
provide data for identification of 'flare spots'. Thirdly, for verifying
the RCS performance of a new system, although computer
programmes are capable of predicting the performance, experimental
values are extremely useful. Also, they would be useful for building
a database.
An RCS measurement facility, whether it is outdoor or indoor,
should have the following:
(i) An instrumentation radar for transmitting and receiving the
signals;
(ii) Recording instruments-analog or digital for storing the
information;
(iii) A target mount which can be rotated;
(iv) An anechoic environment o r low background signal
environment; and
(v) A test target of full size or scaled-down model.
Microwave Camouflage 209
box-like superstructure, but with sloping sides. Hot spots are treated
with radar absorbing materials.
New ships are being designed with reduced RCS with the help
of computer design. The vertical section of the hull and the reflecting
water constitute corner reflector geometry which can give rise to
large RCS. Low RCS hull design would entail substantial costs. Any
low observability depends on the angle the hull sides make with the
sea. In comparison to the aircraft, the RCS of a ship cannot be
reduced to the same extent. Two important approaches may be
adopted. Firstly, the RCS may be reduced to an extent a t which it is
indistinguishable from a decoy such as a floating corner reflector or
a chaff cloud, or the signal received from an off-board decoy. At that
point, a properly warned ship ought to be able to evade radar guided
missiles, even from those which it cannot see. Decoy technology
might become much more important if the stealth technology makes
incoming weapons almost undetectable. Air-dropped ship simulators
already exist in the U S Navy. They are sufficiently powerful to imitate
RCS of ships. Shaping cannot altogether reduce RCS, whereas radar
absorbing materials can drastically reduce residual RCS. Careful
designing can substantially reduce RCS by using shaping smoothing
surfaces and minimising the number of openings and re-entrant
structures and also keeping weapons and sensors inside the
superstructure when not in use.
6.8.2 Radar Absorbimg Materials ( M s )
Knott, et a125have given a detailed treatment of the mechanism
of absorption of various radar absorbing materials. Salient aspects
of the RAMS have been discussed by S t ~ n i e r At ~ ~the
, ~design
~. stage,
reduction of RCS by shaping of the composite part responsible for
contributing towards radar echo is possible, in case the change of
shape does not adversely affect the performance of the intended
role of the component or the system a s a whole. Also, once the
design is completed and the system is in the final form, reshaping
of any composite part may not be possible. In all these situations
reduction of RCS can be done by the application of radar absorbing
materials (RAMS).
Since World War I1 the science and technology of radar
absorbing materials have greatly advanced, and today the field k3s
become an important part of stealth technology. Initial experimects
on these materials commenced during 1940s. In general, it was
known that less dense materials like wood, textiles and plastic are
more transparentlless reflecting to microwaves than more dense
materials.
21 4 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
6.8.2.1 Theory
Basically, when a radar wave is incident upon a radar absorbing
material (RAM) it does not allow the wave to undergo reflection;
instead, it transmits the wave and then dissipates the energy, either
by absorption, or by destructive interference. In order to avoid
reflection the material should match the impedance of free space to
that of the surface being shielded. Absorption of energy is
accomplished by "lossy" dielectric and/or magnetic properties of
the material. Special materials have to be made in order to
incorporate the "lossy" property to the extent required. The design
and development of a RAM involves:
(i) Type of the material - dielectric or magnetic;
(ii) Impedance;
(iii) Loss factor;
(iv) Thickness;
(v) Optical design.
By an appropriate combination of the various factors radar
absorbing materials responding to a narrow band or broad band of
frequencies can be developed. Knott, et a1 have derived the
expressions for: (i) reflection coefficient, (ii) scattering from flat
dielectric multilyered material for normal incidence, and (iii)
scattering for oblique incidence.
6.8.2.2 Practical Radar Absorbing Materials
The requisites of an ideal radar absorbing material25are:
(i) Available in thin sheets or as a paint which can be sprayed or
coated on to the surface of the target;
(ii) Light;
(iii) Cater for a broad band of frequencies;
(iv) Flexible;
(v) Water repellent;
(vi) Environment resistant; and
(vii) Economical.
A radar absorbing material can be attached to the target
permanently in the form of a sheet, or it can be in the form of a
panel which can be fixed as and when required, or a s a paint which
can be sprayed on to otherwise inaccessible parts, or it can be a
structural material. The method of application to be adopted depends
on the situation. A permanently attached panel adds weight and is
exposed to the enemy who may measure the RCS value of the target
surface. Panels which can be attached when required do not have
this disadvantage. Each method of application h a s its own
advantages and disadvantages.
Microwave Camouflage 21 5
Resistive
sheet
I
I
'_-
_-
1 &-.--
-: Metal
Backing
Incident
plane wave
Plastic foam or
honeycomb spacer
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Incidence angle (degrees)
Frequency (GHz)
(d) Crossed Dipoles (e) Dual Period Strips (f) Jerusalem Cross
REFERENCES
1. Gardiol, F. Introduction to microwaves. Artech House Inc.,
Dedham, 1984.
Microwave Camouflage
Holmes T.R. & Flick E.A. A millimeter wave radar for the
US army helicopters in the 80's. IEEE Proc, NAECON-80. 1980,
2, p. 712-716
Kosowsky, L. et al. A millimeter wave radar for the mini-RPV.
AIAA/DARPA Conference on Smart Sensors. November 1978.
Wagner R.H. et al, Millimeter wave radar for RPV applications.
Presented a t the twenty third annual Tri-Service Radar
Symposium, July 1977.
Pearce R.H. et al. 3.2 millimeter surveillance radar for the US
army mini RPV. Presented a t the AGARD AVPjGCP Joint
Symposium Avionics/Guidance and Control for RPV's
Symposium. October 1976, Florence, Italy, 16, p. 16-20.
Lynn, V.L., HOWLS radar development.AGARD AVP/GCPJoint
Symposium Avionics/Guidance a n d Control for RPV's
Symposium. October 1976, Florence, Italy, Paper no. 31.
Novak, L.M. & Vote F.W. Millimeter airborne radar target
detection and selection techniques. IEEE Proc. NAECON-79.
1979, 2, p. 807-817
Hofhnan L.A. et al. A 94GHz radar for space object identification.
IEEE Trans. Microwave Theory Tech. Dec 1979, MIT-17 (12),
p. 1145-49.
Dybdal R.B. Millimeter radar application to SOI. IEEE EASCON-
77 Rec., 1977, p. 16-4A/ 16-41.
Knott, E.F.; Shaeffer J.F. & Tubey, M.T.Radar cross section -
its prediction, measurement and reduction. Artech House, Inc.,
Nonvood, Book M a r t Press, Inc. North Bergen, N J 1985.
Stonier R.A. Stealth aircraft and technology - World War I1 to
the Gulf War SAMPE Journal, 1991 , 2 7 (4) p. 9-16.
Mentzer J.R. Scattering and diffractionof radiowaves. Pergamon
Press, New York, 1955.
Stratton J.A. Electromagnetic theory. McGraw Hill Co, New York,
1941.
Richmond J.H. Digital computer solutions of the rigorous
equations for scattering problems. Proc. IEEE, Aug 1965, 53,
p 796-804.
Spencer R.C. Back scattering from conducting. Air force
Cambridge Research Lab Report, E5070 April 1951.
Crispin, (Jr)J.W. & Siege1 K.M.Methods of radar cross section
analysis. Academic Press, New York, 1968.
Keller J.B., Geometrical theory of diffraction J. Opt. Soc. Am.
1962, 52, 116-30.
Microwave Camouflage 227
In the first World War, khaki and grey had become standard
colours of clothing outfits. This ruse was picked up from the Afghan
war of 1880, where the Afghan soldiers wore khaki uniforms which
blended well with the barren muddy countryside. Khaki is the Urdu
word for dust-coloured3.
The Britishers during the North Africa Campaign5 had learnt
the benefits of deception for better survival. They had developed the
technique of blending into the background of foliage by attaching
pieces of hessian strips and artificial foliage on their helmets and
weapons. These techniques were incorporated into the World War I1
operations3. The Americans, on the other hand, because of their
better mobility and superior fire-power and material resources,
considered deception an unneccessary subtlety. But the deception
operations were too successful to be ignored for long and the
reluctance gave way to full acceptance, and the US Army became
quite proficient in deceptive arts by the end of World War 11. Their
techniques have evolved into a highly effective combat multiplie9.
In the Falkland campaign in 19825, the British commanders
were misled into believing that the Argentinian airfield at Portstanley
was damaged and rendered unservicable by bombardment.
Reconnaissance pictures showed bomb craters which supported
this view. But it was discovered only much later that the entire
operation was a deliberately planned, and effectively executed,
deception exercise. Early every morning, the otherwise normal and
undamaged runways were covered with heaps of mud in bomb-
crater like appearance, by a gang of labourers. At dusk they would
clear all this mud and make the runways operational for supply
aircraft to use them through the night cover, without being detected
by the enemys. In another example from the Falkland campaign,
the British naval aircraft carrier HMS Hennes survived a missile
attack by an Argetinian missile-carrying aircraft Super Etendard.
The Exocet missile fired at Hermes was successfully diverted when
the missile radar seeker got confused by the chaff decoys deployed
by the warship. On the other hand, another warship, Atlantic
Conveyor, which had not deployed the chaff decoys and was in the
near vicinity of Hermes, got struck by the missile6.
The Soviet Union had made deception a formal part of their
war doctrines, even before World War 11. Maskirovka is a well
documented Soviet deception doctrine. The man behind its
development was General Ogark~v'*~*~.
Applications of deception techniques in all their subtlety and
sophistication peaked during the 1991 Gulf War. The technically
developed and heavily resource-backed Allied Forces brandished
advanced decoys and deception equipment. The Iraqis effectively
displayed deception with relatively simpler techniques.
Deception 231
7.5.1 Dummies
A dummy displays all the external visual features of a military
object with regard to shape, solidity, and size. But it cannot perform
the various functions of the object it depicts. A dummy is generally
ground-based. It is usually stationary or static. Any movable type
is mobile, not so much from the point of depicting motion of the
actual object, but from the point of facilitating change of deployment
position or location over short distance.
A dummy of this kind possesses all the optical (visual)
characteristics of the original object, and, therefore, when viewed
through sensors in the visible region, it can be mistaken for the
original object. This type of deception equipment may therefore be
classified as 3-dimensional (3-D) dummies with monospectral
simulation (visible region only).
However, in the present day war scenario of multispectral
surveillance, sensors in the infrared and microwave regions can
detect the monospectral (visual)3-D dummies a s false. It therefore
may become necessary to simulate in the 3-D dummies, besides
the signature in visible region, the infrared and/or microwave
s i g n a t u r e s also. S u c h d u m m i e s may be designated a s
multispectral.
Besides the various types of electromagnetic signatures the
military object may have other types of signatures such a s acoustic,
seismic, electric and magnetic. In specific situations, some of these
additonal signatures may also have to be incorporated in the
deception equipment. Such types of devices may be classified as
polyspectral.
Thus the larger the simulation bands in a deception device,
the more difficult it becomes to discriminate it Erom the original
Deception 235
.L 0"
Sensor-spccific - - - t
0
CI
, 3
0
%
@
1 Size Location Mobility Detection Association Visual Laser Infrared Radar Acoustic ! mb
Activity I seismic 1
Operation" 1 7 t Go
, I 0
c.
Vulnerability & I
I- Detection value > High Medium
Recognition
1
Detection
I -
,/.' /"
I-
4
Surveillance
artillcry, short range sensors
aircraft, long range sensors
Deception 239
REFERENCES
1. Cott, H.B. adaptive coloration in animals. Methuen & Co Ltd.
London, 1966.
2. Le Hockey, J . D. Are we deceiving any one? Naval Proceedings,
Sept 1989, p. 53 .
3. Savoie, A.T. Are we deceiving ourselves, Military Review,
March 1987, LXVII(3) p. 37-45.
4. Uhle-Wettler, F. I n t e r n a t i o n a l military a n d defense
encyclopedia. Trevor Dupuy N. (Editor-in-Chief), 1993,
2,(C-F), p.708.
5. How is it done ? Readers Digest. Readers Digest Association,
London, New York, Sydney, 3rd Reprint, 1992, 76.
6. Electronic warfare supplement. International Defence Review.
1985, 12, p. 55
7. Soviet electronic. National Defence, April 1985, p. 35-42 .
8. Soviet military thought, Military Review, 1982, 6, p. 25.
9. G U S M. International Defence Review, 1985, 8, p. 1235-57
10. Col. O'M Dewar; M.K. Camouflage: advances in defence
technology. Defence Systems, International, 1990, p. 227-32.
11. Godson R. I n t e r n a t i o n a l m i l i t a r y a n d defence
encyclopedia. Col Trevor N. Dupuy, (Editor in Chief)
1993, 2(C-F) p. 768-71.
12. Maj.Shivane A.B., Deception: an operational imperative. The
Cavalier, p . P - 11.
13. Scott, R. Off board countermeasures technology (Part-I) : soft
kill payloads get smarter. Naval Technology, 1994, 15 (4),
p. 16-22.
14. Arthur D' Little (Inc.) Design goals for future camouflage
systems. Report to US Army Mobility Equipment Research and
Development Command Order No. 0006, J a n 1981.
15. Golden, J.R.A. Radar electronic warfare. AIAA Education
Series, J .S. P r ~ e m i e r n i e (Series
s~ Editor-in-Chief),p. 106-119.
MATERIALS FOR CAMOUFLAGE
APPLICATIONS
8.1 INTRODUCTIQN
The important role played by materials technology in modern
warfare cannot be overemphasised. But for the results achieved in
materials science, some of the technological advancements that have
taken place i n military hardware, weapons, sensors a n d
countermeasures would not have been possible. Quite often, the
criticality of a material, in terms of meeting exacting specifications,
becomes the deciding factor in the proper functioning of the
equipment. In this scenario, with the ever increasing advancements
in military technologies, the need for improved materials a s well a s
new materials with specific characteristics will continuously
increase.
The rapidly advancing technologies associated with military
reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition systems are
calling for equivalent developments i n camouflage devices,
techniques, equipment and materials. To a large extent, any
countermeasure to a target acquisition system directly or indirectly
depends on materials. New and improved materials are enhancing
the performance of sensor systems. This in turn is placing great
demand on improved and new materials to defeat the improved
performance of the sensor systems.
Initially, the need for advanced camouflage materials was hardly
felt. To cater for the human eye, the countermeasures required did
not involve any man-made materials. Objects were concealed by'
locally available vegetation or other materials. Gradually the demand
for man-made materials arose, as the range and performance of
human vision was extended by the use of optical and electro-optical
instruments. These materials include paints, as surface appliques
and nets, in order to make the objects blend with the background
such that the role of the aided h u m a n eye is defeated. The
introduction of the near infrared sensitive photographic film placed
a demand on paints which can defeat the infrared film besides the
252 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
can be much more effective the longer they can hide, and weaker
echo means a diminished target for missiles and better ability to
employ deceptive countermeasures.
Radar absorbing materials (RAMs) in the form of surface
coatings or structural materials play a n important role by
complementing or augmenting reduction in RCS of both military
and civilian targets where the reduction of radar echo from metallic
structures can be a vital requirement.
Radar echo includes specular (or direct) reflections, edge
diffractions, multiple reflections and creeping waves (which
propagate along the body surface and emerge at the opposite edge).
The tangle of variables makes the design of radar absorbing materials
very tricky. The task is further complicated by the facts that i)
different radars affect the target in different ways, and ii) there are
continuous improvements in radar system performances.
Fundamental to the design process of radar absorbing material
is comprehensive knowledge of the electrical properties of the
material over the frequency range of interest. A s discussed in Chapter
6, these properties are described by the complex permeability (p)
and dielectric permittivity (E)
p = p, ( I -tan 6J
E = E, ( I -tan 6,)
(tan 6 is loss tangent)
z=JP/E
z = impedence (377 2 ! for air) 8-3
Many materials exhibit only dielectric properties, but some
display both dielectric and magnetic properties and are attractive
a s radar absorbing materials because they can provide good
absorption performance a t lower thickness.
In most RAMs, the first step is to make the total pathway (of
energy within the RAM) equal to halfa wavelength so that the residual
reflection from the back face is exactly out of phase with front face
reflection. However, RAM can be much thinner than the nominal
wavelength of the radar and still achieve cancellation because the
wavelength inside the material is much shorter than in free space.
In addition, refraction within the RAM keeps the internal path length
close to constant over a wide range of incidence angles.
RAMs are tailored so that the energy that travels through them
bounces off the substructure and escapes. Additionally, the RAM
coatings applied on surfaces of aircraft for stealthy applications
must be thin, weigh a s little a s possible, withstand stressing
temperatures, pressures and erosive environments, generally be
covered by materials to keep things together structurally, and must
not disturb the smooth contours of the airframe.
254 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
Figure 8.1. Two octants of the spinel structure. The large spheres
represent the oxygen ions. The small black and white
spheres represent the metal ions on tetrahedral and
octahedral sites respectively.
Source: Reproduced from the book 'Fenites'by J. Smit and H.P. J. Wijn (1959) (figure
31-2) chapter VIIIJ, with permission from Philips Research, Library and
Documentation Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
Materials for Camouflage Applications 255
of applied magnetic field Ha.In other words, electrons not only spin
about their own axes, but also precess about the stationary magnetic
field H, a t a frequency given by the equation 8-4, if damping losses
are neglected.
If microwave radiation corresponding to the resonance
frequency and polarization is incident upon these spins, the
oscillating magnetic vector of incident radiation couples with spins.
The energy exchange manifests by changing the angle between the
spin axis of the electrons and the internal magnetic field H,. The
coupling is expressed as loss of energy with unit of decibel (dB).
Usually the loss is not sharp and has a range of frequencies called
linewidth. The smaller the linewidth, the sharper the peak, or vice-
versa. Further, H, is a function of the geometry of the monolithic
ferrite material.
If there is no magnetic field and the only field is that derived
from the microwaves, then the mechanism of interaction between
ferrimagnetic materials and suitable frequency in the microwave
region may be different and is not discussed clearly in the literature.
A brief review of the available information is given here.
Although it is possible to couple electromagnetic radiation with
electronic energy levels in an atom, ferrite materials exhibit high
insulating and passive dielectric properties, and as such, the only
alternative for propagating electromagnetic waves through them
would be a function of their magnetic properties.
A s explained earlier, ferrimagnetic materials exhibit magnetic
property by spatial ordering of electron spin orientation of electrons
from magnetic ions in the crystal. Radiation in the microwave region,
under proper conditions, may spontaneously realign electron spins
during magnetization. In a macroscopically demagnetized sample,
the domains are arranged in haphazard orientations. Low frequency
microwave radiation is typically attenuated by domain wall
movement and high frequency microwave radiation by rotational
resonance effects.
Another mechanism of microwave absorption by ferrimagnetic
material is nonlinear absorption a s a function of radiation power
level. At milliwatt power level the absorption loss can be small, but
a t higher power level sudden increase in absorption is observed
beyond a certain value which continues until saturation is
achieved2s3.The generally accepted mechanism for this observation
is the excitation of spin waves when the microwave field exceeds a
critical value. The critical field is dependent upon many factors such
a s geometry, magnetization, R.F. power level, main linewidths,
gyromagnetic ratio and operating frequency. Another related
Materials for Camouflage Applications 257
in organic solvent
Source: Reprinted with permission from Microwave Journal, page 162, Feb. 1989. 1 -
conducting water; 2 - used as attenuator or loading material; 3 - a trademark of
Emerson and Cuming
262 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
Figure 8.3. The PAN1 Polymer (a) reduced form; (b) The emeraldine
base; and (c) 50 percent protonated emeraldine salt.
Source: Reprinted with permission from Microwave Journal, 1989,February, p.162.
Acrylate
end
Benzoic
acid ester
Cyanide
group
Phenol
ester
Biphenyl
Hydrocarbon
tail
"\
H3C CH3 R = Mkyl or aryl group
Obscuration
Shape tailoring
Surface treatment
Active cooling
Wake control
Among these methods, obscuration and surface treatment are
the most important ones and are discussed here in detail. Shape
tailoring is often useful in combination with surface treatment and
is closely related to that followed in signature control in the
microwave region. Active cooling is common in designs for
suppression of heat generated by an engine. Wake control should
get more attention as success is achieved in controlling the more
direct signature contributors. These methods are not discussed
further.
8.3.2.1 Obscuration
Obscuration has been already referred to in Chapter 4. It is
often easier to hide a signature source than to eliminate it.
Accordingly, obscuration is one of the more common suppression
techniques. Obscuration can take many forms. It can range from
simple baffle, designed to obstruct the line of sight to a hot part, to
a camouflage net, to a smoke. Obscuration is done on the
assumption that the object accomplishing the obscuration will be
easier to control than the object it hides49.
Obscuration works on the principle of scattering. Scattering of
visible and infrared radiation is a single stage process and is
commonly referred to as being either elastic or inelastic. Elastic
scattering, also referred as Rayleigh scattering, is the one in which
radiation retains the same quantity of energy and momentum and
hence keeps its frequency unchanged. In inelastic scattering, known
a s Raman scattering, the energy is exchanged with the scattering
object and shifted by a n amount equal to the change in vibrational
energy of the material through which the radiation is passing.
Both kinds of scattering processes result from electromagnetic
radiation perturbing the electronic cloud surrounding the
molecules of t h e irradiated material. Rayleigh scattering
occurs in the presence of small independent particles commonly
present in colloidal a n d other s u s p e n s i o n s containing
particles with sizes comparable to or larger than the wavelength
involved. For a fixed value of the scattering power m, the
wavelength A. most efficiently scattered by a particle of diameter d
is given by
Materials for Camouflage Applications 269
where
Ground level
1962 U S Std. atmospher
planar panel.
0.6 ;- Sky Background Specular reflectance
night
3-5 micron band
I PANEL AT PC)
/-------- -- - 0
8- 12 Micron band
PANEL T(C)
.2 - >...
............--.-..
'.-..............:.,.---.
.1 - Polished ........................
...
......
%--
Sanded
.............................
----*---- .............................'"1-
0 I
1.o 10.0
Wavelength (Microns)
Wavelength (pn)
Topcoat
:' "
\
\
\
-..
/ ..i
/,/,<,/;
,fl
,'
1
Primer
Substrote
These paints may have one to three separate layer types and
be in the forrn of a primer, undercoat and topcoat. (Fig. 8.11). The
main purpose of the primer is to provide a mechanism for each
successivelayer to adhere to the underlying surface and to a certain
extent to serve against corrosion of the metal. The undercoat (which
is also the topcoat if there is no additional layer)contains the primary
pigment designed to control spectral reflectivity. A transparent
topcoat may be used to control surface roughness, provide abrasion
resistance and contamination protection.
The important coating for camouflage application is the
undercoat and Table 8.2 describes the major constituents and their
functions. Key ingredients of undercoat are the pigments and
binders. Main optical properties of binders are their transparency
and index of refraction; likewise, the main optical properties of
pigments are their index of refraction and opacity. Pigment controls
reflectivity by offering a high index of refraction relative to the binder
medium. In general, reflectivity p for homogenous medium at normal
incidence is given by the following equation
Source: Reproduced from "The infrared and electro optical systems hand book." vol.
7-Countermeasure systems, edited by David H. Pollock - chapter-2
"Camouflage,suppression and Screening systems" by David E. Schrnieder
(section2.1 to 2.5) with permission from the publishers-ERIMB SPlE Optical
Engineering Press USA (1993)and the author.
Materials for Camouflage Applications 281
A GRASS
B YOUNG SYCAMORE LEAF
C BEECH LEAF
D OLD SYCAMORE LEAF
PHOTOGRAPHIC INFUA-RED
daylight due to the glare caused by the reflection of the visible portion
of the sunlight. The glare a t the windscreen can be controlled either
by fixing a mechanical gadget in front of the screen or by applying a
thin and transparent coating of a metal oxide or a polymeric
substance, on to the wind screen surfaces.
The underlying principle69for a material to be antireflective on
a substrate, for example, glass, is the following :
(i) n2 = ,/F 8-10
where n, =refractive index of glass (1.5)
n, = refractive index of the material
n, = refractive index of air (1)
(ii) thickness (d) of the coating should follow the relation
Oxide film
Reaction (0.07pm)
products
>
H20
<.-- (Vapor)
----- -.Oven
. --- - --- -..
-*--.
(400-500OC)
Solvent
>
-
covers itself with it to get protection not only from predator but also
from rain and the sun. The rigid structure, its large surface area,
colour and entrapped air, are responsible for these special properties
of liquid foam. The same properties of foam are utilized for crop
protection from frost and prevention of heat losses in greenhouses.
REFERENCES
1. Clark. D.J. Magnetic oxides (Part 2). J o h n Wiley & Sons, New
York, 1975.
2. Bboemargen, N. & Wang, S. Phys. Rev., 1954 9 3 , 72.
3. Suhl, M. J. Phys. Solid., 1975, 1, 209.
4. McCauly, J.W. Malpin (Jr), B.M.; Hynes, T., & Eite1men.D.
Ceram, Eng. Sci. Proc., 1980, 1 (7-8), 356.
5. Mitushi Toatsu Chemicals Inc., J a p a n Kokai Tokyo Koho 09
NOV 1983, 3P,58,192-201.
6. Vardan, V.K.; Vasundra Vardan, V.; Ma, Y. & Hall W.F. IEEE
Trans. Microwave Theory Tech. 1986, 34(2), 257.
7. Ozaki T. & State, T. J a p a n Kokai Tokyo Koho. 17 May 1979,
7961,231.
8. Kishimito A.; Yoshino, H.; Watanbe, T. & Hashimoto, Y. Japan,
1 6 Sept 1977, 08,110,500.
9. Nicolas, J. Rev.; Phys. Appl, 1974, 9 , 847.
10. Newnham, R.E.; Jang, S.J.; Ming, Xu, & Joe, F. Ceramics
Transactions, 1991, 2 1,5 1.
1 1. Kenkre, V.K. Ceramic Transaction, 199 1, 2 1 , 69.
12. Kharadly, M.M.Z. & Jackson W. Proc Institute El. Engg. 1953,
9100, 199.
13. Collin, R.E. Field theory of guided waves (2nd Ed.). New York,
1991.
14. Doyle, W.T. & Jacobs, I.S., Phys. Rev., 1990, 4 2 (15), 9319.
15. Russel, N.E.; Garland, J.C. & Tanner D.B. Phys. Rev. 1981, B
2 3 , 632.
16. Jacobs, I.S. Advanced artificial dielectric materials for millimeter
wave length application. Schenectady. 1990, Report 90-SRD-
0 0 1, GE CRD.
17. Shirakawa, H.; Louis, E.J; Mac Diarrnid, A.G. & Heeger, A. J.
J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1997, 578
18. Kanazawa, K.K. ; Diaz, A.F. Geiss, R.H. ; Gill, W.D. ;Kwak J.F. &
Street, G.B., J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun., 1979, 854.
19. Lin, J.W.P. & Dudek L.P., J Polym. Sci. Polym. Lett. (Ed.) 1980
18,348
20. Rabolt, J.F.; Clark, T. C. ; Kanazawa, K.K. ;Reynold, J .R. & Street
G.B. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Cornmun., 1980,347.
2 1. Oshaka, T.; Ohnuki Y.; Oyama, N; Katagin, G. & Kapisaka K.
J. Electroanal. Chem., 1984, 161, 399.
Materials for Camouflage Applications 295
22. Chance, R.R.; Shacklette, L.W.; Mitler, G.G.; Ivory, D.M.; Sowa
J.M., Elsenbaumer R.L. & Baughman, R.H. J. Chem. Soc. Chem.
Commun., 1980, 348.
23. Shacklette, L.W.; Chance, R.R.; Ivory, D.M.; Miller, G.G. &
Baughman, R.H. Synth. Met., 1979, 1,307.
24. Malhotra, B.D.; Kumar, N. & Chandra, S. Prog. Polym. Sci,
1986, 12, 179.
25. Ito, T.; Shirakawa, H. & Ikeda, S. J. Polym. Sci. Polym. Chem.
(Ed)., 1974, 12, 11.
26. Gau, S.C.; Milliken, J ; Pron A.; MacDiarmid, A.G. & Heeger,
A.J. J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun. 1979, 662.
27. Tourillon, G. & Garnier, F. J. Electroanal. Chem., 1982, 135,
173.
28. DosSanto, M.C. & de Melo, C.P. Solid State Commun., 1984,
50, 389.
29. Kaufrnan, J.H.; Colaneri, N.; Scott, J.C., & Street, G.B. Phys.
Rev. Lett., 1984, 5 3 , 11000.
30. Hayes, W.; Contemp. Phys., 1986, 26, 421.
31. DosSantos, M.C. de Melo, C.P. & Brandi, H.S. Solid State
Commun, 1 9 8 4 , 5 2 , 9 9 .
32. Javadi, H.H.S.; Cromack, K.R.; Mac Diarmid, A.G. & Epstein
A.J. Phys. Rev., 1989, B39, 3579.
33. Javedi, H.H.S. Microwave. J., 1989, 162.
34. Colaneri, N. & Shacklette L., IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 1992,
41, 2891.
35. Dudeck, K. & Buckley, L. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas., 1992,
41, 5.
36. Joo,'J.; Moss, B. & Burford, R. Phys. Rev., 1994, B49, 2977.
37. Joo J . & Epstein A.J. Appl. Phys. Lett., 1994, 6 5 , 18 & 2278.
38. Kohlman, R.S. et al, Phys. Rev. Lett., 1995, 74, 5 & 773.
39. Buckley, L.J. & Eashoo, M. Synth. Met., 1996, 78, 1-6.
40. Epstein, A.J., & MacDiarmid A.G. Science and application of
conducting polymers. Adam Hilger, New York, 199 1, 141.
41. Vardan, V.K.; Vardan, V.V., Lakhatia, A. J. Waver-Muter,
Interact., 1987, 2, 71.
42. Knoth, A. International Defence Review. 1994, 6 , 93.
43. Shibaev, V.P. & Lui Lam. Liquid crystalline and mesomorphic
polymers. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1993.
44. Lindman, K.F. Ann. Phys., 1920, 6 3 , 621.
296 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The concept of stealth is not new to warfare. From ancient
times, stealth has been in use in various forms. Modern stealth
technology has its roots somewhere prior to World War I1. Probably
the need for stealth has arisen ever since the aeroplane became an
instrument of war.
Stealth, as it stands today in modem war, has become a means
of survival for any modem weapon platfom/weapon delivery system/
weapon, in all the theatres of war - air, sea and land. Broadly
speaking, by stealth is meant the act of avoiding detection of any
weapon platform employed in offence, by all possible sensors which
the enemy may possess and put into operation. However, the term
'stealth' is more often associated with the act of defying detection by
radar which has become a highly potent threat sensor with a long
range capability. Initially the thrust in the development of stealth
technology was against air defence systems. Consequently, R&D
efforts were directed towards making jet fighters and bombers
undetectable by enemy's radars. Today stealth technology has
extended to naval ships on sea, torpedoes inside sea, and even to
tanks and other vehicles on land.
Stealth technology is inter-disciplinary and a complex synthesis
of several technologies which are diverse in naturei. It has to embody
countermeasures to detection by radar, infrared, visible and acoustic
and other types of sensors. The technologies developed or being
developed towards achieving this objective are also known as low
observables or low observable technologies.
The aim of stealth techno lo^ is to reduce the probability of
detection and thereby accomplish the mission successfully. A
dynamic and integrated approach towards accomplishing a balanced
multi-spectral camouflage against the threat sensor system of today
is essential to meet the requirement in the continuously changing
war scenario.
300 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
aircraft design and the latter provided the right type of materials for
airframe and structure1. Of the various stealth aircraft, the F-1I7A
Fighter Aircraft and the Boeing B-2 Advanced Technology Bomber of
the U S Air Force will be described here as given in the literature1.
9.5.1 LockheedJAir Force F-117A
The F-117A was developed under US Air Force programme
designated as CSIRS (Covert SurvivableIn-Weather Reconnaissance/
Strike).This is part of a highly classified American "black" programme
under the code name 'Have Blue'. A series of studies carried out in
early 1973 led to the development of F-117A. Encouraged by the
results obtained in these studies, US Air Force invited proposals
from the aerospace industry for the construction of the prototype
for demonstration. A new name, 'Experimental Stealth Tactical (XST)'
was given to the programme. Several companies had responded.
The production contract was given to Lockheed in 1976. The
requirements for the aircraft were that it should have : i) very low
RCS in all aspect angles, in particular'head on', ii) reduced infrared
signature, iii) reduced acoustic signature, iv) reduced visual
signature, and v) ability to cany ECM/ECCM/ESM equipment, so
that it may be fielded a s an effective stealth aircraft.
Lockheed entrusted the project to its Skunkworks. The
prototype flew in November 1977 a t the Tonopah Test Range located
in Nellis AFB, near Las Vegas. It was proved to be effective against
radar, infrared, optical, acoustic and electronic detection systems.
The US government awarded Lockheed a contract in 1981 for
producing 59 numbers of full size version of XST under the name F-
117A. The F-117A aircraft first flew in June 1981 from Tonopah
Base and became operational in 19835.In 1988 US Air Force released
a photograph of this aircraft.
According to eye witnesses of XST prototype which could
occasionally be seen from public roads near Tonopah, the aircraft
had bat-like appearance and good manoeuvrability. It had a single-
seat cockpit. The canopy had flat radar scattering panels. The wind
shield was V-shaped. The aircraft had a rounded appearance from
all angles. The forward fuselage and wings had the appearance of a
wide inverted V. Also it had folding wings. Its engine consisted of a
modified non-after burning General Electric CJ6 10 turbojet.
9.5.1.1 Constructional details of F-117A
Radar cross section reduction was accomplished by employing
Fibaloy for structural frame parts, for skin panels, spars, ribs and
longerons. Fibaloy, a product of Dow Chemical Co, is produced by
304 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Indian armed forces are deployed in a variety of trying
environments ranging from the hot and dry heat of Rajasthan desert
to the rain-lashed tropics of the northeast, from the sub-zero
conditions of the Himalayan heights in the north to the hot humid
archipelago of Andaman and Car Nicobar, a s well a s in special
situations such a s in submarines, space missions and Antarctic
expeditions. They operate a bewildering variety of military hardware-
weapon platforms, weapons, weapon delivery systems, command,
control and communications systems. It is therefore apparent that
continuous indigenous R&D in camouflage and countermeasures is
vital for survival and success, particularly in view of the fact that
the entire subject is shrouded in secrecy, and no country would be
willing to pass on know-how nor would material in open literatuxe
be of great relevance, unless adapted to specific situations.
In view of the above considerations, the Defence Research and
Development Organisation (DRDO)has been giving special emphasis
in recent years to research and development in the field of camouflage
and deception. The laboratories which are mainly involved in this
activity are; Defence Materials Stores Research and Development
Establishment (DMSRDE), Kanpur; Defence Laboratory, Jodhpur
(DW); Naval Materials Research Laboratory (NMRL) Mumbai; and
Naval Physical and Oceanographic Laboratory (NPOL),Kochi.
REFERENCES
1. Friedman, S. & Miller, Gunston, P; Richardson, Doug Hobbs
D. Warmer M.; Advanced technology warfare. Salmander Book,
Published by Salmander Books Ltd., London, 1985.
2. Lupo J.C. Defence applications of neural networks, IEEE
Communications Magazine, Nov 1990.
3. Geisenheyner, S. Special report: possible applications of
neuorocomputing in defence. Annada International, 1990,l.
4. Boyle, D., AI-Computer may starting to Think. International
Defence Review, 1990,2.
5. Roth, M .W. Survey of neural network technology for automatic
target recognition. IEEE Transactions on Neural Network March
1990, 1.
6. Boyle, D. Fusing the data in the search of identity. International
Defence Review, 1989,8.
322 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
m
B=~E,~,cu
0
k5 The CIE (ROB)System of Colour Measurement
The C.1.E in 1931 introduced the standardisation of the values
of 6 , Sr and 5 in terms of a C.I.E.standard observer. This was
done by identifying the matching stimuli (R), (G) and (B) with the
monochromatic wavelength - 700 nm (R), 546.1 nm (G) and 435.8
nm (B)respectively.
- n I 3st of 1 e applications, the integrals given under equations
*
Z= IE,Z.&
O ' -
0
and x = X/X+Y+Z,....etc
B.1 Radar Equation
The equation relating the transmitted power, received power
and the distance to the target known as the radar (range)equation
can be derived as follows:
Let P,be the power transmitted (peak)by the radar transmitting
antenna, assumed to be isotropic. The power density (PD) at a
distance R from the transmitter is given by
Solving for R,
328 Introduction to Camouflage & Deception
where
Smhis the minimum detectable received signal. From the above
equation we can get expressions for various other characteristics.
Decoys 235
chaff 242
IR & radar 242 Infrared sensors 1 16
tactical (TALD) 246 camouflage materials
Dielectric materials 257 267
artificial 258 sensing systems 1 18
Disguise 34 photography 128
Disinforrnation 23 1 signatures 140
Disruptive suppression 151
colouration 70 attenuation 267
conlast 27 telescopes 126
pattern 28 Instruments 48
Diverting attention 34 Image intensifiers 49, 133
Dual texture gradient 76 amplification 50
Dummies 234 rangefinding 51
Irradiance 103
Kevlar 293
Ferrites 254 Kirchofls law 105
Fiballoy 303
Foams 88
aqueous284 Laser 15
structure 286 Loss tangent 253,261
Flares 244 Luminescent materials 292
Generation of disruptive
patterns 77 Metamers 91
Globar 102 Microwaves 170
Graded absorbers 257 generation 173
Gyromagnetic ratio 255 devices 174
sensors 176
camouflaging 73
Heterocyclics 259 Mimicry 35
Hexachloroethane 287 Multispectral camouflage 288
Navalwasfare '12 RCS I98
Nets 78,288 aircraft 203
manufacturers 83 flat plate 200
properties 79 reduction 2I0
Nernst glower 102 ship 203
Noise equivalent power 125 tank 207
Nuclear propulsion 13 Radar 3, 186
absorption 2 13
materials 252
Object resemblance 34 air defence 194
Obscuration 268 cross-section 170, 195
Obscurants 66 method of predic-
Optical tion 199
detector 130 frequencies 172
principles 71 instrumen tation 209
texture 47 measurements 2 10
tracking 187-191
weapon locating 194
Paints 279 Radiance 103
Passive countermeasures 160 Radiant
Pattern painting 73 absorbtence 104
Phased array radar 175 emnittance 103
Platforms 52 Intensity 103
Photography 52 photon emittance 103
Photo-reconnaissance 53 reflectance 103
factors 54 Rainfall zone 63
Pigments 275,281 Reactive countermeasures 161
jungle area 282
desert 283
ocean 283 SateUtes 60
Planck's law 106 Scanners 59
Plantation 64 Screens 64
Plume signature, see dallanbach 2 18
suppression jaurnann 2.18
Polymers, magnetic 219
conducting 259 mcmillan 217
chiral & two dimen- salisbury 2 15
sional 262, 264 screens 67
materials 293 Signature
electric 310
332 Introduction to camouflage 86 Deception