Indian Institute of Technology Lec 4-6

Heat and Mass Transfer
Prof. S.P. Sukhatme

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay
Lecture No. 04
Heat Conduction-1
Today, we will start with the second major topic in the syllabus namely heat conduction.
(Refer Slide Time: 00:59)
Now, more specifically I should say, we will be talking about heat conduction in solids.
We will be concerned with trying to find the temperature distribution in a solid for certain
situations, trying to find the rate at which heat flows in and out of solids given certain
specified conditions either in the steady state or in the unsteady state.
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One reason why we study heat conduction in solids first is that of the three fundamental
laws the law of conservation of mass and Newton’s second law of motion are trivially
satisfied when we talk of a closed system within a solid. We don’t yet worry about mass
being conserved obviously; it is trivially satisfied and Newton’s second law of motion is
concerned with force and momentum that too inside a solid is not of concern to us. It is
like saying almost zero is equal to zero or something like that. What we need to satisfy is
only the first law of thermodynamics and that too applied to a closed system. Now, in the
first law, we say rate at which heat enters the system minus rate at which work is done by
the system is equal to rate of change of energy of the system. Inside a solid, the work
term does not take exist; so the first law simply reduces to the form dQ dt equal to dE dt
because there is no work involved.
So, this is one good reason why we study heat conduction in solids first. It is
mathematically, shall we say a little simpler in the sense that of the fundamental laws, we
have to satisfy only one and that too, the first law for a closed system. Now what we are
going to do is first of all in order to get a little familiar with the situation of heat
conduction, we are going to consider a number of one dimensional steady state situations.
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Steady state means the temperature does not vary with time and one dimensional means
the temperature varies only in one direction. The first situation which we are going to
consider is that of an infinite slab. Let us say I have a slab of width b, its two faces - one
on the left is at a temperature t 1, the one on the right is at a temperature t 2, is maintained
at that temperature t 2. The thermal conductivity of this slab, let us say is k, small k. We
would like to find out - by conduction - what is the rate at which heat flows across this
solid and what is the temperature distribution in the solid.
By conduction, obviously heat has to flow in the direction of decreasing temperature. So,
if I assume t 1 to be greater than t 2 , the heat is going to flow from left to right something
like this across the slab. And I would like to derive an expression for the rate at which
heat flows across the slab. I would like to derive an expression for the temperature
distribution in this slab; that is what I am trying to do. The way I will proceed is of course
to use Fourier's law of heat conduction and the first law; these are our basic tools for
solving the problem. So, let us first of all now see that - suppose we want to use these.
So, I have already made a statement that the flow of heat is one dimensional - let me
write that down – one dimensional and therefore and it is steady state.
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Therefore, the temperature in the slab will only be a function of one direction and we will
call that the x direction. Therefore, since temperature is only a function of the x direction,
it follows that Fourier's law can be stated as q by A is equal to minus k dt dr, dT dx;
notice I am using an ordinary differential not a partial differential. Why? Because T is
only a function of x.
Now the first thing I am going to do is I am going to use the first law of thermodynamics
first of all, to show that the quantity q - the rate at which heat is flowing across the slab so
many watts - is a constant and I do that as follows. Suppose I take a slab. Let me just
draw a slab here; suppose I draw a slab. This is a slab and let us say at some distance x
from the left face - some distance x - I consider a plane x at a distance x. Now, also
consider another plane which I will show in a slightly different manner at a distance x
plus dx. Let us say a second plane at a distance x plus dx like this. This is the plane x and
this is the plane x plus dx.
Now, consider heat flowing across this slab through the plane x and then through the
plane x plus dx. The heat is flowing at the rate q. Now, if the quantity q flowing across x
- some area of x - is not the same as the quantity q flowing across x plus dx; if it is not the
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same, then the first law of thermodynamic says that the temperature of the slab, the
energy of the material within these two planes x and x plus dx, will have to increase,
either increase or decrease; will have to change, if q is not the same and if that happens
the temperature will have to change but we have already said that the temperature is not
changing with respect to time. Therefore, it follows that q across any plane x, x plus dx or
x plus two dx, whatever, any plane in the slab will have to be the same everywhere. So q
is a constant; that’s what the first law - from the first law, we have shown; q is a constant.
It follows if q is a constant that q by A is also a constant because A - the area through
which heat is flowing across the slab - is the same. It is a one dimensional situation; the
heat is continuously flowing across the same area. So if q is a constant, it follows q by A
is a constant. So using the first law of thermodynamics, we have shown q by A is a
constant. Now, with that information let me rewrite Fourier's law in the form; I will say q
by A - which is a constant - into dx is equal to minus k into dT and let us integrate this
expression. Let us integrate this expression between the limits; from one end of the slab
zero to b - x equal to zero to x equal to b - and the other one at x equal to zero the
temperature of the face is t 1 , at x equal to b the temperature is t 2 . So, integrate it and once
we integrate it, we will get the expression; we will get the following expression.
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If we integrate it, we get the expression q by A is equal to k by b into T 1 minus T 2 - this
is the expression for the rate at which heat flows across the slab. If I want the temperature
distribution, we integrate the same earlier expression but from zero to x for x and from T 1
to T for the variable T and we will get the second expression which I have shown here
that for the temperature distribution namely T 1 minus T upon T 1 minus T 2 is equal to x
by b which is just a straight line; simply saying the temperature will vary in a straight line
across the slab. This is derived under the assumption that k is a constant at all points
within the slab. Keep that in mind.
If k is not a constant, then I will have to put that variation of k with temperature into
account and leave that, put that variation into the integration. So, I will get a different
answer in that case. So, this is with the assumption let k is the constant. So, these are our
two results for the temperature distribution in the slab which is a linear distribution and
heat flow rate across the slab.
Now, we will solve the same problem for the cylindrical situation. Let us say, I have an
infinitely long hollow cylinder and it is of inner radius r i ,
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Its outer radius is r o ; the inner circular face is maintained at a temperature T i , the outer is
maintained at a temperature T o . Its thermal conductivity is again a constant namely k. I
would like to find again like in the earlier case; to find first of all the temperature
distribution in the solid and secondly to find the radial heat flow rate just like in the
earlier case; the only change now is we have switched from a slab to a long hollow
cylinder. So, we would like to find expressions for these and we will proceed in more or
less the same manner that we proceeded earlier for the slab, excepting that now we will
be working with a one dimensional situation in cylindrical coordinates. So what will we
have? We will have again if you argue out; you can say it is a one dimensional situation.
So, the temperature will only be a function of r - the radial direction. It will not be a
function of theta or z or of time; time because it is not a - it is a steady state situation.
Therefore Fourier's law we dealed - q by A is equal to minus k dT dr where the dT dr is
an ordinary differential and now in a ray, in a cylindrical situation, the area A across
which heat is flowing is continuously increasing as we move outwards in the radial
direction unlike the infinite slab case. Therefore for A, I will have to put q divided by two
pi rL where r is any radius within the cylinder; L is some length of the cylinder. q divided
by two pi rL is equal to minus k dT dr and q is a constant; just like we had shown in the
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previous case, we can argue that q is constant by applying - by using the first law of
thermodynamics. q has to be a constant. So again, integrate this expression. We write this
as q upon 2 pi L; integrate it from r i to r o , dr by r and that is equal to minus k the integral
T i to T o - the inner face to the outer face - dT; that is how we will integrate. So, rewrite
the Fourier's law in this fashion; integrate from the inner face to the outer face and after
doing that, we will get the result for the temperature distribution and the heat flow rate.
We will get the following - we will get for the heat flow rate q is equal to 2 pi kL into T i
minus T o upon the logarithm r o by r i - logarithm to the base e - and the temperature
distribution would be T minus T i upon T o minus T i is equal to the logarithm r by r i upon
the logarithm r o by r i ; this would be temperature distribution inside the cylinder. So,
these are the corresponding results for a long hollow cylinder. Now, let us do a problem.
We are going to do the following problem - numerical problem. I am going to say let us
do the following
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just to illustrate the use of the equation which we have just derived for heat flow rate. Let
us say we have given a long hollow tube. Let us say ID inner diameter 2 centimeter outer
diameter 4 centimeter. Let us say its thermal conductivity k is equal to .58 watts per
meter Kelvin. Looking at this value .58, I hope you immediately recognize it is not a
metal tube; it is made of some non metallic material say a plastic or something like that.
And let us say the inner face - the inner circular face - is maintained at a temperature 70
centigrade and the outer is maintained at a temperature of 100 degree centigrade. This is
the given data. Find the value of q by L - the heat flow rate per meter length of the tube.
It is a direct substitution into the equation that we have just derived. Now, one habit - one
good habit - which I think you should get into is: always draw a sketch of the physical
situation that you are dealing with. Very often, one can visualize it; it is a simple enough
sketch, simple enough situation that you can visualize it but still it is a good habit to
always draw a sketch.
So, in this case what we will get now? If I draw a sketch, it is going to look something
like this. Let us say this is the outer surface, this is the inner surface and let us say this is
the center line. So, the inner diameter is D i so I will have D i is equal to 2 centimeter. D o
is the outer diameter is equal to 4 centimeter and this is my solid tube whose k is given to
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be k is equal to .58 watts per meter Kelvin. So, this is the solid tube. Now, the inner face
is at a temperature of 70 degree centigrade. This is T i and the outer face is at a
temperature of T o - is at a temperature of 100 degree centigrade. We would like to find
the value of q upon L - heat is going to flow - we would like to find the value q by L; the
rate at which heat flows in the radial direction. You can see I am drawing the arrow
always in the positive r direction. We would like to find q by L for this situation. It is a
straight forward substitution; there is no complication in this problem. I just want you to
get into the habit of drawing a sketch, putting down the data and solving the problem. So,
substitute into the equation we have; what was our expression?
The expression we had was q by L is equal to 2 pi k into T i minus T o; that is our

expression divided by the log to the base e r o by r i . So in this case substituting the data
we are going to get 2 pi .58 into 70 minus 100 divided by, this will be divided by the log
to the base e 2 divided by 1 - 2 centimeters is the outer radius 1 centimeter is the inner
radius. I don’t have to put it in meters because I am diving 1 by the other and it becomes
dimensionless automatically. And this if you calculate it; if you put in the numbers and
calculate, you will get minus 157.7 watts per meter for a meter length of the tube. So, that
is the answer to the problem. It is a direct substitution into the formula which we just
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derived and what is the meaning of this negative sign? Please note it - the negative sign is
because in this case the heat is flowing in the negative r direction; the positive r direction
is outwards. Since the outer face is at a higher temperature compared to the inner face,
the heat flow is actually inwards; therefore, we are getting a negative sign. That is the
meaning of the negative sign.
So, now we have expressions for 2 one dimensional situations - a slab and a cylinder.
What I would like you to do on your own is the following. I would like you to do the
problem that I just solved; do the problem with the same data for a hollow sphere. Repeat
this problem; that means assume we have got a hollow sphere, inner diameter 2
centimeters, outer diameter 4 centimeters; inner face maintained at the temperature of
100, inner face maintained at temperature 70 degree centigrade; outer face at a
temperature 100 degree centigrade, k equal to .58. Find q; what is q? And the answer you
should get - I want you to do this on your own - if you do this problem on your own, the
answer you should get is q is equal to minus 4.37 watts. So please do this problem which
is an extension of what I just did on your own for a spherical situation. You should get
this answer; mind you again the negative sign is because heat is flowing radially inwards.
That is the reason for the negative sign.
Now, we want to introduce the idea of what is called as a thermal resistance. You have
got solutions for a few one dimensional steady state situations; now we want to introduce
the concept what is called as a thermal resistance. A thermal resistance is defined in a
manner very similar to an electrical resistance defined by ohm's law. Suppose I have, let
us look at the right side of this figure.
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suppose I have an electrical resistance through which a current I is flowing and across
which I have a potential difference delta e. Ohm’s law states that the electrical resistance
R electrical is equal to delta e divided by I right? That is ohm’s law. Now in a analogous
manner, I define a quantity called a thermal resistance and define it as follows. I say
suppose I have a solid and across the faces of the solid I have a temperature difference T 1
minus T 2 ; this is similar to the potential difference delta E and there is a heat flow rate q
flowing across this solid; the q is analogous to the current I. Then, the thermal resistance
of the solid is given by the temperature difference T 1 minus T 2 divided by q; that is how
we define it. We define thermal resistance as equal to a temperature difference divided by
the rate of heat flow; this is the definition of a thermal resistance. Now, immediately I can
go back and see the case of the infinite slab. For the infinite slab, what did we have for
the, look at the expression for heat flow rate.
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For an infinite slab, what will be the thermal resistance; with this definition that I just
gave you for an infinite slab. We just derived the expression q is equal to kA by b; if you
go back in your notes you will see kA by b into T 1 minus T 2 ; we just derived that
expression. Compare it now; compare this expression with our definition. How do you
define thermal resistance? We say thermal resistance is equal to T 1 minus T 2 divided by
q. Therefore, for an infinite slab, thermal resistance would be given by b by kA. That is
how we will get the expression for the thermal resistance of an infinite slab. For heat
flowing from a surface to a fluid - that is Newton’s law of cooling - the thermal
resistance, if I again use this definition of T 1 minus T 2 by q; the thermal resistance would
be equal to 1 upon hA by comparing with Newton’s law of cooling this definition.
For an infinite hollow cylinder - if I go back to the previous transparency now - for an
infinite hollow cylinder, R th would be given by the logarithm to the base e r o by r i
divided by 2 pi kL. So, once I have an expression for heat flow rate and I have a
definition for thermal resistance, I can write down what would be the thermal resistance
for a given situation. So we have put it down for the 3 cases which we have be so for
studied - an infinite slab, an infinite hollow cylinder and when heat transfer takes place
from a surface to a fluid. These are our expressions for thermal resistance. Now, why do
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we introduce the concept of a thermal resistance you will say? Well, what do I get out of
it? The main reason is the following - the main reason is you know that when there are
many electrical resistances in series r 1, r 2, r 3, r 4 , we know very well the total electrical
resistance of all those in series is the sum of r 1 plus r 2 plus r 3. So, if I have many electrical
resistances in series, the total electrical resistance is the sum of the individual electrical
resistances.
Similarly, when we have a number of thermal resistances in series, the total thermal
resistance is also the sum of the individual thermal resistances; that is why the concept of
a thermal resistance is a useful one and we use it. So, let me repeat that sentence because
that is a useful sentence.
Thermal resistances in series can be added to obtain the total resistance; when we have
many resistances in series, the thermal resistance - total thermal resistance - is the sum of
the individual thermal resistances. Now with this backdrop, let us look at a composite
situation. A composite situation is one in which we have a number of thermal resistances
in series.
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So, we are now going to look at instead of a slab, just one slab that we looked at earlier,
we are now going to look at an infinite slab which is composite in nature. Look at this
figure; we have now a composite slab consisting of three materials with thermal
conductivities k 1 , k 2 and k 3 and thicknesses b 1 , b 2 and b 3 ; three slabs attached to each
other side by side. The first one is thickness b 1 , b 2 , second one - b 2, third one - b 3 . Their
conductivities are k 1 , k 2 and k 3 and let us say on the left side here, the slab is in contact
with a fluid at a temperature T 1 and on the right side, the slab is in contact with a fluid at
a temperature T 2 and arbitrarily I have said let T 1 be greater than T 2 . If that is the case,
heat will flow from the left side to the right side; if the reverse is the case it will flow in
the reverse direction; it doesn’t matter, I have just taken one temperature to be higher
than the other.
Now what we want to do; we want to find an expression for the heat flowing across this
slab. Heat will flow like this across this slab; I would like to find an expression for the
rate at which heat flows across this slab and I would like to find an expression for the
thermal resistance of this composite slab; that is what I would like to do. For the moment,
let us not at look at this expression; we will come to it in a moment. This is the composite
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slab; we want an expression for the heat flowing across it and the thermal resistance of
this composite slab.
Now the first thing you recognize is that for analyzing this slab, we need to recognize
first of all that there are five thermal resistances in the path of the heat flow. What are the
five thermal resistances in the path of the heat flow? Starting from the left, we have the
heat transfer coefficient on the left side, then the thermal resistance associated with the
first with conductivity k 1 , then second, then third and then finally the thermal resistance
associated with the heat transfer coefficient h 2 on this face. So there are five thermal
resistances in the path of the heat flow and for each of them if I first say the intermediate
temperatures are T w1 , T w2 , T w3 and T w4 . So, for across the first thermal resistance, there
is a temperature difference T 1 minus T w1 which is governed by Newton’s law of cooling;
across the next T w1 minus T w2 I can use the result for an infinite slab which I have just
derived a few minutes ago; same for the second and the third slab, I can use the linear
distribution and the heat flow rate result which I got a moment ago and finally again for
the last thermal resistance where there is a heat transfer coefficient h 2 , I can use
Newton’s law of cooling to put down the expression for heat flow rate for the fifth
thermal resistance. So let us do that; what will we get? We will get starting with the left
side again
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q by A and now going from left to right - is equal to h 1 T 1 minus T w1 ; T w1 is the

temperature of the surface on the left side. Then, first slab - q by A is equal to k 1 by b 1
T w1 minus T w2 ; second slab making up the composite situation k 2 by b 2 T w2 minus T w3 ;
third one - q by A is equal to k 3 by b 3 T w3 minus T w4 and finally the last one - this is the
heat transfer coefficient q by A is equal to h 2 into T w4 minus T 2 . These are the five
expressions and obviously q by A is the same for all of them. It is not just symbolic; all
these q by A have to be equal because it is a steady state situation - heat flowing from left
to right.
Now, I can rewrite each of these expressions in terms of a temperature difference alone;
so I can write say the first expression as T 1 minus T w1 is equal to something; I can write
the second one T w1 minus T w2 equal to something; all the five can be rewritten like this
and then I can add them up. If I add up notice what is going to happen. The intermediate
temperature T w1 will cancel, the intermediate temperature T w2 will cancel; all of them
will go - T w1 , T w2 , T w3 , T w4 - all will go. All that would be left on the left hand side when
I had up will be T 1 minus T 2 . If I now add up all the five expressions, all the intermediate
temperatures will go and I am simply going to get on the left hand side T 1 minus T 2 is
equal to something; let us put that down. What we will get is the following.
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T 1 minus T 2 is equal to q by A multiplied by one by h 1 plus b 1 by k 1 plus b 2 by k 2 plus

b 3 by k 3 plus 1 by h 2 ; that is the expression I am going to get and this is my expression
now for the heat flow rate across this composite slab consisting of three infinite slabs
joined together and two heat transfer coefficients on the two faces. This would be my
expression and now compare this with by definition of thermal resistance for a composite
situation. What will it be? The thermal resistance for the composite situation is given by
T 1 minus T 2 divided by q; so if I take T 1, in this expression that I have derived here, if I
take T 1 minus T 2 upon q to the left hand side, what am I left with on the right hand side?
Whatever I am left with in the right hand side will be my expression for the thermal
resistance; so for the composite case, I get the thermal resistance to be the following,
which I had shown you earlier. For the composite case, thermal resistance is
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R th is equal to 1 upon A into 1 by h 1 plus b 1 by k 1 plus b 2 by k 2 plus b 3 by k 3 plus one

by h 2 and this is nothing but the sum of the five individual thermal resistances which I
have got. The first one is 1 by h 1A ; second one is b 1 by k 1A , etcetera. So, we have not
only got an expression for the total thermal resistance of this composite case, we also
have shown that when thermal resistances come in series, the total thermal resistance is
the sum of the individual components. We have done that as well. Now, at the same time
while we are on the composite case, I want to define another term for you and that term is
a term called the overall heat transfer coefficient.
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It is an important term which we use quite a lot in heat transfer; so I want to define a
second term called the overall heat transfer coefficient. I want to define that term for you.
The overall heat transfer coefficient whenever is defined for a situation in which we have
more than one thermal resistance for some composite situation. We say the overall heat
transfer coefficient for a composite situation may consist of two thermal resistances; it
may consist of three or like we did just now, five thermal resistances.
It is defined as follows. We define it as the overall heat transfer coefficient for a

composite situation; is defined by the following expression. Let me write down here
definition. It is defined by the expression q is equal to UA into T 1 minus T 2 – that is the
definition of the term which we have called as overall heat transfer coefficient. U is the
overall heat transfer coefficient, q is the rate of heat flow in watts, A is the area across
which heat is flowing and T 1 minus T 2 is the temperature difference at the two
extremities of the system across which we wish to define this term - overall heat transfer
coefficient; that is how we define this term.
Now mind you, if A is a constant as in the case of the infinite slab, it is well defined,
there is no ambiguity. But if on the other hand A is varying, then we need to tell on what
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area A, the quantity U is defined; it is based on some area. So, if A is varying I will have
to tell the area A on which U is defined; if on the other hand there is no ambiguity like in
an infinites composite slab then of course, I don’t need to tell anything on what basis U is
defined.
Now, compare this definition with the expression which we had a moment ago for q for
an infinite slab. What was our expression for q for an infinite slab? Let me just show that
again for a moment; the expression for q for an infinite slab was the following. We got T 1
minus T 2 is equal to q upon A into all this; this was our expression from which I can
write q equal to something or the other. So, if I compare this expression for q for a
composite, infinite composite slab with my definition of an overall heat transfer
coefficient, then for an infinite composite slab I can say for an infinite composite slab, the
expression for overall heat transfer coefficient will be U is equal to 1 divided by 1 upon
h 1 plus b 1 by k 1 plus b 2 by k 2 plus b 3 by k 3 plus one upon h 2. So what we have done is
we have defined a term called overall heat transfer coefficient and for the infinite
composite slab case, I have given you what would be the expression for the overall heat
transfer coefficient for that case since we have just derived an expression for heat flow
rate across an infinite composite slab. Now let us move on to the thermal resistance of a
long hollow composite cylinder.
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So, instead of a composite slab, now I have a composite cylinder. Let us look at this
figure; here I have a composite cylinder - a long composite cylinder - made up of two
materials. Thermal conductivity is k 1 and k 2 ; the inner cylinder has radius r 1 and r 2 ; the
outer cylinder has r 2 and r 3 . The inner surface there is - at the inner surface there is a heat
transfer coefficient h i , at the outer surface there is a heat transfer coefficient h o ; the fluid
inside the tube is at a temperature T i and on the outside the fluid which is in contact with
this surface is at a temperature T o . So for this case we have four thermal resistances - a
thermal resistance associated with the heat transfer coefficient h i ; a thermal resistance
associated with conduction through the first cylinder; then a thermal resistance associated
with the heat conduction through the second cylinder and finally a thermal resistance
associated with the heat transfer coefficient h o on the outer surface at radius r 3 .
Now, we can go through a derivation for this case again in the same manner as we did for
an infinite composite slab and derive expressions for q. What is the rate at which heat
flows across this slab, across this composite cylinder and what is the thermal resistance
for this composite cylinder? We can do both that in exactly the same way that I did for
the slab; that means I will take each one of them one by one and say let the intermediate
temperatures be T w1 , T w2 ; then I will say T i minus T w1 is equal to something; T w1 minus
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T w2 is something; T w2 minus T w3 is equal to something and then finally T w3 minus T o is
equal to something. Add them all up, get rid of the intermediate temperatures and I will
get an expression for q and for R th . If we do that, which I want you to do on your own
because it is exactly a repetition of we did for the infinite slab, you will get the following
results.
You will get - R th the thermal resistance for the composite case is equal to again the sum
of the four thermal resistances which make up that composite situation. Start with the
inner one - one upon hA, one upon h i into the inner area; what is the inner area? 2 pi r 1 L;
L is some length that we are taking for the cylinder. Second, thermal resistance of the
first inner cylinder log to the base e r 2 by r 1 divided by 2 pi k one L; second cylinder - log
to the base e r 3 by r 2 ; 2 pi k 2 L and finally the thermal resistance on the outermost face 1
upon h o into 2 pi r 3 L. That is the total thermal resistance of the composite cylinder and
obviously if I want expression for the total thermal resistance, it follows that q must be
equal to the temperature difference from one end to the other - that is from T i to T o -
divided by this total thermal resistance. So that is my expression for q straight away. q is
given by T i minus T o divided by this whole R th out here.
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I could also for this case put down an expression for the overall heat transfer coefficient
by comparing with my definition of overall heat transfer coefficient. Suppose I want to
base my overall heat transfer coefficient on the inner area that is on the radius r 1 . What
would be the area there? For r 1 , the radius would be 2 pi r 1 L.
So my U - the overall heat transfer coefficient - then based on inner area, the definition of
U would be q is equal to U and since this is U based on the inner area that is on the radius
r 1 , I will put subscript on it Ur 1 to indicate that it is based on the radius r 1 multiplied by 2
pi r 1 L – that is the area - multiplied by the temperature difference from the inside to the
outside and what is the temperature difference? T i minus T o ; that is my definition of the
overall heat transfer coefficient based on the inner radius r 1 where the area would be 2 pi
r 1 L. Therefore, if I use this definition and use my expression for q for this case, I
straightaway get 1 upon U r1 is equal to 1 upon h i plus r 1 by k 1 log to the base e r 2 by r 1 -
this is the inner cylinder, then r 1 by k 2 log to the base e r 3 by r 2 plus r 1 by r 3 1 upon h o .
My definition of U can be based even on some other radius, say for instance suppose I
say based on outer area, what is the outer area? 2 pi r 3 L; in that case, I will get an
expression 1 upon U r3 is equal to and I want you to write this on your own. Write this
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expression 1 upon U r3 on your own. Remember if I use this value of U r3 , I must always
multiply by 2 pi r 3 L; if I use this value U r1 , I must always multiply by 2 pi r 1 L in order
to get q.
So now, we are ready to stop here today. What we have done today; we have done the
following. We have first of all started the topic of conduction and I said that while
studying conduction in solids, we will be primarily concerned; what we have to do is to
satisfy the first law of thermodynamics for a closed system and that too without a work
term being involved. We will not have to worry about Newton’s second law of motion or
the law of conservation of mass because these would be trivially satisfied. Then we
considered 2 one dimensional steady state situations. First of all an infinite slab, then an
infinitely long hollow cylinder; for both of them we got the temperature distribution; we
got the heat flow rate.
Then we introduced the concept of a thermal resistance and I said we introduced this
concept because thermal resistances in series are additive. We went on then to a
composite situation; we considered an infinite composite slab, got an expression for q and
for thermal resistance for an infinite composite slab. We did the same for an infinitely
long composite cylinder and for both of them I also defined a term called as overall heat
transfer coefficient and said - we define an overall heat transfer coefficient as q is equal
to U into A into T 1 minus T 2 where T 1 minus T 2 are the temperature differences at the
two extremes and for both these cases - the infinite slab and the infinitely long composite
cylinder - we got expressions for the overall heat transfer coefficient U for these two
geometries and that is where we have stopped today.
25
Prof. S. P. Sukhatme
Lecture No. 05
Heat Conduction-2
Towards the end of the last lecture, we were considering the case of a long hollow
composite cylinder.
We were considering this case and you will recall that we had derived expressions for the
thermal resistance of the long hollow composite cylinder which consisted of two
materials with conductivities is K one and K two. We had derived an expression for the
overall heat transfer coefficient for this cylinder and we had an expression for the heat
flow rate. So, we had an expression for R th - the total thermal resistance of the long
composite cylinder; we had an expression for the overall heat transfer coefficient and you
will also recall that since the area through which the heat is flowing goes on increasing as
you go radially outwards, we have to specify on what area we are basing the overall
transfer coefficient. So we had derived expressions say for the radius r 1 which is the inner
1
radius of the tube of the inner cylinder or we could have based U even on the outer radius
r 3 , etcetera. So, we had expressions for R th and for U r1 and once we have these
expressions, you can calculate q - the heat flow rate - as being equal to; if you want to use
R th , you will say simply q is equal to T i minus T o , the temperature difference at the two
extremes from inside to outside divided by the R th or we can also say q is nothing but U r1
multiplied by the area 2 pi r 1 L multiplied by the temperature difference T i minus T o .
So, once we have an expression either for R th or U r1 , we can write down the heat flow
rate through that long composite cylinder; this is where we stopped last time. Now, we
are therefore in a position to consider, we are therefore now in a position to take up
composite cases that is cases where a number of thermal resistances occur in series. Now,
I want to make an important statement which is written down here and I will read it
slowly.
A statement is as follows; it says - when several resistances occur in series as in a long

composite cylinder with two solid materials; we had four thermal resistances - one
associated with the H i , one associated with the thermal conductivity K 1 , one associated
with the thermal conductivity K 2 and finally the one associated with the outside in terms
2
of coefficient H 0 or with the infinity slab where we took 3 solid materials, we had 5
thermal resistances. So, for any such situation when several resistances occur in series, a
few may be negligible compared to the others. An important aspect in many heat transfer
problems is to identify the significant resistances and to ignore the insignificant ones.
When you have a number of thermal resistances in series, very often one or two or a few
may be negligible. It is important if you are a good engineer that you should be able to
identify which are the significant resistances and which are the insignificant resistances.
So this is an important statement which I am making. Now in order to understand the
significance of the statement, let us do the following problem. We are going to do a
problem - the following. Let us say, let us go back to the earlier problem that we solved.
You recall the earlier problem in which we had a tube with an inner diameter of 2
centimeters and an outer diameter of 4 centimeters. One surface was at 70 degree
centigrade, one was at 100 degrees centigrade and for that tube we found out the rate at
which heat was flowing and we got an answer. In that problem, recall in the earlier
problem, we got the answer q by L is equal to minus 157.7 watts per meter; you recall
this problem.
3
Now, I am going to change the data of this problem very slightly; we are going to change
the data of the problem slightly. Instead of the outer surface being at a specified
temperature T o , it is now specified; instead of T o being specified - T o was specified to be
100 remember - it is now specified that saturated steam at 100 degree centigrade is
condensing on the outer surface. That is the change in the input data that i am making;
saturated steam at 100 degree centigrade is condensing on the outer surface of the tube.
That is the change that I am making; all other data is the same. That means what is the
other data?
The other data is for instance the I D of the tube, all other data, I D of the tube, O D of the
tube and thermal conductivity k of the material of the tube. The temperature T i also
remains the same; find q by L - that is the change. Now, how do we proceed now? First
of all, let me just draw a rough sketch so that we get the picture in front of us. Here is the
tube, the center line; let us say this is one - the inner diameter, this is the outer diameter
and this would be our outer radius, inner radius and outer radius. We are given the values
R o and R i , this is R o equal to I think 2 centimeters; this is R i equal to 1 centimeter; this is
the solid material of the tube; k is given to be .58 and now on the outer surface we have
steam condensing. So the steam is going to condense and form a water film on the
4
outside; so on the outside here, you are going to have a water film. On the outer surface,
you are going to have a water film formed by condensing steam at 100 degree centigrade;
that is what you are going to have. The inner surface remains at 70 degree centigrade; the
inner surface is this that remains T i equal to 70 degrees centigrade. That is the position
now; now what is the change compare to earlier?
Earlier from T i to T o , that is from 70 to 100, there was only one thermal resistance and
that thermal resistance was the thermal resistance of the tube. Now, we have got two
thermal resistances in the path of the heat flow when it is flowing between the
temperature differences 70 from inside to 100 on the outside and what are the two
thermal resistances? First, there are now two thermal resistances in the path of the heat
flow; there are two thermal resistances in the path of the heat flow and what are the
thermal resistances in the path of the heat flow? The thermal resistances in the path of the
heat flow are: let us write them down.
Number one; the two thermal resistances in the path of the heat flow are - number one:
thermal resistance of the tube and secondly the thermal resistance of the water film; the
thermal resistance of the water film on the outside. Let us estimate the two; let us put
5
down values for them. R th - thermal resistance of the tube, the first one of the tube per
meter that is equal to log to the base e R o by R i log to the base e R o by R i divided by 2 pi
kL. So if you substitute the data - the given data - that is log to the base e 2 by 1 R o by R i
divided by 2 pi into .58 - the same thermal conductivity as earlier - into a meter length 1
that comes to .190 Kelvin per watt; thermal resistance of the condensate film per meter;
thermal resistance of the condensate film - the water film - of the condensate film per
meter.
What is that, that is equal to 1 upon HA, 1 upon A. What is A? pi d o L that is multiplied
by H o that is equal to 1 upon pi into d o is .04 centimeters into length, we will take as 1
meter, 1 meter length into H o . Now, H o is the heat transfer coefficient associated with the
change of phase - that is condensation taking place on the outside of the tube. Let us take
a typical value of Ho; I have already told you, it would be in thousands, 5000, 10000
typical values. Let us take 5000. Let us take value of 5000; if I take a value of 5000 and
calculate this R th , I will get this. This number will come out to be .00159 Kelvin per watt.
So, what do we see? We have got two thermal resistances - the thermal resistance of the
condensate film is insignificant compared to the thermal resistance of the tube; that is
what we are seeing. The thermal resistance of the condensate film is insignificant
compared to the thermal resistance of the tube. We see, let me write that down
6
thermal resistance of the condensate film is insignificant compared to the thermal

resistance of the tube. Now you may say - look the thermal resistance of the condensate
film has only been estimated because we have taken H o to be five thousand. Suppose we
have taken it as 10000, it would be still smaller; it is in thousands whatever you do
whether you take 5000, 10000, 7000, this value .00159, we would get a value which may
be slightly different but it will always be insignificant compared to the value of the
thermal condensate of the tube which is .190 Kelvin per watt. Therefore, the total thermal
resistance is really .190; the condensation doesn’t make a difference and the outer surface
therefore is effectively at 100 degree centigrade and the flow rate remains the same.
Therefore, the conclusions are the thermal resistance - this total thermal resistance I
should say - that is the sum of the 2 is equal to .190 Kelvin per watt. Temperature of the
outer surface is effectively 100 degrees centigrade and the answer q by L is minus 157.7
watts per meter; the answer remains unchanged, that is what effectively we are saying. So
although we have got a situation which seemingly looks different, the thermal resistance
introduced because of this new situation is insignificant. The total thermal resistance
remains that which we had when there is only one present; it remains .190, so effectively
the outer surface of the tube remains at 100 degree centigrade and therefore the heat flow
rate obviously is still the same – 157.7.
7
Now, suppose you haven’t recognized this; then you would try, you would waste your
time perhaps trying to calculate the value of the H o more accurately from some formula.
You may get a value like 6342 for H o , would it make difference to this answer of this
problem? No, it wouldn’t. Whether you take 6342 which is a more precise value of H o or
whether you use 5000 just doesn’t matter in this problem. In some other problem it may
matter but right now it doesn’t matter what is the value of H o because the thermal
resistance of the condensate film is negligible compared to the thermal resistance of the
tube. You follow what I am saying? Always compare the value which is and say
something is insignificant relative to something else; that is the point which I want to
make.
So, now we have looked at this situation in which we may have thermal resistances in
series and as I said it is important to be able to decide which resistance is significant and
which resistance is not. Now, we want to turn our attention to another composite
situation; a problem associated with another composite situation. We want to look at what
is called the critical radius of insulation; that is what we want to look at.
8
Consider again this is the long hollow cylinder composite situation. Let us say that the
inner material here radius R 1 R 2 , let us say that this is a metal tube; that is a metal tube
and let us say the outer material thermal conductivity k 2 , is thermal insulation which is
put on the tube. So, it is composite situation in which one of the materials is the metal
tube, the other is the thermal insulation which is put on the outside. In the inside of the
tube, there is some fluid with the heat transfer coefficient H i and the temperature T i and
on the outside there is some other fluid to which heat is being lost; it may be the
surrounding air in the room in which this tube is located.
The outside heat transfer coefficient is H o and the temperature outside is T o ; so there are
four thermal resistances, two associated with the heat transfer coefficients on the inside
and outside and two associated with the tube and with the thermal insulation. Now this is
a composite case for which we know the value of the heat flow rate from inside to
outside; if i want to put down an expression for the heat flow rate, then we will get the
following. We have derived it earlier; i am just repeating what we have done earlier.
For such a situation the q is given by this expression 2 pi L into T i minus T o divided by 1
upon r 1 h i plus 1 upon k 1 log to the base r 2 by r 1 plus 1 upon k 2 log to the base e r 3 by r 2
9
plus 1 upon r 3 h o ; we know this. These are the four thermal resistances - the first one
associated with h i , the second one associated with the metal tube, the third one associated
with the thermal insulation and the fourth one with the heat transfer coefficient on the
outside. The 2 pi L has to be taken down in order to call it the thermal resistance so it will
be 1upon 2 pi L into all this; then they actually become the thermal resistances. Now
suppose I plot q against r 3 , I hold all other parameters constant. What are the other
parameters? r 1 , r 2 , k 1 , k 2 , T i , T o , L everything else constant excepting r 3 ; plot q against
r 3 other parameters being held constant. It will sometimes be seen, the value of q will
sometimes be seen to pass through a maximum for certain value of r 3 . This value is
called the critical radius of insulation. So if I plot q against r 3 , sometimes we will see, go
through a maximum for a certain value of r 3. This value of r 3 , we call the critical radius of
insulation.
Now, first of all let us find out mathematically by differentiation, what is this value of r 3
at which the q acquires a maximum value; that is very easy to do, it is just matter of
differentiating. So let us do that, let us just put down an expression, derive an expression
for the value of r 3 at which q goes through a maximum. Now in the formula that we have
put down, let me repeat that, we want to know where this goes through a maximum-this
expression; the numerator here is constant so if i want to know where this goes through a
maximum, effectively I want to know for what value of r 3 the denominator goes through
a minimum. So, let us differentiate the denominator only with respect to r 3 and equate
that to zero; differentiate the denominator with respect to r 3 and equate that to 0.
The first term - if I differentiate – is going to give me nothing because there is no r 3 in its
all constants; the second term will also give me nothing, it also doesn’t have an r 3 which
is our variable, it is going to give zero. Only the third term and the fourth term will give
me something because they have an r 3 occurring in them.
10
So if I differentiate the third term and the fourth term and equate to zero, I will get 1 upon
- I am now differentiating the denominator third term -1 upon k 2 r 3 that is the third term
differentiated minus 1 upon h o r 3 squared is, on differentiation gives me that and I equate
that to zero, I will get r 3 is equal to k 2 by h 0 ; so it is this value of r 3 given by k 2 by h 0 that
the denominator goes through a minimum and therefore the whole expression for q goes
through a maximum. We will call this value of r 3 as the critical radius of insulation; this
is the critical radius of insulation. So we will denote it as r 3critical ; this is the critical radius
of insulation. Now in effect what I am saying is the following.
11
I am saying if I were to plot q against r3, let us do that, if I were to plot q against r 3 or
instead of r3, if I were to plot it against r 3 minus r 2 that is the thickness of the insulation,
if I want to plot q against thickness of insulation that is r 3 minus r 2 - r 2 is a constant so
whether I plot against r 3 or r 3 minus r 2 I will get the same variation - then I will
sometimes get a behavior which will look like this and sometimes i will have behavior
which will look like this. When do I get the first type of behavior? When does q go
through a maximum? q will go through a maximum and then go on decreasing if r 2 that is
the outer radius of the metal pipe is less than the critical value which is given by k 2 by h o .
If to start with, I have metal pipe and the r 2 of that metal pipe is less than k 2 by h 0 , k 2 is
the thermal conductivity of the insulation and h o is the heat transfer coefficient on the
outer surface of the insulation. If r 2 is less than this, then we are going to get this type of
situation of q going through a maximum then decreasing.
On the other hand, if the radius r 2 of the metal pipe to start with is greater than or equal to
k 2 by h 0 - k 2 by h 0 is the critical radius of insulation - then straight away if I put
insulation on that pipe I will start getting a reduction in q. So keep in mind the addition of
the insulation on a pipe will help in reducing the heat flow rate if to start with r 2 is greater
than or equal to k 2 by h 0 ; if it is less, if r 2 is less than k 2 by h 0 , the addition of insulation
12
will first cause the value of q 2 go up a little, then it will start coming down as we go on
putting more and more insulation.
Now, why does this happen? It happens, it is very easy to see if you look at the
expression for q; let us go back to that. The expression for q has two thermal resistances
right here - one is the thermal resistance associated with the insulation, the other is the
thermal resistance associated with the heat transfer coefficient on the outer surface. The
first one which contains the log to the base e r 3 by r 2 - this increases as r 3 increases; the
second one - this one decreases as r 3 increases, as you can see it is 1 upon r 3 here.
So, up to the value of k 2 by h 0 , that is the critical radius; the rate at which this increases is
less than the rate at which this decreases and therefore the overall thermal resistance is
decreasing and therefore the value of q goes up. Once we have got the critical radius, the
reverse happens and the overall thermal resistance goes on increasing and therefore q
goes on decreasing. That is really mathematically why it is happening in this fashion. So
when we put insulation on a pipe the lesson to learn is, when we put insulation on a pipe,
you want q to go down so make sure to start with that; your value of r 2 is greater than or
equal to k 2 by h 0 . If this is so no problem, whatever the thickness of insulation you put
given r 3 minus r 2 , it will help.
If on the other hand, you have a situation in which to start with r 2 is less than k 2 by h o ,
then what should you do? You must put enough insulation to see that you cross this hump
and you have reached a point where the value of q is less than the value you get to start
with when there is no insulation. So if I were to take a horizontal line from here; what I
am saying is, if you have a situation in which r 2 is less than k 2 by h 0 , then you should
always put, you should put a thickness of insulation greater than the value shown by this
arrow. If you put less, you will in fact get a value of q which is more; so adding
insulation will hurt you, will not help you. That is the meaning and that is the sum and
substance of what we are trying to do when we talk about the critical radius problem.
13
So now we can look at a problem and I want to solve a numerical problem just to
illustrate ideas. I am going to take the following situation, I am going to say let us say
there is a pipe - just going to draw a sketch.
Let us say there is a pipe like this, some pipe whose inner, I am drawing only half of it,
some pipe; the inner radius is .8 centimeters and the outer radius is 1 centimeter; a pipe
with an inner radius of .8 centimeters and outer radius of one centimeter. Let us say it is a
metal pipe like this, some metal pipe like this and we put insulation on the outside of this
pipe, we you put thermal insulation on the outside of this pipe; this is the thermal
insulation on the outside of this pipe and let us say the insulation - thermal insulation -
conductivity is .20 watts per meter k that is the thermal conductivity of the insulation.
You are told that on the inside hot water flows and the temperature T i is 90, hot water at
90 degree centigrade; hot water flows on the inside at 90 and on the outside there is air at
30; ambient air at 30 centigrade. Value of h i on the inside of the tube given to be 500
watts per meter squared Kelvin and on the outside h o , value of heat transfer coefficient
given to be 10 watts per meter square Kelvin.
14
500 is a typical value for low velocity water flowing at a low velocity through a tube and
10 is a typical value for heat being lost by natural convection from an outer surface.
Calculate the variation of q by L with the - q by L that is the heat loss rate per meter
length - with insulation thickness. This is the numerical problem we want to do; it is a
straightforward substitution problem. There is no real complication; I just want to
illustrate the ideas that we have been talking about.
Now, a typical situation metal pipe is insulation rounded, hot water flowing inside; how
does the q by L vary with the insulation thickness? Now for this case if I substitute in the
expression; what is my expression? q by L is equal to 2 pi T i minus T o divided by, the
expression is 1 by r i r 1 h i plus 1 by k 1 log to the base e r 2 by r 1 plus 1 by k 2 log to the base
e r 3 by r 2 plus 1 upon r 3 h o ; that is my expression for the q by L. Now the first thing we
want to say is we have got a metal pipe made of say steel or stainless steel; what will be
the k value? If it is say steel, it will be 10, 12 watts per meter Kelvin; if it is steel not
stainless steel but steel it may be 40, 30 or 40 or 50 watts per meter Kelvin. In any case, it
is just a pipe, a tube rather with a thickness 2 millimeters.
r 1 is .8 centimeter then r 2 is 1 centimeter; whatever the value, the thermal resistance of

this metal tube is going to be insignificant compared to the thermal resistance of the
insulation. So straight away let us drop this out and say this we are going, not even going
to calculate it. We are just going to take it equal to 0; going to make that approximation
which is a very accurate approximation to make. So let us forget the thermal resistance;
neglect the thermal resistance of that metal tube compared to the thermal resistance of the
insulation which is coming on the outside. It is quite justified so with this approximation
what do we get now for the q by L?
15
By putting the numbers, I will get q by L is equal to if I put in the given data, I will get q
by L is equal to 2 pi into 90 minus 30 divided by - let us put down the data now - divided
by I will get 1 upon r i .008 multiplied by 500 plus neglect the second resistance. The
resistance of the insulation .2 log to the base e r 3 upon .01 centimeter that is r 2 plus 1
upon r 3 multiplied by 10; 10 is the value of h o . Now for different values of r 3 , we can
calculate q upon L in so many watts per meter. Calculate the value of the q by L against,
with different values of r 3 ; if you do that and I want you to do this now; you should get
the following answers.
Show that for different values of r 3 , r 3 in meters; I would like you to get the following
answers. Show that you will get for different values of r 3 .01, .015, 0.02, .03, .04 and
what will be the thickness of insulation? r 3 minus r 2 which is the thickness of insulation
in centimeter; so will come out to be here it is 0 because here r 3 is equal to r 2 then it will
be .5 centimeters then 1 centimeter, 2 centimeters, 3 centimeters and you will get q by L
if you substitute into the above expression. You will get q by L in watts per meter to be
36.8, 42.2, 43.3, 41.5 and 38.9 and with more thickness of insulation that value of q by L
will go on decreasing.
16
So notice now that in this particular case with the data that we got the value of q by L
goes through a maximum goes through a maximum at an insulation thickness of 1
centimeter and the value of r 3 equal to 2 centimeters. Do these calculations yourself so
that you will be convinced of what we got. Now why is this happening?
This is happening because, q by L is going through a maximum because in this case in

the data that we have given in this case r 2 to start with is less than k 2 by h 0 - that is the
critical radius of insulation and what we will get for k 2 by h 0 ? We get k 2 by h 0 is, it is k 2
by h 0 ; in this case, the critical radius is equal to .2 divided by 10 which is nothing but .02
meters which is equal to 2 centimeters. So, this is a case where r 2 was less than the
critical value given by k 2 by h 0 . Therefore in this case the value of q first increased, q by
L first increased with thickness of insulation then decreased and started decreasing. So,
this is just an illustration, a numerical example to illustrate all these ideas.
Now final comment on the critical radius; keep in mind this situation does not happen
very often. When does it happen? It happens when k 2 is high, that is the thermal
conductivity of the insulation is high; this situation will also occur when the value of h o
on the outside is low. Then the combination k 2 by h 0 will give me higher value of r critical
17
and then only r 2 may be less and q by L will first go through a maximum. So it will occur
only under these situations.
Now on your own, I would like you to do the following problem. Please do this on your
own and I will readout the problem; problem is the following.
Derive an expression for - ‘the’ should not be there - derive an expression for the critical
radius of insulation of a sphere. Suppose I have a sphere - a hollow sphere; inner radius
r 1 , outer radius r 2 and I put insulation up to a thickness, up to a radius r 3 around it. So
what is the thickness of insulation r 3 minus r 2 ? Find an expression for the critical radius
for this situation and the answer you should get is r ritical for the spherical k should be 2 k 2
by h o . Please do this yourself in the same manner that we derived the value, this
expression for the long composite cylinder for the cylindrical case.
Now, we will just briefly today start with the next topic. I just want to introduce you to
the next but we will not really do it today that is so far we have taken up one dimensional
cases, one dimensional steady state through a slab, one dimensional steady state through
18
a cylinder, one dimensional steady state through a composite slab, one dimensional
steady state through a composite cylinder; the sphere case I asked you to do on your own.
Suppose all these cases remember temperature has only been a function of one
dimension, that is why one dimensional cases, temperature has been a function of x or a
function of r. Suppose now we want to take up situations in which the temperature varies
in more than one direction, say it is a coordinate system - cartesian coordinate system - in
which temperature is varying in the x and the y direction and the z direction; temperature
is varying in space in more than one direction. Suppose also temperature is varying with
time that means it is not a steady state situation. Whenever we have situations in which
temperature is a function of more than one variable then we need to derive a general
differential equation which will be a partial differential equation for solving heat
conduction problems.
So, now our next job will be to derive the general differential equation for heat
conduction for situations in which temperature may vary in space in more than one
direction and temperature may vary with time also; that is what we are going to do. In
order to do that, we need to consider: anytime you have to derive a general situation in
differential equation, a partial differential equation or an ordinary differential equation for
that matter, you need to consider some element, some arbitrary differential element in
that solid and apply the first law and Fourier’s law to that arbitrary element.
So, what we are going do now is we are going derive a general differential equation for
heat conduction. We are going to derive it for an isotropic material that is a material in
which k does not vary in direction but k may vary from point to point and we are going to
derive it in the cartesian coordinate system, that is in the xyz system. Later on, we will
generalize to another coordinate system; so we are going to now derive a general
differential equation in the cartesian coordinate system and for an isotropic material, that
is a material in which k does not vary with direction. So pick an element inside the solid.
19
Let us say the element we pick is an element dx dy dz - a rectangular element somewhere
within this solid; this is some arbitrary solid - some boundary conditions which we will
take up later; this is the differential element. I take a magnified view of it and say this is
the direction dx, this is the direction dy, this is the direction dz. And now on this element,
now we are going to, through this element - not on this element - through this element,
we are going to apply the first law of thermodynamics as for a closed system. In the
process, we will also use Fourier’s law of heat conduction and get our general differential
equation; so that is what we will be doing next time.
20
Prof. S. P. Sukhatme
Lecture No. 06
Heat Conduction – 3
Last time when we stopped, we had just began to derive the differential equation of heat
conduction and I think I told you that the reason why we need a general differential
equation is that we would like to solve problems in which the temperature is not just
varying in one direction or and also situations in which the temperature is varying with
time. So far, we have only considered problems in which temperature is varying in one
direction and we have a steady state temperature distribution. If we want to solve more
general problems, problems in which temperature varies in more than one direction or
problems in which there is a variation with time, then we need to derive a general
differential equation for heat conduction to take care of more general situations. Now for
solving the differential equation, consider that we have any arbitrarily solid like this –
any arbitrary solid.
1
And to derive a differential equation, you always need to take an element inside this
solid. Let us say we are going to do the the derivation in the cartesian coordinate system;
so we will take a differential element dx dy dz anywhere, it may be anywhere in the solid
arbitrarily located inside the solid and here on the right hand side you have magnified
view of that differential element. Now, we will make some assumptions and with those
assumptions we will proceed now to derive our differential equation.
First of all, the first assumption which we are going to make is that the material is
isotropic. What do we mean by this assumption? We mean that the thermal conductivity
of the material is not directionally dependent at any point inside the solid, whichever
direction the heat may flow, the value of k in all those directions will be the same; that is
what we mean by an isotropic, the assumption that the material is isotropic. Now k may
vary from point to point but at any given point it doesn’t matter which direction the heat
is flowing, the value of k will be the same so we are going to make that assumption. Now
consider again - let us look at the element again; consider this element dx dy dz. Now in
this element let us look at the 2 x faces that is faces which have, whose normals are in the
x direction that is in this direction. There is one face at the back here like that and one in
the front here.
2
Let us take this as our positive direction; so let us say the heat flowing in the positive
direction in this face it will be dqx - some differential quantity because it’s a differential
element and the heat flowing out here will be dqx plus dx because we have moved a
distance dx forward in the positive x direction. So in the, for the 2 faces which have their
normal in the x direction, the heat flowing in that is the heat flowing in the positive
directions are dqx and dqx plus dx. Similarly for the y direction, we will have dqy, dqy
plus dy and for the z direction, we will have dqz that is the bottom face of this element
and going on from the top face dqz plus dz.
Now, we will use Fourier’s law of heat conduction to write down expressions for each of
these quantities. What we will get from Fourier’s law? We will get the following – let us
look at the first one dqx; by Fourier’s law of heat conduction dqx will be equal to minus k
dT dx multiplied by - this is the heat flux in the positive x direction. Multiply, you want
the rate at which heat flows so multiply it by the area of that face which will be dy dz; so
many watts is the rate at which heat flows into this x face.
Now let me go back for a moment, we were deriving a general differential equation so let
me add or make it go back and say for a moment. Let us also assume - apart from the
material being isotropic – let us also assume that heat could be generated in this material
and that the rate of heat generation; assume heat generation; assume that heat could be
generated in the material and that the rate of heat generation is q bar so many watts per
meter cubed. We will use the symbol q bar for the rate at which heat is being generated
per unit volume of the solid. q bar may be a constant if heat is being generated uniformly;
q bar may also vary from place to place in which case it will be a function of x, y, z. q bar
could also vary with time in which case it could be a function of x, y, z and time;
whatever it is, it will be some specified function or it will be specified to be a constant, so
let us assume there is some heat also being generated.
Now, let us go back to where we stopped; Fourier’s law tells us the rate at which heat
flows in the x direction so dqx is this. If I move a distance dx forward in the x direction
then I will get the expression for dqx plus dx and that will be equal to; I have moved a
3
distance x dx forward in the x direction. Now, we ask ourselves in this earlier expression
what are the quantities that may vary in the x direction? k may vary because k could be
varying from point to point, dT dx may vary but dy and dz are constants; that is the area
of the element that doesn’t change in the x direction. So k into dT dx may vary in the x
direction so we will say the following - we will say dqx plus dx. Let me write down the
expression; first I will say take it outside, let us put a bracket and say k dT dx. Now this is
the quantity that can vary in the x direction say plus the variation d dx - the rate at which
it varies in the x direction - into k dT dx; into k dT dx multiplied by the distance that I
have moved in the x direction which is dx and the whole thing multiplied by dy dz which
is a constant - the area; so this is the expression for dqx plus dx.
Anytime we derive a differential equation, if I know the value at some distance x, the
value at a distance x plus dx will be the increment that occurs because the function, the
quanties that you are concerned with are varying in that direction. Similarly, we can write
down expressions for dqy, dqy plus dy, dqz and dqz plus dz. You can write down
expressions for these; I am not going to do that; I am going to leave it to you to write
these down. In the same way that can be written down, these expressions can be written
down using Fourier’s law of heat conduction. So now we have expressions for the rate at
which heat is being conducted into this element in the positive x direction, positive y
direction, positive z direction and the rate at which heat is being conducted out of this
element also in the positive x direction, y direction and the z direction; so we ask
ourselves the question. We say what is the rate at which, what is the net rate at which heat
is being conducted into the element?
4
So, we say net amount of heat conducted, therefore, net amount of heat conducted into
the element, into dx dy dz - that’s our differential element - into dx dy dz per unit time
will be equal to dqx plus dqy plus dqz. This is the flow in minus the flow out dqx plus dx
plus dqy plus dy plus dqz plus dz and then we substitute the expressions we have put
down earlier, we will get this is equal to d dx; putting in those expressions and canceling
out, we will get d dx k dT dx plus d dy of k dT dy plus d dz of k dT dz, the whole thing
multiplied by dx dy dz. This is the net amount of heat being conducted into the element
per unit time.
Now the next quantity we have – let us call this, let us call this as 1. Now the rate at
which heat is being generated per unit time, quantity of heat generated in element in
element, the element per unit time will be equal to q bar which is the heat being generated
per unit volume multiplied by the volume of the element dy, dx dy dz. Let us call this
expression 2. Now, all this leading up course to applying the first law for a closed system.
The third quantity we are interested in is the rate of change of energy of the element, rate
of change of energy of the element.
5
This will be equal to the mass of the element that is row dx dy dz - mass of the element -
into the specific heat of the material into the rate of change of temperature dT dt; that’s
the rate of change of energy of the element and this we will call as 3. Apply the first law
for the closed system; what is our closed system, closed system is the element dx dy dz.
Apply the first law of thermodynamics to this closed system. What does the first law say?
The first law says 1 plus 2 is the net rate at which heat flows in the element or is
generated in the element must be equal to 3. So, let us do that; let us substitute now our
expressions that we have got and we will get, we will get the differential equation once
we do that and the differential equation we will get would be the following.
6
If I substitute this, I will get the following differential equation for the case that I am
deriving; this is the differential equation that I will get. All I have done is put in this is the
term 1, this is corresponding, q bar is corresponding to the term 2 and this is
corresponding to the term 3. dx dy dz - the volume of the element - is canceled out; it is
common to all of them. This is the required differential equation that we are looking for.
This is a situation in which we have an isotropic material; we are working in a cartesian
coordinate system. T can be a function of x, y, z and time; that is why we have partial
differential equation and there may be heat generation q bar which may be varying or it
may constant. Whatever it is, it will be some specified amount so this is the most general
form of a differential equation that we have got. Now, let us look at some simplifications
of this differential equation.
7
We say to ourselves, suppose the property k - thermal conductivity k of the material - is

not varying from point to point inside the material; that means the material is isotropic, k
is a constant; the material is what we call is homogeneous. In which case the k can be
taken outside the differential here and we will get the differential equation which is
written here. We will get k into d 2 T dx square plus d 2 T dy square plus d 2 T dz square
plus q bar is equal to row C p dT dt; so this will be the simpler form of the differential
equation that we will get if k is assumed to be a constant. Further suppose or rather let me
for a moment express it in another way symbolically.
8
As it is put, very often the quantity d 2 T dx square plus d 2 T y square plus d 2 T dz

square is written in this form - this is called the Laplacian equation. del square T plus q
bar by k equal to 1 upon alpha dT dt; so this is another way of writing the equation and I
would like at this stage to define that we have got instead of k by row C p , we are writing
a quantity alpha here. What is alpha? alpha is called the thermal diffusibility of the
material; it is a combination of three properties - k the thermal conductivity divided by
row, the density and divided by a specific heat k by row C p . So, we define a new property
k by row C p as alpha and we put that into the differential equation. So our differential
equation when k is constant can also be written in the form del square T plus q bar by k is
equal to 1 by alpha dT dt.
Now, suppose no heat is being generated; there is a case of no heat generation, the q bar
term will drop out in which case I will simply get del square T is equal to 1 upon alpha
dT dt. Suppose in addition there is a steady state, in that case the right hand side will be 0,
there will be no change of temperature with time; I will get del square T equal to 0. So
this is called the Laplace’s equation the last 1. So I have different versions of the
differential equation of heat conduction now and I will use an appropriate differential
9
equation depending upon what problem I am solving, what is the nature of the problem I
have to solve.
Let us go back again for a moment; if it is the most general form is what we derived; first
the material is isotropic but k may be varying, temperature may be varying in all
directions and with time there may be heat generation. Next version k is a constant in
which case I get this simpler version; third version there is no heat generation in which
case the q bar term drops out. Finally, I say there is a steady state in which case the dT dt
term drops out; so depending upon the nature of the problem we will have to use an
appropriate differential equation.
Now this differential equation that we have got is for the Cartesian coordinate system; we
may sometimes find it convenient to work with the cylindrical coordinate system or a
spherical coordinate system. If suppose the object under consideration is a cylinder in
which case a long cylinder or a short cylinder, it will be convenient obviously to work in
a cylindrical coordinate system or let us say the object is a hollow sphere or a solid
sphere in which case it will be convenient to work with the spherical coordinate system.
10
Now in the next transparency here, I am showing the 2 coordinate systems; on the left
hand side here we have the cylindrical coordinate system shown here and this is the usual
transformation. x equal to r cosine theta, y equal to r sin theta, z equal to z which helps us
to go from Cartesian coordinates to cylindrical coordinates – r, theta and z. r is the
distance in the radial direction in the xy plane, theta is the angle in the xy plane and z is
the same z as in the Cartesian coordinate system. On the other hand, if I have a spherical
coordinate system I have the transformation x equal to r sin psi cosine phi, y equal to r sin
psi sin phi and z equal to r cosine psi. In which case I have a distance r which is the
distance from the point A to the origin - that is r; phi is the angle similar to the angle theta
in the cylindrical coordinate system measured in the xy plane and psi is the angle by the
radius r with the vertical direction z. psi is called the zenith angle and phi is called the
azimuth angle in the spherical coordinate system. I might just write that; psi is called the
zenith angle and phi is called the azimuth angle. Now, you might want to remember just
these names.
So, suppose now I want the differential equation in the cylindrical or in the spherical
coordinate system. One way is I can use these transformation formulas for going from
cartesian coordinates to cylindrical coordinate or cartesian coordinates to spherical
coordinates and by doing transformations just derive it mathematically. The
corresponding use whatever is the appropriate differential equation Cartesian coordinates;
use these transformations and go to the appropriate equation in cylindrical or spherical
coordinates. The other way is to derive again from first principles; we can derive a
differential equation using an element in the cylindrical coordinate system or in the
spherical coordinate system. Now let us do that.
11
Let us for instance assume we want to derive a differential equation; let us say derivation
of differential equation, derivation of differential equation of heat conduction in a 2
dimensional polar coordinate system, in a 2 dimensional polar coordinate system. So
instead of deriving for a cylindrical coordinate system with r theta and z, I am going to
derive for a polar coordinate system which is only r and theta; we will generalize later to
r theta z. So let us say we are going to derive a differential equation from first principles
like we did for a xyz in and we are going to do this derivation for an r theta coordinate
system.
Assume again material is isotropic and heat generation is q bar in so many watts per
meter cubed; q bar may a function of r and theta, q bar may be a constant, whatever it is.
Let us look if I want to derive a differential equation in r theta, obviously I need an
element in the r theta system; so let us take such an element now. Let me draw a
coordinate system; this is a coordinate system, r theta I want to draw. Now this is the
radius r and this is dr and this is the angle d theta. So, the element r d, the element under
consideration is the one that I am shading and its area will be r d theta into dr. Again like
last time, let us put down expressions for the heat being conducted in and out of this
element.
12
So we are going to put down expressions for heat being conducted in the r direction into
this element, heat being conducted in the r direction out of this element, heat being
conducted into the element in the theta direction and heat being conducted out of this
element in the theta plus d theta direction. This is the angle d theta and this is the angle
theta so we will call these quantities, we will call these as, let me just indicate them. The
first one call as dqr, then dqr plus dr then here, I will call this as dq theta and the last here,
I will call as dq theta plus d theta. We want to put down expressions for each of these
quantities; what will we get? We will get the following.
We put down expressions for these quantities and we will get dqr, the first 1. Now I am
not going to explain again like last time; I will simply put down the expressions. dqr will
be minus k dT dr multiplied by the area through which heat is flowing; the area through
which heat is flowing will be r d theta into 1; we assume in the z direction that we have a
unit width so that is the area. dqr plus dr will be equal to minus, now we will say here kr
dT dr plus d dr kr dT dr into the distance I have moved – dr, the whole thing multiplied
by d theta. The quantities varying in the r direction are k dT dr and obviously r; so all this
k dT dr into r has to be taken inside the differential. d dr of all this multiplied by dr is the
amount of variation that occurs when we move from r to r plus dr.
13
Similarly, we can write down expressions for dq theta and dq theta plus d theta. For dq
theta, we will get minus k dT d minus k dT d theta k by r, dT d theta, because we want a
variation gradient of temperature with distance so it will be dT by rd theta, the whole
thing multiplied by area which will be dr into 1. And if I move a distance an angle d theta
forward, that is the distance r d theta forward, I will get minus k by r dT d theta plus d by
rd theta multiplied by k dT d theta multiplied by rd theta, the whole thing multiplied by
dr.
Now, therefore the rate at which heat is being conducted into the element will be dqr plus
dq theta minus dqr plus dr minus dq theta plus d theta and if you do all that you will get
rate at which heat is conducted. In the previous term you should have an r squared here, r
square d theta; rate at which heat is conducted into the element will be equal to d dr into
kr dT dr plus 1 upon r d d theta multiplied by k into dT d theta, the whole thing
multiplied by dr d theta; that is the rate at which heat is conducted into the element; now
this is what we have called earlier as 1.
Now in the same way the quantity 2 that is rate of heat generation in the element will be,
heat generated per unit time will be equal to q bar multiplied by the volume of the
14
element rd theta dr into 1 and this would be the term 2 and finally rate of change of
energy of the element, rate of change of energy of the element will be equal to the mass
of the element row multiplied by rd theta dr into 1; that is the volume, mass of the
element into specific heat into the rate of change of temperature with respect to time and
this will be the term 3. So 1 plus 2, again by the first law, 1 plus 2 is equal to 3 so we get
the differential equation. after with the clean up a little, cancel some terms, we will get
the differential equation 1 by r d dr multiplied by kr dT dr plus 1 by r square d d theta
multiplied by k dT d theta plus q bar will be equal to row C p dT dt; this is our differential
equation in the r theta coordinate system, in the polar coordinate system.
So, this is how we proceed to derive; anytime we have to derive a differential equation,
take an element, apply the first law of thermodynamics, write down expressions from
Fourier’s law of heat conduction for the rate at which heat is conducted in or out of all the
faces of that element. That is really what it comes to and you will get the appropriate
differential equation. Now once again, we can see from this differential equation that if I
have a constant k, then I will get a simplified form of this equation.
15
For a constant k if the material is isotropic and the k is constant; for k equal to constant, I
will get a simplified form. I will simply get, k - I will take it outside the differential; so k
multiplied by 1 by r d dr r dT dr plus 1 by r squared d 2 T d theta squared plus q bar will
be equal to row C p dT dt; this will be the differential equation that you will get with a
constant k. And again as we did earlier, if it is a steady state problem, then the right hand
side will drop out completely; the dT dt term will drop out. If there is not heat generation,
the q bar term will drop and so on; you can get further simplifications.
Now, suppose I wanted to derive this differential equation for an r theta z situation;
suppose I say to you – derive; this we have d1 for r theta. I say derive the differential
equation; derive the differential equation for the three dimensional situation, the 3D
cylindrical coordinate system. I ask you to do this; this will be for an r theta z situation.
All that is going to happen if you go through it yourself is you are simply going to get
one more additional term on the left hand side and what is going to be that additional
term? Additional term on left hand side of the equation that we have here will be k d 2 T
dz squared; this is the additional term that you are going to get in this differential
equation. Out here, that is all that you are going to get out here - an additional term out
here plus this quantity. This is the term which comes in because now you are in the z
direction, you have to consider the difference between heat flowing by conduction in the
z direction, flowing into the elements and flowing out of the element in the z direction;
that is how this extra term is going to come in. So although we have derived the
differential equation for r theta, you can see that extending it to r theta z presents no real
problems. Now let me just put down the differential equation; I mean show them again
for constant k. For, let us show the differential equation for r theta z for cylindrical
coordinates.
16
This is the differential equation that we have: k into 1 by r d dr d d d d dr of r dT dr plus 1

by r squared d 2 T d theta squared plus d 2 T dz squared; close the bracket plus q bar is
equal to row C p dT dt. This is the differential equation you will get for cylindrical
coordinates and for spherical coordinates we are not deriving the differential equation but
I am telling you for spherical coordinates.
17
If you do the derivation you will get this second differential equation on this page; you
will get k into 1 by r d 2 by dr squared of rT plus 1 by r squared sin psi d of d psi of sin
psi dT d psi plus 1 by r squared sin squared psi d 2 T d phi squared, close the bracket,
plus q bar is equal to rwo C p dT dt. So, these are the 2 differential equations you will get
for constant k. The first one we have derived; the second you could derive on your own if
you wanted to by taking an element in the spherical coordinate system.
Now, we move on; so now we know that given a general situation either in Cartesian
coordinates, cylindrical coordinates, spherical coordinates, steady state, unsteady state,
variation in one direction, two directions, three directions, isotropic material constant k,
not constant k, whatever it is, you are in a position to put down an appropriate differential
equation given a certain solid.
Now in order to solve a differential equation and to get an explicit solution, you need to
state certain conditions of the problems. What are those conditions? Those conditions are
what we call as initial conditions and boundary conditions. An initial condition is the
temperature; an initial condition specifies the temperature at - inside the body at - some
instant of time t equal to 0 from which point onwards we are interested in knowing the
temperature distribution in the solid; that is what we mean by an initial condition.
18
So at t equal to 0, temperature distribution in the body is specified, that is an initial

condition; you have to tell your starting point and then say apply the differential equation
and tell how temperature will vary with time from that point onwards – that is what you
mean by an initial condition. The simplest initial condition is to say, which we use often
in solving problems, is that the temperature of the body at the initial instant t equal to 0 is
uniform, t equal to 0 or t equal whatever is specified; t 1, some value specified temperature
right at the beginning. Now apart from that, we need to know, any solid has boundaries,
so we need to know what is happening at the boundaries of the solid; those are what we
call as boundary conditions.
19
Typically there are 3 types of boundary conditions that we specify; number 1 - we specify
a surface temperature at the surface of the solid. What is the temperature at that surface?
This could be some which could be varying with time or it would be constant or we
specify the heat flux which is falling on the surface of the body or we prescribe the heat
transfer coefficient at the surface of the body. These are the three types of boundary
conditions which we normally deal with - prescribed surface temperature, a prescribed
heat flux incident on the surface or a prescribed heat transfer coefficient at the surface of
the body. Let us now write down expressions for these situations.
20
For example, suppose for example, let us start; write down expressions for these. For
example, let the surface be a plain face x equal to L; let us say the surface under
condition is a plane face x equal to L some surface. Now at x equal to L, we say, at x
equal to L; let me draw a surface. This is the solid and we specify that at x equal to L,
some prescribed temperature exists; let us say temperature is specified to some value T 0. -
So we will say at x equal to L, the first condition would be, the first type of condition
would be T equal to T 0 .
The second type of condition is of a prescribed flux falling on the surface of the body; so
the second type of condition is I have got a surface like this and there is a prescribed flux
falling on the surface of the body. Let us say that flux is q by A 0 ; some flux falling on the
surface of the body. Let us, it is all being absorbed on the surface of this body; now if all
the flux that is falling is absorbed in the surface of the body, then by conduction that
flow, that flux must be flowing by conduction at the surface into the body. So, we equate
this flux to the heat flux we will get from Fourier’s law of heat conduction at x equal to L
and we can; the second type of condition can be stated as, the prescribed heat flux can be
stated as minus k dT dx at x equal to L is equal to minus q by A 0 ; this is how the second
type of condition would be specified and mind you, I am calling this as the positive x
21
direction; that is why I have put a minus sign on the q by A here; minus k dT dx x equal
to 0; x equal to L is the heat flux by conduction in the positive x direction. This has to be
equal to the q by A falling, the q by A showing falling in the other direction; therefore it
is equal to minus q by A 0 so this is the second type of boundary condition. This is the
first type T equal to T 0 ; prescribed surface temperature, this is a prescribed heat flux.
And the third is a prescribed heat transfer coefficient in which case I have again a surface
like this and I specify that there is a heat transfer coefficient h at the surface and there is a
fluid temperature T f here. Now, I am going to use Newton’s law of cooling and equate it
to the heat flowing by conduction in the solid. I have done this earlier when I defined
Newton’s law of cooling you will recall. So, the third type of boundary condition would
be minus k dT dx at x equal to L; this is from Fourier’s law of heat conduction and this
heat conducted must be equal to h T at x equal to L minus T f - Newton’s law of cooling,
heat flux equated to the heat flux by Fourier’s law of heat conduction at the interface x
equal to L.
So, these are typically three types of boundary conditions with which we deal - a
prescribed surface temperature, a prescribed heat flux which is equated to the heat flux by
conduction from Fourier’s law and a prescribed value of heat transfer coefficient of the
surface which is again equated to the heat flux by conduction from Fourier’s law at x
equal to L; so this is how we put down condition. So the complete formulation of the
problem, any problem in heat conduction means: put down appropriate differential
equation, put down appropriate boundary conditions and state an initial condition if it is
an unsteady state problem; otherwise of course, there would be no initial condition to be
specified; that is the complete specification of a problem in heat conduction.
Now, we have come to end of this topic, let me introduce you to the next topic which we
are going to begin. Now that we have got a general differential equation, we are in a
position now to solve problems which are not just one dimensional variations in space but
could be varying with time and with heat generation and so on. So we are going to next
take up some problems of heat generation; we are going to take up some problems of heat
22
generation and I just want you to introduce you to the idea that heat generation, where
heat generation problems are important in solids. For instance, I may have a nuclear fuel
element; heat is being generated in it because of nuclear fission. I would like to know the
temperature distribution in that nuclear fuel element.
When concrete sets, heat is evolved when concrete sets so I may be interested in the
temperature distribution in a concrete slab which is setting and during the setting process
heat is being generated or when I have an electrical conductor carrying current we know
that heat is being generated at the rate of I squared r in the conductor; so that is also a
situation with heat generation. I may be interested in knowing what is the temperature
distribution in the conductor. So, there are many situations involving chemical reactions,
heat generation due to electrical currents or concrete hydration or nuclear fission where
heat is generated inside a solid and I would like to know what is the temperature
distribution in the solid. We are going to look at some problems which are one
dimensional and steady state in nature because here we cannot take up more complicated
problems. So, we are going to look at some one dimensional steady state problems with
heat generation next.
23

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Heat and Mass Transfer

Prof. S.P. Sukhatme

(Refer Slide Time: 00:59)

(Refer Slide Time: 10:31)

(Refer Slide Time: 12:01)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:35)

(Refer Slide Time: 15:56)

(Refer Slide Time: 21:18)

The expression we had was q by L is equal to 2 pi k into T i minus T o; that is our

(Refer Slide Time: 30:35)

q by A and now going from left to right - is equal to h 1 T 1 minus T w1 ; T w1 is the

T 1 minus T 2 is equal to q by A multiplied by one by h 1 plus b 1 by k 1 plus b 2 by k 2 plus

R th is equal to 1 upon A into 1 by h 1 plus b 1 by k 1 plus b 2 by k 2 plus b 3 by k 3 plus one

It is defined as follows. We define it as the overall heat transfer coefficient for a

(Refer Slide Time: 47:40)

(Refer Slide Time: 49:38)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:01)

(Refer Slide Time: 03:49)

A statement is as follows; it says - when several resistances occur in series as in a long

(Refer Slide Time: 05:44)

(Refer Slide Time: 08:49)

(Refer Slide Time: 13:15)

thermal resistance of the condensate film is insignificant compared to the thermal

(Refer Slide Time: 22:00)

(Refer Slide Time: 24:07)

(Refer Slide Time: 35:18)

r 1 is .8 centimeter then r 2 is 1 centimeter; whatever the value, the thermal resistance of

(Refer Slide Time: 45:00)

This is happening because, q by L is going through a maximum because in this case in

(Refer Slide Time: 47:02)

(Refer Slide Time: 51:05)

(Refer Slide Time: 01:55)

(Refer Slide Time: 02:50)

We say to ourselves, suppose the property k - thermal conductivity k of the material - is

As it is put, very often the quantity d 2 T dx square plus d 2 T y square plus d 2 T dz

(Refer Slide Time: 20:47)

(Refer Slide Time: 28:26)

(Refer Slide Time: 33:15)

(Refer Slide Time: 36:27)

This is the differential equation that we have: k into 1 by r d dr d d d d dr of r dT dr plus 1

(Refer Slide Time: 40:50)

So at t equal to 0, temperature distribution in the body is specified, that is an initial

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