Chapter 4

JOB ANALYSIS: THE BUILDING BLOCK

OF HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Cam Caldwell
Distinguished Visiting Scholar -- Modern College of Business and
Science, Muscat, Oman

The technical skills of Human Resource Management (HRM) are logical

and straight forward, but rarely fully understood by individual employees,
managers and supervisors, the Top Management Team--or even by some
Human Resource Professionals (HRPs). Although it is generally understood
that the job analysis is a critical foundation element of HRM, errors are
frequently made in conducting a job analysis, documenting job
requirements, and using that information to insure that an organization is
able to accomplish outcomes that are critical to an organization’s success.
As the building block for many organizational systems and HRM
programs, the job analysis not only defines critical job elements but is an
important resource in generating management information used to guide an
2 Cam Caldwell

organization as it accomplishes its mission1. The purpose of this chapter is

to explain key elements that make up a job analysis, to identify how and why
the job analysis is so critical to organizational outcomes, and to enumerate
common errors made in conducting a job analysis. We begin the chapter by
defining the job analysis and identifying eight key steps in the job analysis
process. The chapter identifies twelve important organizational and HRM
elements that utilize job analysis information to achieve vital outcomes. We
then identify seven errors that occur in conducting a job analysis and suggest
how to mitigate those errors. The chapter concludes with a summary of the
contributions of this chapter to HRM.

DEFINING THE JOB ANALYSIS

A job analysis has been described as the essential element for virtually
all of the HRM functions2 and “the basis for the solution of virtually every
human resource problem”3. The job analysis provides a means for
understanding the Knowledge, Skills, Abilities, and Other requirements
(KSAOs) essential to the performance of each organizational position
Job analysis is defined as the systematic process for identifying the
nature and outcomes of a position by determining the specific tasks and
activities performed to achieve desired results and the context in which work
is performed4.

1
This key role of the job analysis is identified in Mathis, R. L., Jackson, J. H, Valentine, S. R., &
Meglish. P. A.., (2014). Human Resource Management (15th ed.) pp. 144-147.

2
Many texts confirm this key fact. See, for example, Prien, E. P., Goodstein, L. D., Goodstein, J.,
and Gamble, L. G. Jr., (2009). A Practical Guide to Job Analysis. San Franciso, CA: Pfeiffer.

3
This profound statement is found on page 1 of Brannick, M. T., & Levine, E. L., (2007). Job
Analysis: Methods, Research, and Application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

4
This definition incorporates insights from other scholars. See, for example, Brannick, M. T., &
Levine, E. L., (2007), op. cit. page 9.
 Job Analysis 3

5
.

A job analysis is the systematic

process for identifying the nature and
outcomes of a position by
determining the specific tasks and
activities performed to achieve
desired results and the context in
which work is performed.

Figure 1.

Typical outcomes of the job analysis include identifying the most

efficient ways of performing work tasks, the enhancement of employee job
satisfaction, opportunities to improve training, development of performance
measurement systems, and matching job requirements with individual
qualifications as part of employee selection and development6. Conducting
a job analysis begins by first understanding the purpose of an organization,
its structure and design, its context within its external environment, and its
available resources7.

5
These elements are defined in Ployhar, R. E., and Moliterno, T. P., (2011). “Emergence of the
Human Capital Resource: A Multilevel Model.” Academy of Management Review, Vol. 36, No. 1,
pp. 127-150.

6
See the Business Dictionary definition of job analysis found online on August 5, 2017 at
http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/
job-analysis.html.

7
Ibid.
4 Cam Caldwell

Figure 2.

CONDUCTING A JOB ANALYSIS

Although there are differing perspectives about the steps involved in

conducting a job analysis, the job analysis typically includes eight important
steps:

1) Determine the Job to be Analyzed and its Contribution to

Organization Mission. Every position in an organization exists to
further the mission and objectives of an organization. The outcomes
and results of each position must be defined in measurable terms8.

8
Ibid.
 Job Analysis 5

2) Identify Subject Matter Experts and Participants to Include in the

Process. A job analysis is best conducted by individuals who have
a clear understanding of the expectations, requirements, and
outcomes associated with the position being analyzed. Internal and
external “customers” of the position have valuable insights, as do
colleagues who work with and are interdependent with the position.
Relationships developed are often critical to the effective
performance of any position and should be considered, along with
task-related outcomes and expectations9.
3) Systematically Collect Information about the Job. There are many
sources of job information, ranging from such resources as a
previously developed job description, classification standards,
established performance measures, and specialized job audits10.
Identifying job tasks, relationships, performance outcomes, required
skills, specialized abilities, necessary knowledge, and other job-
related criteria form the foundation of the job
analysis .
11

4) Matching Job Content with Competencies and Requirements. Each

source of job information can be useful in identifying the factors that
are necessary in the successful achievement of job outcomes.
Carefully matching job content with those competencies and
requirements results in a detailed list of qualities essential for
performing successfully12.

9
Many varied studies have been conducted about participants participating in generating job
analysis information. One such study is Truxillo, D. M., Paronto, M. E., & Collins, M., (2004).
“Effects of Subject Matter Expert Viewpoint on Job Analysis Results.” Public Personnel
Management, Vol. 33, Iss. 1, pp. 33-46,

10
See Prien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit. for examples of various methods of generating job content
information.

11
Brannick, M. T. & Levine. E. L., (2007) op. cit.

12
rien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit.
6 Cam Caldwell

5) Identifying Critical Tasks and Results. Subject Matter Experts and

other stakeholders who are involved should rank the importance of
those tasks and results which are most important and essential for
achieving organizational priorities for the position being analyzed13.
Often these critical tasks and outcomes require collaborative effort
with other organizational personnel and the nature of that
cooperation should be clearly described and included14.
6) Identify Competencies Matching Tasks and Results. Ranking critical
competencies is essential in order to identify the most important
capabilities required to achieve desired outcomes15. The ability to
translate KSOAs into specific competencies demands that each of
those outcomes and their antecedents be clearly enumerated.
7) Formally Confirm the Overall Job Elements. Compile and review
all of the information generated in the job analysis process and
reaffirm that the job tasks and competencies accurately match the
purposes of the position and their contribution to desired
organizational outcomes16.
8) Document the Final Result. Publish the job analysis, identify and
document when it was conducted, and formally adopt it as a
summary of the purposes, tasks, and requirements of the position
being analyzed17.

13
Truxillo, D. M., et al., (2004) op. cit.

14
he importance of behavioral skills and relationship competencies are documented in sources such
as Van Scotter, J. R., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1996). “Interpersonal Facilitation and Job Dedication
as Separate Facets of Contextual Performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, Vol. 81, Iss. 5,
pp. 525-531.
15
Prien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit.

16
Involve stakeholders, managers and supervisors, and Subject Matter Experts, as noted in
Truxillo, D. M., et al., (2004) op. cit.

17
Documentation and formalization of the process provides a formal record which can be used as
an organization resource. See Brannick, M. T. & Levine. E. L., (2007) op. cit.
 Job Analysis 7

Although there are several ways of conducting a job analysis in the

process of gathering and verifying job content information and job
requirements, these eight steps are applicable and necessary in order to
confirm that job analysis information generated is both complete and
correct18.

Figure 3.
HRM SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES

Utilizing the information generated by the job analysis, many HRM

functions depend upon that information in serving the organization.
Brannick and Levine have identified twelve distinct HRM systems and
processes, which they describe as HRM “purposes or uses,” that are directly
affected by the job analysis19.

18
Ibid.

19
These twelve important technical HRM tasks are all accomplished more effectively with the aid
of a high quality job analysis. See Ibid., pp. 3-5.
8 Cam Caldwell

1) Preparing Job Descriptions. The job analysis enables HRPs to

prepare a job description which includes a job title, an overall job
summary, duties and tasks, and job qualifications.
2) Establishing Job Classifications. A job classification is a cluster or
family of related jobs based upon similar duties, responsibilities, and
authority. The job analysis provides information then confirms or
disconfirms the linkage between positions.
3) Job Evaluation. Because a job analysis documents the work to be
performed and the qualifications required for a position, it enables
an organization to establish a pay range for that position and to help
insure internal equity of compensation among positions within an
organization.
4) Job, Team, and System Design, and Redesign. Job design bundles
tasks into a position. Team design bundles an integrated set of tasks
to a team. Systems design assigns tasks to equipment and people
associated with the same organizational system. Redesign is about
improving job, team, or system efficiency.
5) Human Resource Requirements and Job Specifications. The job
analysis identifies the KSAOs required that are necessary for the
effective performance of a position. Job specifications refer to the
years of required experience. This information is essential for hiring,
promotion, and compensation issues.
6) Performance Appraisal. Performance appraisal identifies the
standards of quantitative and qualitative performance of positions in
achieving organizational goals. Performance reviews are conducted
by managers and supervisors to communicate expectations, coach
employees, and provide regular feedback.
7) Training. The job analysis enables an organization to identify types
of training needed by employees in various positions. Training
improves individual performance, stimulates workplace learning,
and facilitates constant improvement.
8) Worker Mobility. The job analysis can aid organizations in
identifying qualified candidates as positions change, as promotional
 Job Analysis 9

opportunities arise, and as employees consider career opportunities

beyond their current positions.
9) Workforce Planning. Information about employee qualifications
and capabilities can assist organizations as they consider the impacts
of organization growth, succession planning, and technological
impacts on the organization.
10) Efficiency Identification. The job analysis can be a useful tool in
identifying the need for better tools, eliminating tasks which add
little or no value, and developing quality-related work aids.
11) Safety. The job analysis can help to identify opportunities to reduce
risk or the causes of accidents or injuries. Work tools, the work
environment, and work processes can be improved using job
analysis data.
12) Legal and Quasilegal Requirements. Several HRM functions and
processes must comply with legal guidelines and the job analysis
can play a major role in confirming the legal nature of many of those
functions and processes. For example, a job analysis can identify
Bona Fide Occupational Qualifications required in selection and
testing candidates.

All twelve of these HRM functions, systems, and processes are directly
benefited by the information generated by the job analysis, confirming its
importance as the fundamental building block of HRM20.

JOB ANALYSIS ERRORS TO AVOID

Despite the fact that the job analysis is a vital part of every HRM system,
a recurring set of errors are frequently made in conducting a job analysis.
The consequences of making one or more of these mistakes not only
undermine the ability of an organization to perform the twelve HRM

20
Prien, E. P., et al., (2009) op. cit.
10 Cam Caldwell

functions listed herein but challenge the credibility of HRPs and the entire
organization. Nonetheless, these errors recur from time to time in
organizations of all types.

1) Failure to Focus on Contribution to Mission. Each organizational

position exists to contribute to the organization’s mission and
purposes. The focus of a job analysis requires identifying tasks
performed but those tasks sometimes get out of balance with the
organization’s fundamental goals. Conducting the job analysis must
always be done with the organization’s mission and purpose clearly
in mind21.
2) Overlooking Key Stakeholders. The value and credibility of the job
analysis demands that key stakeholders -- both internal and external
customers – have input in either developing the job analysis or
reviewing the final product. Inviting departmental or union
employees into job analysis development meetings and explaining
the process for developing the job analysis can increase employee
trust in the HRM role and build credibility22.
3) Imposing Unnecessary Job Requirements. Occasionally, managers
and supervisors who participate in a job analysis make the mistaken
but well-meaning assumption that it is in the interest of their
organization to establish higher standards for job qualifications than
are actually needed to perform the required job tasks. Imposing such
qualifications that are not required is in conflict with the law and job
requirements must be validated as Bona Fide Occupational
Qualifications. HRPs must sometimes be especially tactful in
explaining the difference between legal requirements and

21
Ibid.

22
One of the co-authors of this chapter chose to involve union employees as both observers and
participants in the development of a job analysis in an organization rife with political conflict
and a history of employee dissatisfaction. The outcome was that the employees in that union
bought into the testing and selection process ultimately developed for the first time in the
organization’s ten-year history
 Job Analysis 11

qualifications that a supervisor views as “desirable” to include as a

requirement for performing a position23.
4) Failing to Update Old Analyses. Jobs change over time. Technology
evolves. Yet organizations continue to act as if job requirements and
job content are unchanging. It is not unusual for organizations to
pull out an old job description or job analysis and “short-cut” the job
analysis by substituting old information that no longer applies24.
5) Overlooking Team Collaboration and Interpersonal Skills.
Focusing on technical job requirements can help insure that
individuals are qualified to perform job functions that are absolutely
necessary for successful performance. At the same time, individuals
in organizations must also work effectively as members of a team
and must cooperate effectively with others within their department
and within their organization. Overlooking key interpersonal skills
can be an expensive mistake in conducting a job analysis and can
result in hiring technically skilled individuals who are ineffective in
working with others25.
6) Missing Critical “Flair Factors”. Flair factors are those difficult-
to-define qualities that individuals possess that make the difference
between a performer that “looks good on paper” and one that is able
to get a job done extraordinarily well26. Although individual

23
The Griggs vs. Duke Power Case clearly identified the importance of Bona Fide Occupational
Qualifications and struck down an artificial and discriminatory requirement that employees needed
a high school degree to perform job tasks. See Mathis, R. L., (2014) op. cit.

24
This common mistake was made by a large municipality in which the Police Chief wanted to
utilize a thirty year-old job analysis as the basis for developing a selection process for new police
officers.

25
Increasingly, organizations have recognized the importance of team collaboration and
interpersonal qualifications for many positions which involve cooperative effort to achieve vital
tasks. See Goleman, D., (2007) Social Intelligence: The New Science of Human Relationships.
New York: Bantam.

26
The concept of “flair factors” was written about in Irish, R. K., (2011). “Focusing on the Flair
Factor.” America’s Civil War Magazine. Sept. 22, 2011 found online on August 7, 2017 at
http://www.slideshare.net/Talentplus/the-flair-factor,
12 Cam Caldwell

personal factors, like perseverance and passion, are often difficult to

articulate in a job analysis, those factors are often critical
differentiating qualities of a successful versus an unsuccessful
performer27.
7) Skipping Steps. Although conducting a job analysis may seem to be
a detail-oriented and time consuming process, with effective
planning the process can be conducted both quickly and correctly.
Unfortunately, a common error made in many organizations is the
skipping of steps in the process due to the press of time and other
responsibilities. The result of skipping steps is often the costly error
of developing an inaccurate job analysis – a mistake which can
create a negative domino effect throughout many parts of an
organization28.

As with any important task, conducting a job analysis requires a

thorough understanding of its key components, thoughtful attention to detail,
and a commitment to excellence in producing a product that has profound
implications throughout every organization.

CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE CHAPTER

The job analysis is a building block of HRM because it focuses on the

important tasks upon which competitive advantage, service to customers,
and constant improvement are based. Although there are many useful
methods for conducting a job analysis, the focus of this chapter has been on
understanding the job analysis role, identifying its organizational

27
This powerful truth is the subject of Duckworth, A., (2016). GRIT: The Power of Passion and
Perseverance. New York: Scribner.

28
This point is powerfully made in the outstanding book, Russo, J. E., & Shoemaker, P. J. H.,
(2001). Winning Decisions: Getting it Right the First Time. New York: Currency.
 Job Analysis 13

significance, and articulating errors to avoid in the job analysis process.

Thus, there are three major contributions of this chapter.

1) Explaining the importance of the job analysis. As we have noted,

the job analysis has ramifications organization-wide and can be a
powerful tool for HRPs in serving other departments.
2) Clarifying the scope and significance of the job analysis. Identifying
twelve important functions that are dependent upon the job analysis
help to clarify the need to conduct a job analysis that is accurate,
valid, and complete. The significance of a job analysis is profoundly
personal for each employee because, when done correctly, it
provides the organization with information that properly frames the
expectations for each employee’s performance.
3) Cautioning regarding common job analysis errors. The seven
common errors identified in this chapter are important for HRPs,
Subject Matter Experts, managers, and supervisors to review as they
prepare to participate in the job analysis process. Avoiding these
errors enables participants to create an end product that will truly
add value to the organization.

The job analysis, like so many key foundational tasks, must be done
correctly and efficiently if it is to be a valuable tool for effective HRM. As
HRPs review the key steps required in conducting a job analysis, the insights
from this chapter are a helpful resource with ramifcations organization-wide.

QUESTIONS TO PONDER

1) As you reflect on the key steps required in conducting a job analysis,

which of these steps do you consider to be most critical? Which step
do you think is most frequently overlooked?
2) In what way is preparing a job analysis a task that requires extensive
preparation? How should the importance of job requirements and
job outcomes be decided?
14 Cam Caldwell

3) How do you think HRPs should resolve questions about differences

of opinion regarding the contents of a job analysis and the
requirements for a position?

A SHOCKING TERMINATION – CASE STUDY –

BY DR. SARAH J. SMITH

At a manufacturing corporation, Ben was hired as the new Vice

President of Operations. During the interview process the C-level suite was
impressed with his credentials and experience. They felt comfortable with
selecting Ben and looked forward to his arrival. One of the technical units
Ben would be responsible for was New Product Development. The team
included highly capable, well educated subject matter experts. This team had
a long history of product development success through innovation and
formulated powerful suggestions for new creative solutions to today's and
future challenges.
Michael had worked in product development for ten years. He was
revered for his work ethic, coupled with a high level of intelligence and
creativity. Michael was known to work six hours at the home plant and then
drive two hours to another facility. He worked into the night and put in long
hours. Coworkers on the New Product Development team were under the
impression Michael's work was well respected and had value. What
happened next shocked the conscience of members on Michael's team.
Everyone in the organization received an email that Michael had been
terminated, effective immediately. With the number of hours he dedicated
to the company and the creative solutions he contributed, this seemed to be
an irrational decision on the part of Ben. After all, Ben had only served as
Vice President of Operations for three weeks. The nature of a sudden and
unanticipated termination left many organizational members with questions.
 Job Analysis 15

1) What role could the HRM staff have played in this process? Would
HRM staff have been able to assist the Vice President of Operations
in only three weeks?
2) When matching job content with competencies and requirements,
Michael definitely met the requirements of the job. Do you think
Michael could have been perceived as overqualified or overzealous?
3) Could Ben have gone back to Michael's job description or
performance review for more information about Michael's roles,
responsibilities, and job expectations? If he did not do so, do you
think Ben assumed organization risk with Michael's seemingly
sudden termination?

OUTDATED JOB DESCRIPTIONS LEAD TO

A CREATIVE SOLUTION – CASE STUDY –
BY DR. SARAH J. SMITH

In a growing organization that does not have its own in-house HRM
staff, the decision was made to reevaluate the budget. With cooperation from
various department heads, budgets were rearranged and Julie was hired. She
came to the organization with a proven track record for successful HR office
start-ups and everyone was happy to have an HRP full-time, on staff.
Prior to the decision to create an HRP position, the company’s HR
functions were outsourced. This outsourcing created several issues because,
although the relationship with the vendor began positively and company
representatives visited the location frequently, over time this relationship
changed. Department heads saw an HR vendor representative only about
once per year. Simultaneous with decreased service, the vendor consistently
increased the billing price for services.
When Julie came on board as Director of Human Resources, she was
surprised how outdated many HR functions had become. There was a 4 inch
red binder in Julie's office containing the organization's job descriptions.
Unfortunately, the job descriptions were ten years old. There were no
16 Cam Caldwell

records to clarify if and how job analysis was conducted. Further, the
performance review form was a template that did not 'fit' many of the jobs
within the organization.
The department head for transportation asked Julie to place an ad for a
new driver. Knowing how outdated the job descriptions were, along with the
sheer number of job descriptions which were in need of review and likely
revision, Julie formulated a plan. She was a one-person office and knew it
would take time to gather input from key stakeholders and structure a review
of all job descriptions. Julie also felt uncomfortable posting an open position
without an accurate job description in place.
Julie decided prior to posting an open position, she would assist the
department head to create a focus group and review the needed knowledge,
skills, abilities and other conditions necessary for job success. This process
worked well because

a) Julie inched toward the ultimate goal: quality job analysis producing
accurate job descriptions, and
b) The hiring department head did not want to leave an open position
for an extended period of time. The organization was lean, and every
worker was important to fulfillment of the mission and delivery of
services.

From the updated job description, Julie drafted a job posting and had the
department head approve what would be advertised. When it came time for
interviews, Julie used the revised job description to formulate an interview
guide of job-related questions for the interview panel.

1) If you were the transportation department head, how would you

decide who to involve in the job analysis? (Your department runs
three shifts and in addition to drivers, dispatch personnel are
employed at the facility)
2) Who would be key external stakeholder participants? This
department provides much needed transportation in an area without
 Job Analysis 17

other public transportation. Riders travel to various destinations.

Fares are based on ridership and input costs of operation.
3) How should Julie work with the department heads to design a
system for the job analysis and job description revision process?
4) If employees feel they are not equitably compensated for their work,
could they look at the job description to see if the knowledge, skills,
and abilities indicated still describe what is needed to successfully
achieve the job duties? What other indicators could be helpful for a
strategic compensation review?
5) Upon revision of the job descriptions, how would you proceed with
updating the performance review process?

SCH