Kinetic Molecular Theory

 The Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT) is a model used to explain the behavior of matter. It is
based on a series of postulates.

 Matter is made of particles that are constantly in motion. This energy in motion is called kinetic
energy.

 The amount of kinetic energy in a substance is related to its temperature.

 There is space between particles. The amount of space in between particles is related to the
substance's state of matter.

 Phase changes happen when the temperature of the substance changes sufficiently.

 There are attractive forces in between particles called intermolecular forces. The strength of
these forces increase as particles get closer together.

KMT AND LIQUIDS

 One of the most notable properties of liquids is that they are fluid and they can flow.

 Liquids have definite volume, but not a definite shape. Liquids are said to have low
compressibility;

 Compared to gases, there is relatively little space between particles. Compared to solids,
however, liquids have some space between particles. This, in tandem with the fact that liquid
particles also have relatively more energy than solid particles, is what allows liquids to flow. On
the molecular level, these two factors give liquids the look of being disorganized.

 Liquids are denser than gases. Their particles are held together by a strong intermolecular force
but not strong enough to maintain their rigid structure

 The types of intermolecular forces in a liquid depend on the chemical make up of the liquid itself

KMT AND SOLIDS

Solid substances have definite shapes and volumes. Solid particles do move, but not very far. Solid
particles have relatively little kinetic energy and vibrate in place. Because of this, they can't flow like
liquids

 Most solids are arranged in a tightly packed crystalline structure. The crystalline structure is an
orderly, repeating arrangement of particles called a crystal lattice. The shape of the crystal
shows the arrangement of the particles in the solid.

 Some solids aren't crystalline-shaped. The ones that aren't are called amorphous
solids. Amorphous solids don't have orderly internal structures.
Taking copper as an example we find that in the solid phase the copper atoms have little energy. They
vibrate in fixed positions. The atoms are held closely together in a regular pattern called a lattice. If the
copper is heated, the energy of the atoms increases. This means that some of the copper atoms are able
to overcome the forces that are holding them together, and they move away from each other to
form liquid copper.

This is why liquid copper is able to flow, because the atoms are more free to move than when they were
in the solid lattice. If the liquid is heated further, it will become a gas. Gas particles have lots of energy
and are far away from each other.
The intermolecular forces of attraction in a pure substance are collectively known as Van der waals
Forces.

Intermolecular forces

 Dipole-dipole forces

 Hydrogen bonding

 Ion-dipole forces

 London dispersion Forces

 Is a special type of dipole dipole that exists only in molecules that contains a hydrogen atom
bonded to a small, highly electronegative atom such as N, O, and F

2. Hydrogen bonds

 Hydrogen bonding is a relatively strong force of attraction between molecules, and considerable
energy is required to break hydrogen bonds.

 This explains the exceptionally high boiling points and melting points of compounds like water

 Occurs between an ion (either positive or negative) and a polar molecule

3. Ion-Dipole Forces
  These are the weakest of the intermolecular forces and exist between all types of molecules,
whether ionic or covalent—polar or nonpolar. The more electrons a molecule has, the stronger
the London dispersion forces are. It also affects non-polar susbtances

4. London-Dispersion

Intermolecular force Occurs between … Relative strength

 Partially oppositely charged ions. OCCURS
Dipole-dipole attraction Strong
ON POLAR SUBSTANCES

Hydrogen bonded to an electronegative

Hydrogen bonding Strongest of the dipole-di
atom (F, O, N)

Temporary or induced dipoles (Molecules

London dispersion attraction Weakest
and Non polar substances)

ION-dipole Forces Acts between an ion and a polar substance Strongest IMF

1. O2- LDF

2. HNO3-HB

3. NH3- HB

4. CCl4 -LDF

5. H2- LDF

6. CH4 - LDF

7. H2S- DDF

8. CO2- DDF

9. HF MIXED WITH WATER-HB

10. KCl dissolved in water- IDF

11. LiCl dissolved in NH3 – IDF

Solids can be classified as AMORPHOUS SOLID and CRYSTALLINE SOLID

A solid is a collection of atoms or molecules that are held strong together so that, under constant
conditions, they maintain a defined shape and size.

Crystalline Solids

 Most solids are arranged in a tightly packed crystalline structure. The crystalline structure is an
orderly, repeating arrangement of particles called a crystal lattice. The shape of the crystal
shows the arrangement of the particles in the solid.

Amorphous solids

 Amorphous solids don't have orderly internal structures.

 They are easily reshaped

Max von Laue

German scientist Max von Laue developed a method that uses X-rays to determine
the microscopic structures of crystalline solids. In fact, salt was the first solid investigated by this
method, called X-ray crystallography

Types of Crystalline solids

 Ionic crystalline solids

 Molecular crystalline solids

 Group 8a solids

 Metallic crystalline solids