ENTROPY

GENERATION
MINIMIZATION
The Method of
Thermodynamic Optimization
of Finite-Size Systems
and Finite- Time Processes
ADVANCED TOPICS IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING SERIES
SERIES EDITOR Frank A. Kulacki, University of Minnesota

Books in this series include

ENTROPY GENERATION MINIMIZATION

Adrian Bejan, Duke University

NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES

M. Sathyamoorthy, Clarkson University

FINITE ELEMENT AND COMPOSITE STRUCTURES

ANALYSIS USING MATLAB
Hyochoong Bang, Naval Postgraduate School

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS AND SHELLS

Gerald Wempter, Georgia Institute of Technology
ADRIAN BEJAN
J. A. Jones Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Duke University

The Method of
Thermodynamic Optimization
of Finite-Size Systems
and Finite-Time Processes

CRCPress
Boca Raton New York
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bejan, Adrian, 1948-

Entropy generation minimization
Adrian Bejan.
p. em.- (CRC's mechanical engineering series)
Includes bibliographical references and indexes.
ISBN 0-8493-9651-4 (alk. paper)
1. Thermodynamics-Mathematical models. 2. Heat-Transmission-
Mathematical models. 3. Entropy. I. Title. II. Series.
TJ265.B47 1995
621.402'1-dc20 95-11954
CIP

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No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number 0-8493-9651-4
Library of Congress Card Number 95-11954
Printed in the United States of America 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
 PREFACE

Entropy Generation Minimization (EGM) is the method of thermodynamic

optimization of real systems that owe their thermodynamic imperfection to heat
transfer, fluid flow, and mass transfer irreversibilities. It was identified as a self
standing field of research in the book by Bejan ( 1982). *The EGM method combines
at the most fundamental level the basic principles of thermodynamics, heat and mass
transfer, and fluid mechanics. As a field, it is the confluence of thermodynamics, heat
transfer, and fluid mechanics (Figure 1); because of its interdisciplinary character,
EGM is distinct from each of these classical disciplines.
As a method of engineering research and education, EGM was designed to make
both thermodynamics and heat transfer more "applicable", i.e., easier to understand,
easier to use, and more effective. I was introduced to the power and rigors of the
method as a student at MIT, in particular by my graduate theses advisor, Prof. Joseph
L. Smith, Jr. Although "good engineering work" has always demanded the simulta-
neous and correct application of the principles of thermodynamics, heat transfer, and
fluid mechanics, I saw a need to bring these principles together systematically into
a method defined by its own rules, language, and promise. Entropy Generation
Minimization is just that - the minimization of thermodynamic irreversibility in
real-world applications by accounting for the finite-size constraints of actual devices
and the finite-time constraints of actual processes.

Entropy
generation
through
heat and fluid flow

Thermodynamics

Figure 1. The interdisciplinary triangle covered by the EGM method (Bejan, 1982).

* Bejan, A. 1982. Entropy Generation through Heat and Fluid Flow. Wiley, New York.
 The arrival of a new field of research is announced by the emergence of a number
of simple, fundamental results that hold for entire classes of known and future appli-
cations. Entropy Generation Minimization emerged in the 1970s in engineering: its first
series of fundamental results formed the backbone of the Bejan (1982) book. These
results were obtained by minimizing entropy generation in realistic (heat and fluid
flow) models built for several levels of complexity (Figure 2). The minimum entropy
generation design was determined for each model, as in the case of the optimal
diameter of a duct with flow and heat transfer, or the optimal hot-end temperature of
a power plant with bypass heat leak to the ambient. The approach of any other design
(Sgen) to the limit of "realistic" thermodynamic ideality represented by the design with
minimum entropy generation (Sgen,min) was monitored in terms of the entropy genera-
tion number N5 = Sgen/Sgen,min >1, or alternatives of the same ratio.
The EGM method is also distinct from exergy analysis. The latter belongs to
pure thermodynamics: to calculate exergy, the analyst needs only the first law, the
second law, and a convention regarding the values of the intensive properties of the
environment. The critically new aspect of the EGM method is the minimization of the
calculated entropy generation rate. To minimize the irreversibility of a proposed
design the analyst must use the relations between temperature differences and heat
transfer rates, and between pressure differences and mass flow rates. He must relate
the degree of the thermodynamic nonideality of the design to the physical character-
istics of the system, namely, to finite dimensions, shapes, materials, finite speeds, and
finite-time intervals of operation. For this he must rely on heat transfer and fluid
mechanics principles, in addition to thermodynamics. Only by varying one or more

Approach

*
E .'!l VJ
cQ)
m~ a;~
c :;::;J!!
>-
VJ 0
c.
Em
Q) Q)
c
~
Oi E E- Q)
0 Q) 'I=
1-
0
(..) w i5

Sgen,min LLL Sgen,min

Refrigeration ldxdydz
plants
Duct
VJ Power plants
c Fin
:a.!.I
0

Solar power and Rougheness

a.
c.
refrigeration plants
<(
Heat exchanger
Storage systems Insulation
Solar collector
Time-dependent
processes Storage unit

Figure 2. The two-dimensional structure of the field of Entropy Generation Minimization.

of the physical characteristics of the system can he bring the design closer to the
operation characterized by minimum entropy generation subject to finite-size and
finite-time constraints.
Writing this Preface takes me back to September 1978, and my first days as an
assistant professor at the University of Colorado. Having done most of my EGM
work as a graduate student at MIT (in cryogenics) and as a postdoctoral fellow in
Berkeley (in heat transfer), I had seen the generality of the method and the new field
that was taking shape. To place EGM squarely on the map of engineering research
and education I knew that I had to present it in such a way that it could be taught as
a self-standing method from one generation of engineers to the next. This is why in
September 1978 I proposed a new graduate course (ME 551, Thermodynamic De-
sign), which I then taught every year starting with the spring semester of 1979. The
notes developed for that course became the Bejan (1982) book.
The EGM field has experienced tremendous growth during the 1980s and 1990s.
The objective of this new book is to place this growth in perspective. Special emphasis
is given to chronology and the relationship between the newer work and the work that
got the field started. The growth of the EGM field is due to three developments: ( 1) the
diversification of the topics covered in the engineering literature after the energy
policies of the late 1970s, (2) the lifting of the Iron Curtain, and the absorption of old
and new work contributed by previously unrecognized practitioners of the method, and
(3) the contributions that appear now in the physics literature under the title of "finite
time" thermodynamics, where finite time is a reference to rate processes such as heat
transfer. It is worth stressing that Entropy Generation Minimization is a transparent and
general way of saying thermodynamic optimization, which includes as specific appli-
cations the maximization of power in power plants, the minimization of power con-
sumption in refrigerators and heat pumps, the maximization of refrigeration load and
cryogen production in low-temperature refrigerators and liquefiers, and many other
design objectives in a long list of devices.
The mid-1970s expansion of EGM from cryogenic engineering into the wider
field of heat transfer led to the diversification and two-dimensional structure shown
in Figure 2. Before the applications to heat transfer, the EGM method had been
applied to total (complete) systems such as refrigeration plants (e.g., Figure 6.4) and
power plants (e.g., Problem 2.2). At that time, the approach was to recognize "over
the top" one or more of the irreversibility mechanisms, and to declare the "rest" of
the system irreversibility free. Success depended fully on the analyst's intuition, as
the irreversible compartments were hung on the system model like decorations on a
Christmas tree. There was not a solid connection between the resulting model and the
hardware of the real system, especially with regard to the compartment that was
declared "reversible".
The introduction of EGM in heat transfer began with recognizing that (a)
systems are made of actual components, (b) each component may contain large
numbers of one or more elemental features, and (c) each elemental feature owes its
irreversibility to processes that occur at the differential level. The chosen approach
was to minimize entropy generation in a fundamental way at each level, starting from
the simple and proceeding toward the complex. The chosen approach was fundamen-
tal, i.e., science not art.
The main point is that thermodynamically optimized elemental features work
toward decreasing the irreversibility of components, and that optimized components
are desirable from the point of view of reducing the irreversibility of the total system.
Important to note is that when a component or elemental feature is imagined sepa-
rately from the larger system, the quantities assumed specified at the points of
separation act as constraints on the optimization of the smaller system. The principle
of thermodynamic isolation (page 125) must be kept in mind during the later stages
of the optimization procedure, when the optimized elements and components are
integrated into the total system, which itself is optimized for minimum total cost in
the final stage.*
Figure 2 outlines the two-dimensional structure of the EGM field. On the vertical
we see partial listings of specific applications. The horizontal shows the approach to
the optimized total system: this can be made from the right, as in post-1975 heat
transfer, or from the left, by focusing directly on the total system. This two-dimen-
sional structure was evident in the material covered in Bejan (1982). The present
treatment shows that the same structure is in place today, of course, in a considerably
more diversified and in-depth form.
As in Bejan (1982), the mission of this book is to bridge the gap between
thermodynamics, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics. It is to make each of these
disciplines easier to grasp and use in solving real problems and is pursued with equal
vigor in the Solutions Manual that accompanies the text. The mission is to demon-
strate that there is one point of view that unites these seemingly separate disciplines,
and, when viewed as a whole, the subject is surprisingly simple. Entropy Generation
Minimization is changing the way we think and apply Thermodynamics.

Adrian Bejan
Durham, North Carolina

* Bejan, A., Tsatsaronis, G. and Moran, M. 1996. Thermal Design and Optimization, Wiley, New York.
 OTHER BOOKS BY ADRIAN BEJAN:

Entropy Generation through Heat and Fluid Flow, Wiley, 1982.

Convection Heat Transfer, Wiley, 1984.

Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics, Wiley, 1988.

Convection in Porous Media, with D. A. Nield, Springer-Verlag, 1992.

Heat Transfer, Wiley, 1993.

Convection Heat Transfer, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 1995.

Thermal Design and Optimization, with G. Tsatsaronis and M. Moran, Wiley, 1996.
 THE AUTHOR

Adrian Bejan received his B.S., M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. From 1976 until1978 he was a Fellow of the Miller Institute
for Basic Research in Science, at the University of California, Berkeley. He received
the J.A. Jones distinguished professorship in 1989.
Professor Bejan is the author of six textbooks and research monographs which
have been adopted worldwide: Entropy Generation through Heat and Fluid Flow,
Convection Heat Transfer, Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics, Convection in
Porous Media, Heat Transfer, and Convection Heat Transfer (2nd Edition). In
addition, he has authored 220 peer-refereed technical articles on a diversity of topics
on the thermodynamics of heat and fluid flow, natural convection, combined heat and
mass transfer, convection through porous media, melting, solidification, condensa-
tion, transition to turbulence, solar energy conversion, the cooling of electronics,
cryogenics, applied superconductivity, and tribology.
Adrian Bejan has left a mark already on the development of heat transfer, its
methodology, and its language. He pioneered the methods of entropy generation
minimization (thermodynamic optimization), scale analysis, the heatline visualiza-
tion of convection, the buckling theory of turbulent flow, and the geometric optimi-
zation of cooling techniques.
Adrian Bejan is the 1994 recipient of the Heat Transfer Memorial Award
(Science) of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME). He also
received the 1990 thermodynamics award of the ASME, the James Harry Potter Gold
Medal. He received the Gustus L. Larson Memorial Award of the ASME in 1988 and
was elected Fellow of the ASME in 1987. He was awarded the title of Doctor
Honoris Causa by the Polytechnic University of Bucharest in 1992.
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I owe this book entirely to my wife Mary, because one year ago she persuaded
me to set other research interests aside and write a second book on Entropy Genera-
tion Minimization. A story goes with why I had to be persuaded. At the end of the
1970s, when I finished the manuscript for Entropy Generation through Heat and
Fluid Flow, I made the decision to move into other areas and fight new crusades.
I was at the beginning of my academic career, and I wanted to prove to myself that
I am a free man, i.e., not a slave in service to a single idea. I did not want to join the
ranks of those philosophers who, as Feyerabend described them, "having made some
tiny discovery, come back to it again and again for want of anything new to say and
who turn this failing - lack of ideas - into a supreme virtue, viz. consistency"
(Against Method, Verson, London, 1978, p. 114).
In the 15 years that followed, although I continued to teach EGM in some of my
classes, papers, and books, I contributed to the field only when interesting new
problems happened to come between my pencil and paper. Now that this book is
finished, I cannot describe my gratitude to Mary and the satisfaction I feel when I see
how large and diverse the EGM field has grown. I am absolutely delighted that this
-historically an engineering method- has spread outside engineering to attract the
interest of physicists, mathematicians, and optimal control scientists. This is why in
a recent letter I argued in favor of better interaction between engineers and
nonengineers, so that a broader view of the EGM field would emerge (Am. J. Phys.
62:11-12, 1994). Mary persuaded me to follow my own advice and present this
broader view myself, in a new book.
I use this opportunity to thank a few special friends who helped me and my
morale during the recent months: Dan G. Cacuci, Irving T. Diamond, Enrico Sciubba,
Michael J. Moran, George Tsatsaronis, Moti Sokolov, Chaim Charach, K. Kesava
Rao, T. Basak, and Tomas Opatrny. I owe special thanks to Jose V.C. Vargas, who
also made some of the new drawings.
The manuscript was typed by Katherine McKinney, Deborah Alford, and Kathy
Vickers. Most of the new figures were drawn by Kathy Vickers, who also typed the
Solutions Manual.

A.B.
 To my mother,
Marioara Bejan,
Pharmacist
 CONTENTS

Symbols

Chapter I Thermodynamic concepts and laws

1.1 Definitions
1.2 Closed systems 2
1.3 Open systems 6
1.4 The momentum theorem 13
1.5 Useful steps in problem solving 14
1.6 The temperature - energy interaction diagram and the
entropy interaction - energy interaction diagr 15
References 16
Problems 16

Chapter 2 Entropy generation and exergy destruction 21

2.1 The Gouy-Stodola theorem 21
2.2 Systems communicating with more than one
heat reservoir 24
2.3 Adiabatic systems 27
2.4 Exergy analysis of steady flow processes 29
2.5 Exergy analysis of nonflow processes 32
2.6 Characteristic features of irreversible systems and
processes 35
2.6.1 Heat transfer across a finite temperature
difference 35
2.6.2 Flow with friction 36
2.6.3 Mixing 37
2.6.4 Further examples of irreversible features 40
References 41
Problems 42

Chapter 3 Entropy generation in fluid flow 47

3.1 Relationship between entropy generation and
viscous dissipation 47
3.2 Laminar flow 49
3.3 Turbulent flow 50
3.4 The transition 57
3.5 Buckling theory of turbulent flow 59
 3.6 Entropy generation in "isothermal" turbulent flow 61
3.6.1 Two-dimensional turbulent jet 61
3.6.2 First law of thermodynamics 63
3.6.3 Second law of thermodynamics 66
3.7 The Bernoulli equation 69
References 69

Chapter 4 Entropy generation in heat transfer 71

4.1 Local rate of entropy generation in convective
heat transfer 72
4.2 Fluid friction vs. heat transfer irreversibility 75
4.3 Internal flows 78
4.4 External flows 82
4.4.1 Total rate of entropy generation 83
4.4.2 Flat plate 85
4.4.3 Cylinder in cross-flow 89
4.4.4 Sphere 90
4.5 Conduction heat transfer 91
4.6 Convective mass transfer 91
4.7 General heat-exchanger passage 92
4.8 Heat transfer augmentation techniques 95
4.8.1 Entropy generation analysis 95
4.8.2 Roughened surfaces 97
4.8.3 Promoters of swirl flow 101
4.8.4 Extended surfaces (fins) 104
References 109
Problems 111

Chapter 5 Heat exchangers 113

5.1 Counterflow heat exchangers 113
5.1.1 Flow imbalance (remanent) irreversibility 113
5.1.2 Balanced counterflow 115
5.1.3 Optimal flow path length 119
5.1.4 Heat transfer area constraint 119
5.1.5 Volume constraint 121
5.1.6 Combined area and volume constraint 122
5.1.7 N," constraint 122
5.2 Heat exchangers with negligible pressure-drop
irreversibility 124
5.3 Three-part structure of heat exchanger
irreversibility 126
5.4 Two-phase flow heat exchangers 130
5.5 Other heat exchanger entropy generation studies 133
 5.6 Distribution of finite heat exchanger area on the absolute
temperature scale 139
5.7 Distribution of finite heat transfer area in counterflow
heat exchangers 145
References 148
Problems 150

Chapter 6 Insulation systems 155

6.1 Power plants and refrigeration plants as insulation
systems 155
6.2 Generation of entropy in an insulation with fixed
geometry 156
6.3 Optimal continuous cooling regime 159
6.4 Counterflow heat exchangers as one-dimensional
insulations 161
6.5 Parallel insulations 163
6.6 Intermediate cooling or heating of insulation systems
for power and refrigeration plants 166
References 168
Problems 168

Chapter 7 Storage systems 171

7.1 Sensible heat storage 171
7.1.1 Time-dependent operation of a storage unit 171
7.1.2 Entropy generation during the storage process 173
7.1.3 Effect of pressure drop 177
7.1.4 Series of storage units 178
7.1.5 Single storage unit: storage followed by
removal of exergy 180
7.2 Optimal heating and cooling processes subject to
time constraint 183
7.3 Hot storage vs. cold storage 186
7.4 Latent heat storage 188
7.4.1 Single storage element 188
7.4.2 Two phase-change materials in series 192
7.4.3 Infinite number of phase-change materials
m senes 196
7.4.4 More advanced phase-change storage models 199
References 201

Chapter 8 Power generation 205

 8.1 Model with bypass heat leak and two finite-size
heat exchangers 205
8.1.1 Optimal heat exchanger temperature differences 205
8.1.2 Optimal allocation of heat exchanger inventory 209
8.1.3 Trade off between heat exchanger inventory
and thermal insulation 211
8.1.4 Graphic representation of the thermodynamic
optimum 213
8.2 Power plant viewed as an insulation between heat
source and ambient 215
8.2.1 Optimal distribution of heat leak through
the insulation 215
8.2.2 Optimal heat source temperature 217
8.3 Combined-cycle power plant 218
8.4 Optimal combustion chamber temperature 221
8.5 Other power plant optimization studies 224
8.6 Why maximum power means minimum entropy
generation rate 227
8.6.1 Chambadal's power plant model 227
8.6.2 Novikov's and Curzon and Ahlborn's power
plant model 229
8.6.3 The "room to move" entropy generation rate 231
8.7 Maximum power from fluid flow 232
8.7.1 Fluid flow between two pressure reservoirs 232
8.7.2 Efficiency at maximum power 234
8.7.3 Overall size constraints 235
8.7.4 Nonlinear flow resistance relations 237
8.7.5 Applications to steady-flow shaft-work
components 238
References 239
Problems 243

Chapter 9 Solar-thermal power generation 249

9.1 Models with collector heat loss to the ambient 249
9.1.1 Convective heat loss 249
9.1.2 Maximum power or minimum entropy
generation rate 251
9.1.3 Optimal collector temperature 253
9.1.4 Combined convective and radiative heat loss 254
9.2 Collector-ambient heat loss and collector-engine
heat exchanger 256
9.3 Collector-ambient heat loss and engine-ambient
 heat exchanger 256
9.4 Storage by melting 259
9.5 Extraterrestrial solar power plant 262
9.6 Nonisothermal collectors 264
9.7 Time-varying conditions 267
9.8 Other areas of solar power conversion study 271
References 272
Problems 274

Chapter 10 Refrigeration 279

10.1 Refrigeration plant model with heat transfer
irreversibilities 279
10.1.1 Heat leak, cold end heat exchanger, and room
temperature heat exchanger 279
10.1.2 Optimal allocation of heat exchange equipment 282
10.1.3 Efficiency at maximum refrigeration load and
fixed total heat transfer inventory 282
10.2 Model with heat leak in parallel with reversible
compartment 286
10.3 Model with cold-end heat exchanger and room
temperature heat exchanger 289
10.3.1 Optimal allocation of thermal conductance for
minimum total thermal conductance 289
10.3.2 Graphic representation of the optimal allocation
of thermal conductance 290
10.3.3 Effect of the size constraint: total heat
transfer area vs. total thermal conductance 291
10.4 Minimization of the heat-leak entropy generation 294
10.4.1 Mechanical supports 296
10.4.2 Insulations cooled with helium boil-off 299
10.4.3 Radiation shields 304
10.4.4 Electric power cables 307
10.4.5 Counterflow heat exchangers of cryogenic
refrigerators and liquefiers 309
References 311
Problems 313

Chapter 11 Time-dependent operation 319

11.1 Defrosting refrigerators 319
11.1.1 Optimal "on" interval for intermittent operation 319
11.1.2 Refrigerator with vapor compression cycle:
optimal on and off operation 324
11.1.3 Optimal allocation of heat exchanger inventory 326
11.2 Cleaning the heat exchanger of a power plant 330
 11.2.1 Fouling in the hot-end heat exchanger 330
11.2.2 Fouling in the cold-end heat exchanger 332
11.3 Power plants driven by heating from a bed of hot
dry rock 334
11.3.1 Method 334
11.3.2 Unidirectional conduction model 335
11.3.3 Maximum work delivery during a fixed
time interval 338
11.4 Maximum rate of ice production 341
References 344
Problems 344

Appendix A Local entropy generation rate 349

Appendix B Variational calculus 351

Author index 353

Subject index 359

 SYMBOLS
a heat transfer area per unit length of heat exchanger [m]
a radiative loss parameter, Equation (9.18)
a rate of ice buildup, Equation (11.3)
a thermal conductivity temperature derivative, Equation (10.67)
a, A availability function (nonflow)
A area
Ac duct cross-sectional area
AI dimensionless group, Equation (4.71)
A., B. empirical constants, Equation ( 11.11)
Aluhc cross-sectional area of stream tube
AES Advanced Energy Systems Division of the ASME
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
b convective loss parameter, Equation (9 .19)
b factor, Equation (11.51)
b fouling rate, Equation (11.18)
b, B availability function (flow)
B dimensionless heat transfer duty parameter (plate and cylinder), Equa-
tion (4.64)
B duty parameter, Equation (4.93)
Bo dimensionless heat transfer duty parameter (duct), Equation (4.40)
B,, B. dimensionless heat transfer duty parameters (sphere), Equations (4.65)
and (4.66)
B balance vector, Figure 1.9
Be dimensionless group, Equation (4.15')
Bi Biot number, Equation (11.7)
Bi. Biot number, Equation (11.24)
c specific heat of incompressible liquid
c" specific heat at constant pressure
CR, CuA unit costs, Equation (1 0.19)
cv specific heat at constant volume
c capacity flow rate ratio, Equation (5.5)
c capacity flow rate
c cost constraint, Equation (1 0.19)
c specific heat of storage material
c thermal conductance
c total thermal conductance inventory, Equation (8.27)
CD drag coefficient
cj;x local skin-friction coefficient
c" constant, Equation (8.56)
cooldown time dimensionless constant, Equation (7.27)
C*
ci dimensionless insulation conductance, Equation (8.42)
COP coefficient of performance, Equation (1 0.11)
D diameter, hydraulic diameter, thickness, spacing
D flow transversal dimension
 Dh hydraulic diameter
D; conduction parameter, Equation ( 10.52)
Do nozzle size
e roughness height
e, E energy change (property)
E local dissipation rate per unit mass, associated with the mean flow
Ec Eckert number
ex, Ex flow exergy
EGM the method of Entropy Generation Minimization
f Blasius' function
f friction factor
f velocity and temperature profile shape
F function
F radiation view factor, Equation (1 0. 71)
Fv drag force
g gravitational acceleration
G mass velocity, m IA
G. dimensionless mass velocity, Equation (5.22)
Gr Grashof number
h, h heat transfer coefficient
h, H enthalpy
h~ specific enthalpy of reservoir fluid
hA local heat transfer coefficient
hfg latent heat of evaporation and condensation
hif latent heat of melting and solidification
H,Ho,Htot dimensionless groups, Equations (11.8), (11.12), and (11.15)
HDR hot dry rock
HTD Heat Transfer Division of the ASME
I electric current, Equation (10.78)
I integral, Equation (5.83)
II, I2, I3 definite integrals
J dimensionless group, Equation (4.69)
k thermal conductivity
K; thermal conductivity integral, Equation (10.59)
Ko heat loss parameter, Equation (9.65)
I characteristic linear size, Equation (5.41)
L length
Lo constant, Equation (10.79)
m,M mass
m fin heat transfer parameter, Equation (4.90)
m mass flow rate
M dimensionless mass flow rate, Equation (6.27)
M mass flow number, Equation (9.59) and (11.40)
M property group, Equation (4.98)
'R molal flow rate
 Nm mass ratio, Equation (7 .29)
Ns 1
entropy generation number, sgen sgen.min , or sgen /(physical constant)
Ns.a augmentation entropy generation number
Nru number of heat transfer units, Equation (5.11)
No,L number of heat transfer units, Equation (10.36)
NT, Np limiting values of N5
Ns.t>T• Ns.D.P heat transfer and pressure drop entropy generation numbers
Nu Nusselt number
p wetted perimeter
p, p pressure
p economics parameter, Equation (10.23)
p rib spacing
P,, PC prices, Equation (8.26)
Pe Peclet number
Pr Prandtl number
q, Q heat transfer rate
qB heat transfer rate through the fin base
q,. solar flux
q' heat transfer rate per unit of duct length
q" heat flux
q* solar heat flux
Q heat transfer interaction (nonproperty)
Qo heat transfer to the ambient
Q* solar heat transfer
Q heat transfer rate
r radial position
rt, r2 flow resistances, Equations (8.91) and (8.92)
ro pipe radius, D/2
r<j Reynolds number based on friction velocity, r0 u. /v
R conductance ratio, Equation (9.22)
R dimensionless group, Equation (4. 74)
R dimensionless radial position, rlr 0
R ideal gas constant
R; internal thermal resistance
Rt, R2 flow resistances, Equations (8.73) and (8.74)
ffi universal ideal gas constant
Re Reynolds number
s, s entropy (property)
s~ specific entropy of reservoir fluid
~gen entropy generation (nonproperty)
~gen entropy generation rate
S, entropy generation rate per unit volume
gcn

s~T' s~ entropy generation due to heat transfer and fluid friction, respectively
St Stanton number
Ste Stefan number, Equation (7.46)
 S-E entropy interaction-energy interaction diagram, Figure 1.9
time
t(' cooldown time
t* dimensionless time, Equation (9.65)
T absolute temperature
Taf adiabatic flame temperature
T" centerline temperature
T" collector temperature
Tt flame temperature
Tg stream temperature
TH high temperature
THR heat reservoir temperature
TL low temperature
Tm melting temperature
Tm midpoint temperature
T. . wall temperature
T~ free-stream temperature
L temperature of reservoir fluid
To ambient temperature (absolute)
T-E temperature-energy interaction diagram, Figures 2.3 and 2.4
u longitudinal velocity
centerline velocity
velocity through the nozzle
u. friction velocity ('t 0 / p ) 112
ut dimensionless mean velocity, uju.
u, u internal energy
u overall heat transfer coefficient
u~ free-steam velocity
V, V volume
v transversal velocity
v specific volume, Equation (5.56)
-v~ entrainment velocity
v volume of one side of the heat exchanger, Equation (5.34)
v velocity
w width
w work transfer interaction (nonproperty)
w dissipation rate
w' dissipation rate per unit pipe length
W"' dissipation rate per unit volume
~ost lost available work, or destroyed exergy, per unit time
~h rate of work transfer effected by shear forces, shaft work
~h. max maximum shaft power
w dimensionless power output, Equations (7.54) and (9.29)
X spacing allocation ratio, Equation (8.87)
 X thermal conductance allocation ratio, Equation (8.4)
X flow fraction
X longitudinal position
X quality
X thermal conductance allocation ratio
X, y, Z Cartesian coordinates
x mole fraction
y area allocation ratio, Equation (8.21)
y distance to the wall
y heat exchanger parameter, Equation (7.6)
y temperature parameter, Equation (7.56)
y twist ratio p/D 0 , Figure 4.2la
yt dimensionless wall coordinate, yu. /v
z longitudinal coordinate
z thermal conductance allocation ratio, Equation (8.28)
z elevation
a angle, Equation (8.34)
a entrainment coefficient
a, empirical entrainment coefficient
a opt optimal entrainment coefficient
a,' effective solar absorptance
8 thickness, Equation (8.72)
AP pressure drop
AT temperature difference
ATe centerline excess temperature, T"- T~
y aspect ratio, LID
y empirical constant
y ratio of specific heats, Equation (11.12)
Y; coefficient, Equation ( 10.49)
£ dimensionless temperature difference, Equation ( 11.50)
£ heat exchanger effectiveness
£ local dissipation rate per unit mass, total
E' local dissipation rate per unit mass, due to fluctuations
£h effective infrared emittance
EM eddy diffusivity for momentum
£R rational effectiveness, Equation (5.62)
s dimensionless transversal coordinate
Tlw-s efficiency, Equation (5.65)
T\ dimensionless penetration distance, Equation (11.34)
T\ energy conversion efficiency, or 11 1
T\c collector efficiency
T\c compressor isentropic efficiency
T\carnot Carnot efficiency
Tlt turbine isentropic efficiency
Tli first law efficiency
 TJn second law efficiency
8 dimensionless temperature, Equations (9.3) and (11.33)
e dimensionless time, Equation (7.7)
e ratio of time intervals, Equation (11.24)
8 temperature ratio, Equation (11.12)
eB temperature difference between the base of the fin and the free Stream
emax dimensionless stagnation temperature
A Lagrange multiplier
A thermal conductivity
11 viscosity
v kinematic viscosity
1t dimensionless price ratio, Equation (8.31)
~. 3 nonflow exergy
p density
p, electric resistivity
cr area coordinate, Figure 9.10
cr Stefan-Boltzmann constant
't absolute temperature ratio
't dimensionless temperature difference, !1TIT; see also Equation (5.16)
't dimensionless time, Equation (7.47) and (11.34)
't ratio of time intervals, Equation (11.9)
't transmittance of cover plate assembly
't 1•2 dimensionless temperature, Equation (7 .56)
'to wall shear stress
<!> irreversibility distribution ratio, Equation (4.15)
<I> viscous dissipation function (Appendix A)
n time-averaged quantity
n dimensionless variable
( )I"J n phase-change storage materials used
( )* characteristic dimensions (scales)
( ). dimensionless parameter
( ). parameters of solidification process, Equation (7.48)
( )a augmented duct
( ), base plate
( )c cold side
( )c collector
( )c Carnot, reversible
( ), external
( )f friction
( )1 saturated liquid
( )J~ ( )g - ( )f
( )R saturated vapor
( )H high side
( ); inner, internal
( )'" inlet
 ( )L low side
Om maximized
Om melting
( )max maximum
OM middle
()() outer
( )opt optimum
( )out outlet
q, products
()r reactants
( ).. solid
( )tot total
()u user
()0 ambient
Oo reference case
1 THERMODYNAMIC CONCEPTS AND LAWS

The subject of engineering thermodynamics revolves around two pivotal state-

ments, the first and the second laws of thermodynamics. Both laws are old, relative
to our lifetime experience, the first law being the product of a vehement debate
started approximately 200 years ago. Because the objective of all introductory
thermodynamics courses is to explain the meaning and usefulness of the two laws and
their related concepts (Moran, 1989), in the present treatment it is assumed that the
laws are known and accepted. However, in order to provide a common language and
ground for the issues to be debated in this book, the basic concepts introduced in
engineering through thermodynamics are reviewed in this chapter. The review is
limited to the thermodynamics of a pure substance.

1.1 DEFINITIONS
A key concept in thermodynamic analysis, often abused, is the concept of
system. A thermodynamic system is the region or collection of matter in space that
is selected for analysis. The concept of system requires the recognition of an envi-
ronment, which is the space, or system, external to the system of interest. Separating
the two systems is the system boundary (frontier), which, in general, is a real or
imaginary surface delineating the contour of the system of interest.
The system boundary may or may not possess special features that, as a matter
of consequence, lead to a hierarchic ordering of thermodynamic systems for the
purpose of analysis. For example, a boundary that is impermeable to mass flow
defines a closed system. Naturally, in a closed system the matter (mass inventory) is
conserved. On the other hand, a boundary that is permeable (has openings, ports) for
mass transfer defines an open system.
The flow of mass through the system boundary is only one of the three transfer
effects (interactions) commonly encountered in engineering applications. The other
two effects are heat transfer and work transfer. The propensity of the boundary for
one or another combination of transfer features can be summarized in a geometric
construction such as that of Figure 1.1. A characteristic thermodynamic nomencla-
ture (not included) is attached to the range of possible combinations condensed in this
figure. For example, boundaries that prevent heat transfer but are permeable to mass
transfer define systems that are both adiabatic and open.
The first law and the second law are reviewed below, first as stated for closed
systems and then for open systems. An effective and concise way to accomplish this

1
2

t Mass transfer

/ Work transfer
~
Heat transfer

Figure 1.1 Description of system boundary in terms of propensity for the transfer of mass, heat,
and work.

review is to apply the two laws to the solution of representative engineering prob-
lems. This paves the way for outlining a number of principles that are crucial in
thermodynamic analysis and in problem solving in general.

1.2 CLOSED SYSTEMS

Consider the system defined by the impermeable surface presented in Figure 1.2.
The energy interactions (work and heat) shown in the sketch are drawn according to
the convention* that work transfer out of the system and heat transfer into the system
are positive.
For any process between equilibrium states 1 and 2, the first law of thermody-
namics can be written as

n)Q- f20W= £2 -Et (1.1)

Jl Jl
'------v-------
'--v--'
energy change
energy transfer

or simply

(1.2)

* For historical reasons this convention can be called "the heat engine sign convention" (Bejan, 1988).
 3

ENVIRONMENT

SYSTEM

E2 - E 1 (energy change)

5 2 -5 1 (entropy change)

(work transfer)

6 Q (entropy transfer)
T

Figure 1.2 Closed thermodynamic system and its interactions with the environment.

The energy transfer interactions between the system of interest and its environ-
ment, Q and W, are indicated in Figure 1.2 using arrows of different complexion. In
this treatment wherever possible we use the arrow convention f- (work transfer) and
<= (heat transfer) to punctuate the fundamental difference between work and heat as
forms of energy transfer.
The first law of thermodynamics, as stated in Equation (1.1), is a reminder that
heat transfer and work transfer are quantities that depend on the path of the process.
Unlike Q1,2 and W1,2, the energy change E2 - £ 1 is path independent, its value being
determined directly from the end equilibrium states 1 and 2. It is said that energy
change (such as entropy change, pressure, temperature, etc.) is a system property.
Heat transfer and work transfer interactions, whose magnitudes depend on the path
of integration 1 ~ 2, are not thermodynamic properties.
The second law of thermodynamics, applied to the system of Figure 1.2, is

r2 sQ s2 -s~ (1.3)
J1 T ~ ...__,__...
:rz
'--v--' entropy
change

The entropy transfer 8Q/T is shown in Figure 1.2, where the link among entropy
transfer, heat transfer, and boundary temperature can be recognized. The entropy
transfer interaction between the closed system and its environment (8Q/n is effected
via heat transfer (8Q) at a frontier point of temperature T. Entropy transfer, as a
concept, makes the distinction between heat transfer and work transfer as parallel forms
of energy transfer. It is only the transfer of energy as heat that is accompanied by
entropy transfer. The work transfer interaction is not accompanied by entropy transfer.
The essence of the second law of thermodynamics is expressed by the inequality
sign in Equation (1.3). The change from state 1 to state 2 can be effected in a variety
4

of ways, that is, along many paths. The difference between possible paths is de-
scribed by the strength of the inequality sign or, quantitatively, by the amount of
entropy generation:

(1.4)

The second law states that, in general, any thermodynamic process is accompa-
nied by entropy generation. The special paths along which process 1 ~ 2 does not
generate entropy are termed reversible. Conversely, paths for which Sgen > 0 are
considered irreversible, and process 1 ~ 2 executed along one such path is an
irreversible process. It makes sense to describe path A as being "more irreversible"
than path B whenever

(1.5)

The entropy generation sgen is path dependent, hence, not a thermodynamic property.
The nonproperty Sgen should never be confused with the thermodynamic property
entropy change (S2 - S1).
Chapter 2 expands on the engineering meaning of entropy generation and the
direct connection between entropy generation and the destruction of available (use-
ful) work in energy systems. It is instructive, however, to review the above concepts
at this point, while solving a thermodynamics problem with a practical engineering
message.

Example 1.1. Consider the pneumatic lift sketched in Figure 1.3. The apparatus
consists of a piston-cylinder adiabatic enclosure filled with ideal gas of mass m and
initial conditions P 1, V1, T1• The cylinder is oriented vertically, and the piston weight
Mg is always balanced by the gas pressure integrated over the piston face P 1A.
It is possible to lift the weight from an initial position Z1 = VtfA to a higher
position Z 2 by mechanically spinning a paddlewheel inside the gas. After the piston
rises to Z 2 , the paddlewheel stops and the gas reaches internal equilibrium described
by T2,V2 = AZ2 and P 2 = P 1 = Mg/A.
Having defined process 1 ~ 2, it is of engineering interest to evaluate the work
transfer W1,2 required for lifting the weight. Later in this example we examine a more
efficient arrangement designed to accomplish the same task.
For the closed thermodynamic system containing the ideal gas and the weight,
the first law of thermodynamics yields

(1.6)

where Q 1,2 = 0 and

(E2 - E I )system = (U2 - UI ) gas + (E2 - EI ) weight

(1.7)
 5

r------
1

w,,2

Figure 1.3 Two arrangements capable of lifting a weight to a predetermined level.

In Equation (1.6) the sign of W1,2 is consistent with the arrow sketched in Figure
1.3. Also, the energy associated with lifting the gas and with warming the piston has
been neglected. For the objective of this example it is sufficient to imagine a perfect
insulating disc between piston and gas. Combining Equations (1.6) and (1.7) and
rearranging the terms yields

(1.8)

The work input requirement is proportional to the height difference (Z2 - Z 1).
Application of the second law of thermodynamics, Equation (1.4), yields the
entropy generated during the lifting process:

S I; P2
=me ln--mRln-- 12 -BQ (1.9)
gen P T; ~ I T

Because 8Q = 0 and P 2 = P 1, the entropy generation is simply

Sgen =me p ln-

z
2 (1.10)
zi
6

Z -Z
Sgen =me p 2
~
1 (1.11)

The important conclusion is that the lifting process is irreversible, and the irrevers-
ibility described here by Sgen is proportional to the height difference(~- Z1).
Consider now the process by which the weight Mg is lifted, not by the expanding
gas, but by some frictionless mechanical linkage powered electrically. One such
arrangement is shown on the right side of Figure 1.3. Applying the ftrst and second
laws it is easy to show that in this case

~:2 =Mg (z2 -Z~) (1.12)

. -0
Sgen (1.13)

A quick comparison of Equations (1.12) and (1.8) shows that the second lifting
procedure always requires less work than the ftrst. Equations (1.13) and (1.10)
demonstrate that the method requiring less work is less irreversible than the ftrst
method; the second process is actually reversible. The additional work wasted by
using the ftrst lifting process instead of the second is

(1.14)

By combining this result with Equation (1.11), we discover that for small vertical
excursions the additional work required to lift the weight pneumatically is

~.2 -~:2 =[ ~: 7;) sgen (1.15)

The work increment is directly proportional to the entropy generated during the
process. Therefore, the entropy generation sgen times the absolute temperature factor
(Cv lcP)T1is a measure of the amount of work unnecessarily wasted during the process
designed to accomplish the given task of lifting the weight.

1.3 OPEN SYSTEMS

The analysis of an open thermodynamic system requires the selection of an
appropriate boundary drawn around the region of interest. As shown in Figure 1.4,
the control surface can have one or more openings (ports) for mass transfer. In most
cases the control surface is defined as rigid. Therefore, it is impossible for the open
system (control volume) to experience work transfer by means of forces normal to
the boundary. The only possibility is work done by shear (tangential) forces, such as
a rotating shaft that penetrates the control surface.
 7

Control surface

Inlet ports \
min

""0 CONTROL VOLUME

M (mass)
E (energy)
S (entropy)

Q(heat transfer rate)

Jl(entropy transfer rate)

T

Figure 1.4 Open thermodynamic system and its interactions with the environment.

The open system analysis consists of making three statements regarding the
three system properties listed in Figure 1.4: mass, energy, and entropy. The frrst is
a mass conservation statement:

"' . "'
L..,;m- L..,;m. =aM- (1.16)
. m
at
out '-...-'
'-------.r----- mass
mass change
trdnsfer

This says that the difference between the net mass flow into the control volume and
the net mass flow out equals the time rate of accumulation of mass inside the control
surface. When applied to a real system, the mass conservation statement provides the
frrst clue to determining whether the flow through the open system is steady or
unsteady. When the net inlet flow is equal to the net outlet flow, the time derivative
aMtat is zero. This and other conditions discussed below are necessary for the flow
to be modeled as steady. In engineering problem solving, it is important to diagnose
the steady flow feature early because it usually leads to a much simpler analysis.
The frrst law of thermodynamics can be written as

~m ( h+~V
m
2 +gz )- Int (h+~V 2 +gz)+o- wsh = ~~
out .............._
(1.17)
energy
ene.-gy lransfct change

On the left side of the equal sign we have the energy transfer interactions, heat, shaft
work, and energy transfer associated with mass transfer across the control surface.
8

The specific enthalpy h, fluid velocity V, and height Z are evaluated right at the
boundary (averaged over the port cross-section). In Equation (1.17), E is the system
instantaneous energy integrated over the entire control volume.
Finally, the second law of thermodynamics assumes the form

~-~·(las
L.ms-L.ms+T :5: at (1.18)
in out ~
en!Iopy
eniiopy IIansfer change

The difference between this form and Equation (1.3) for closed systems is the entropy
transfer ms associated with the mass flow across the control surface. The specific
entropy s is representative of the thermodynamic state of each stream right at the
system boundary.
For the purpose of evaluating the degree of irreversibility of actual engineering
systems, it is convenient to rearrange the second law inequality, Equation (1.18), as

S.
gen
as Q
at T
=---+ I.ms- I. ms~ o (1.19)
out in

This form defines the rate of entropy generation in the system [W/K], a quantity
always positive, and in the reversible limit equal to zero. As in the case of closed
systems, it makes sense to use Sgen as a measure .
of . a system's departure from
reversibility. If systems A and B operate so that Sgen.A > Sgen.B' we can say that system
A operates more irreversibly than system B.
While reviewing the use of Equations (1.16) through (1.19) in the following
examples, keep in mind the conditions that are necessary to model an open system
as operating in steady flow. The steady operation implies that system properties such
as density, specific energy, and specific entropy do not change with time. However,
such local properties can vary spatially from one point to another in the control
volume. If the system can be described in this manner, then the operation is steady
and the atat terms in Equations (1.16) through (1.18) vanish.

Example 1.2. Consider the steady operation of a steam turbine (Figure 1.5). Across
the turbine, the steam pressure drops from a fixed inlet pressure Pin to a fixed outlet
pressure Pout· Because this is a steady flow application, the mass conservation
statement, Equation (1.16), reduces to

m.m =tit out =tit (1.20)

Modeling the control surface drawn around the turbine as adiabatic ( Q = 0), the first
law and the second law yield

(1.21)
 9

(1.22)

In writing the ftrst law, Equation (1.21), we neglected the kinetic and gravitational
energy changes associated with the inlet and outlet streams.

r------,
I
I
I
I
I
I

L-_._..._ mout
1
L ______ J

Adiabatic
surface

Enthalpy

Entropy

Figure 1.5 Thermodynamic analysis of a turbine in steady flow.

10

The right side of Figure 1.5 was drawn for the general case in which Sgen > 0;
i.e., the flow of steam through the turbine is irreversible. It is customary to evaluate
the performance of a given engineering component such as a steam turbine in the
reversible mode. This limiting situation is sketched with a solid line on the h-s
diagram of Figure 1.5. Geometric reasoning alone suggests that a reversible turbine
delivers the maximum possible shaft power per mass flow rate, provided Pin
and Pout are fixed. The first law and the second law in the reversible case yield

w sh,max = m(h in -hout,rev ) (1.23)

s gen = m(s out.rev - s )' = o in

(1.24)

As in Example 1.1, let us calculate the drop in turbine shaft power caused by
irreversibility. Combining Equations (1.21) and (1.23), we find

(1.25)

Geometric reasoning is again helpful in recognizing that for small departures from
reversible operation, the enthalpy deficit hour- hout,rev is proportional to the entropy
increase across the turbine, sout- sout,rev (see shaded triangle in Figure 1.5). Because

dh= Tds-vdP (1.26)

and because from "out,rev" to "rev" dP = 0, we write:

hout- hout,rev = Tout (Sout- Sout,rev) (1.27)

The temperature Tout is an average outlet temperature, defined as

1 fout
Tout = S ~utds (1.28)
out - Sout,rev out, rev

The value ofTout falls somewhere between Tout.rev and T001 , because the steam outlet
temperature rises as the turbine operates more irreversibly.
Having made the observation that led to Equation (1.27), we can now reap the
reward by combining this result with Equations (1.25) and (1.24) to express the
reduction in shaft power as

w sh,max -Wsh =Tout sgen (1.29)

The entropy generated in the system is directly proportional to the decrease in turbine
shaft work. It is well known from classical presentations of turbine thermodynamics
that the turbine power output (or the turbine efficiency) decreases with the increasing
 11

-
Container
Valve

oro }
" 'JfJ- ---.L...----,
Air: 'JQ. I

10~-----------~
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Atmosphere: T0 , P0

Figure 1.6 Evacuated tank being filled with atmospheric air.

degree of turbine irreversibility. The point made in the above example is that subject
to Tout= constant [Equation (1.28)], the decrease in shaft power is proportional to
the rate of entropy generation.

Example 1.3. The thermodynamic analysis of unsteady flow systems presents further
subtleties, reviewed in this example. Figure 1.6 shows a rigid and evacuated con-
tainer of volume V surrounded by the atmosphere (P 0 , T0 ). At some point, the neck
valve opens and atmospheric air gradually fills the container. The wall of the
container is thin enough so that eventually the trapped air and the atmosphere reach
thermal equilibrium.
Let us examine this filling operation and determine the total heat transfer
exchanged by container air and atmosphere through the wall of the container. For
analysis, we select the container wall as control surface. In the duct communicating
with the atmosphere the control port is located upstream of the valve. This choice
makes the valve as well as the irreversibility associated with it internal to the system,
i.e., part of the control volume.
The situation is definitely unsteady, as indicated by the time-dependent air
pressure measured in the container. For mass conservation and the first law we write:

. aM
m=- ( 1.30)
ot
. . au
-Q+mh = -
0 at (1.31)

where M =PVIRTand U =Mcv(T- T0). The enthalpy of atmospheric air,* compatible

* It is tempting to write h = c" (T- T0 ); however, this is not allowed because u = cv (T- T0 ). Note that the
definition h = u + Pv must always apply.
12

with having chosen u = cv(T- T0 ), is

(1.32)

We can calculate the heat transfer interaction for the filling process by integrating
Equation ( 1.31) from the initial time t; to the final equilibrium time ti

Q= i t
'f

I
Qdt

(1.33)

Because both P 0 and V are positive, the sign of Q is as shown in Figure 1.6. Result
Q = P 0 V makes sense physically if we think of the atmosphere as doing work
Watm =P 0 Von the batch of air pushed through the valve into the container. This batch
eventually stores no energy (Trona! = ~nitia 1 ), so that the work P 0 Vis dissipated via the
filling process and is fully ejected back into the atmosphere as heat.
The second law of thermodynamics, Equation (1.19), can now be employed to
determine the degree of irreversibility of the filling process. In accordance with the
sign convention of Figure 1.6 we write

sgen = i'f(as-a'; t
Q . ) dt
+--mso
T0

(1.34)

We draw the conclusion that the entropy generation increases with the size of the
container (V) and with the initial pressure difference (P0). A less obvious conclusion is
that the entropy generation is proportional to the work done by the atmosphere to drive
the filling process: combining Equation ( 1.34) with the observation that Watm = P 0 Vyields
 13

Container

(partial
vacuum)

Available
work
(exergy)

Figure 1.7 Apparatus for filling a container while delivering work (exergy).

(1.35)

This conclusion is similar to Equations (1.29) and (1.15). The work done by the
atmosphere, w.tm. is lost due to the irreversibility introduced by the valve (Figure
1.6). In order to recover W,1m for our use, we must eliminate Sg•n; in other words, we
must replace the valve with a reversible component for steady flow. This alternative
is shown schematically in Figure 1.7. The reader is encouraged to analyze the
operation and work-producing potential of this new installation.

1.4 THE MOMENTUM THEOREM

It is appropriate to include in this brief review of engineering thermodynamics
the relationship between the momentum of a fluid and the forces exerted by the
environment on the control surface that surrounds the fluid system. This relationship
is embodied in the momentum theorem, which is a modified statement of Newton's
second law of motion.
As shown in Figure 1.8, the system (control volume) can be subjected to a
variety of forces F. Some of these forces act on the control surface, for example, the
boundary pressure and the stresses in the cut made by the control surface through a
solid object that protrudes into the system. Other forces (termed body forces) act on
the control volume as a whole from a distance. For example, in Figure 1.8 the system
experiences a gravitational pull in the direction of the gravitational acceleration g. A
distinct class of forces arises from the inflow and outflow of fluid through the ports
of the surface. The presence of such forces is particularly evident in the handling of
garden hoses and water balloons.
According to Newton's second law of motion, the resultant of all forces is equal
to the time rate of change in the system's momentum. Projecting this statement on
one direction of interest, x in Figure 1.8, we write:

~ (MV)
O( X CV
="..L..J F
.t
+ "(rilV
..L..JX
). Ul
- "(rilV
..L..J ).
X out
(1.36)

where the subscript "x" indicates the x-component of each vector. The sign appear-
ing in front of each 1hVx tetm in Equation (1.36) depends on the orientation of the
ports relative to the x direction (in the present case inlet looks toward negative x and
outlet looks toward positive x). As in mechanics, in order to state the momentum
theorem correctly one should first construct a precise and unambiguous drawing.
14

;! Gravitati~nal
acceleratiOn

~Ut

Direction x

Figure 1.8 Forces acting on an open thermodynamic system.

1.5 USEFUL STEPS IN PROBLEM SOLVING

The objective of this chapter so far has been to review the most central concepts
and laws introduced by classical thermodynamics in engineering practice. The re-
view is punctuated with three examples in which engineering problems are solved
using the concepts and laws of thermodynamics. The conclusions derived from each
example have stressed the strong connection that ties the concept of entropy genera-
tion (irreversibility) to the notion of lost or destroyed work. This connection is the
subject of a more formal development presented in Chapter 2.
In addition, Examples 1.1 to 1.3 were designed to demonstrate that the solution
to a thermodynamic problem is made easier by a reasoned plan of attack. Problem
solving is an issue of great importance in engineering education (Bejan and Paynter,
1976). In my opinion, insufficient attention is being devoted to this aspect of
engineering education, especially in the field of engineering thermodynamics and
heat transfer. It is therefore useful to highlight a number of steps one could take
toward the correct and efficient solution of a thermodynamic problem.

1. Clearly describe the system to be analyzed. The description is always made clearer
by a good drawing. This drawing must clearly show the system boundary, that is,
the relationship between the system of interest and its neighbors (the environment).
2. Identify all transfer effects (mass, work and heat, entropy) around the system
boundary. This step is closely related to step 1. An experienced problem solver will
most likely define the system boundary in relation to the presence or absence of
one or more interactions (transfer effects).
3. Describe the internal constitution and operation of the system. Questions such as
steady vs. unsteady flow, ideal vs. nonideal gas, and so forth, must be addressed.
Any geometric constraints in the system also must be identified at this point.
 15

4. Apply the three statements (mass conservation, energy conservation, entropy

generation) to the problem at hand. These statements and the equations describing
the system model (step 3) provide the mathematical apparatus for analyzing the
problem and for obtaining a solution.
5. Examine the solution and its meaning with respect to your initial intuitive feel for
the problem. This thinking process will strengthen your ability to attack future
problems in thermodynamics and in other areas.

1.6 THE TEMPERATURE-ENERGY INTERACTION DIAGRAM AND

THE ENTROPY INTERACTION-ENERGY INTERACTION
DIAGRAM
The creative use of graphics (step 1 in the preceding list of problem-solving
hints) is an impmtant technique that is illustrated and emphasized throughout this
book. One example is the temperature-energy interaction diagram (Bejan, 1977),
which is presented in detail in Figures 2.3 and 2.4. As the name indicates, this
technique consists of plotting the system energy interactions (work, heat) in the two-
dimensional plane of temperature (T) vs. energy interaction (E). The T-E diagram is
particularly useful in visualizing the imperfect thermodynamic performance of power
plants and refrigeration plants, i.e., closed systems that operate steadily or in cycles
in communication with two temperature reservoirs.
The T-E diagrams lose their clarity when applied to open systems in commu-
nication with more than two heat reservoirs. In such cases the entropy interaction-
energy interaction diagram is more suitable. Three examples of S-E diagrams are
illustrated in Bejan (1977). The basic rule in constructing the S-E diagram is to
regard each interaction as a carrier of both energy and entropy. Examine again
Equations (1.17) to (1.19) and recognize that:

1. Each heat transfer interaction Qi that cr.osses a syste~ bound~ry of temperature T,

carries with it the entropy interaction Q /T; . Both Q and ~ /T; are considered
positive when they enter the system. The interaction vector Q 1 ~as~ components
the energy interaction and the e~tropy interaction, namely ( Q;, Qj"F; ).
2. Each work transfer interaction W caiTies zero entropy and is represented by the
vector W1 with the components ( \v, 0). Recall that the work per unit time W is
considered positive when it is done by the system on the environment.
3. Each mass flow interaction m; through the inlet or outlet port (i) brings in two
currents, energy at the rate m;h;, and entropy at the rate m;s;- Both currents are
positive when entering the system. In the S-E diagram they are represented by the
m
mass flow interaction vector 1 with the components ( rn;h;, m;s). Note that, for
brevity, in writing mihi we have neglected kinetic and potential energy effects
[Equation (1.17)].
4. The time-dependent behavior of the energy and entropy inventories of the system
is represented by the vector labeled dldt, which has the components (dE/dt, dS/dt).
This vector is zero when the system operates in the steady state or in an integral
number of cycles.

To illustrate the generality of the method, Figure 1.9 shows how the interaction
vectors add up on the S-E plane for a system with one heat input from a high
16

Figure 1.9 General outlook of the entropy interaction-energy interaction (s-E) diagram for an
open thermodynamic system in the nonsteady state.

temperature source ( Q), heat rejection to the ambient ( Q0 ), one inlet (min), one
outlet ( mout), and time-dependent behavior (d/dt). Note that we added vectorially all
the interactions except the work interaction. The resultant of these interaction vectors
is the balance vector B, which has as components the net power output W and the
negative of the entropy generation rate, B(l.f, - Sgen). In any other application the
resultant vector will point toward the lower half of the plane because the entropy
generation rate cannot be negative. The B vector points to the right in applications
that produce power (e.g., power plants), and to the left in applications that consume
power (e.g., refrigeration plants).
The S-E diagram and the resultant vector show how the system responds when
changes are made to improve its thermodynamic performance. The B vector turns
and becomes more horizontal as the total rate of entropy generation decreases. When
the system produces or consumes zero mechanical power, the resultant vector points
vertically downward. All pure heat transfer devices are characterized by such vectors.

REFERENCES
Bejan, A. 1977. Graphic techniques for teaching engineering thermodynamics. Mech. Eng.
News. May: 26-28.
Bejan, A. 1988. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics. Wiley, New York.
Bejan, A. and Paynter, H. M. 1976. Solved Problems in Thermodynamics. Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, Cambridge.
Moran, M. J. 1989.AvailabilityAnalysis: A Guide to Efficient Energy Use. ASME Press, New
York.

PROBLEMS
1.1. Two pools A and Bare filled with equal quantities of water, mA = m8. Initially,
pool A is warmer than pool B:TA.o > T8 •0 •
 17

a. The two water bodies are now placed in direct thermal contact and eventually
reach thermal equilibrium: TA.- = T8 __ = T_. Determine:
The final temperature T_.
The entropy generated during the heat transfer process, sgen·
b. Consider now the alternative process in which a reversible heat engine
operates steadily between heat reservoirs TA and T8 • After a sufficient number
of cycles, the two pools reach a common temperature T-.rev· Determine:
The new final temperature T-,rev·
The net work output of the heat engine, W.
c. Show that W is proportional to Sgen• and determine the characteristic tempera-
ture factor in this proportionality.

Answers

a. T_ = ±(TA.o + Ts,o)

b. T-.rev = (TA,OT8,0 )1/ 2

w= me( TA,O + TB,O - 2T__ rev)

where E = (TA.o - T8 •0 )/T8 ,0• Graphically one can show:

T
oo,rev sgen
<-W-<T
-

1.2. Consider the hot exhaust stream from a chemical process plant, tiz. The starting
conditions of the hot stream are TH and P0 • The atmospheric temperature and
pressure are T0 , Po·
a. The stream is cooled to T0 by direct thermal contact with the atmosphere.
Modeling the exhaust as an ideal gas (constants Rand c.), determine:
The beat transfer rate to the atmosphere, Q.
The entropy generation rate associated with the cooling process, sgen.
18

b. A possible method for utilizing the hot exhaust to produce useful mechanical
power is to operate a heat engine between the stream and the atmosphere.
Modeling the functioning of this scheme as reversible, determine:
~e net shaft power delivered by the hot-stream-heat-engine arrangement,
w.
The rate of heat rejection to the atmosphere.
c. Demonstrate that the mechanical power produced in part b of this problem is
proportional to the rate of entropy generation calculated in part a.

,----------,
;:0(~)~:--------~~~()~
I I
I I
I ....,._+ Reversible
• : I heat engine

~ l
I I
L ____ _T~ ____ _j

Atmosphere: 1Q

Answers
a. Q = riieATH- T0 )

. T Q
0 +-
sgen =me ln-
p TH 'Fo

b. W
.
=me P 0
[ T0
T ln-
TH
T '\
+__lL-lJ
T0

. T
Q = rite PTo In __1L
T
0

c.
w
-.-= T0
sgen

1.3. A cold space is maintained at a temperature TL below the environmental

temperature TH by the cyclical operation of an irreversible refrigerator. The
 19

refrigeration load QL is attributed to the leakage of heat Q0 from T8 to TL and by

the dissipation of electrical power (joule heating) at a rate We1 in the cold space.
Prove that the total power used by the arrangement, 'Vrotal = wref + wei• is equal
to the total rate of entropy generation in the temperature domain below T8 times
the heat rejection temperature T8 :

This result is the Gouy-Stodola theorem for refrigeration installations. The

Gouy-Stodola theorem is generalized in Equation (2.8).

Cold space
I w.,
I
L _____________ J I

1.4. A piston and cylinder apparatus contains a certain amount of air at temperature
T1 = 300 K and pressure P 1 = 1 atm. The air can be modeled as an ideal gas with
cv = 0.718 J/g K and R = 0.286 J/g K. During process 1 ~ 2, the air system is
compressed adiabatically from the initial volume V1 = 0.03 m 3 to the final
volume V2 = 0.015 m3 and final temperature T2 = 550 K.
a. Determine the heat and work transfer interactions, Q1,2 and W1,2, experienced
by the system during process 1 ~ 2.
b. Calculate the entropy change S2 - S1 and the entropy generation Ssen. 1, 2 •
c. Is process 1 ~ 2 irreversible, or does it violate the second law of thermody-
namics?

Consider now the following reversible process (1 ~ 2),ev, which consists of

two distinct segments (processes) in succession. The first segment is a reversible
and adiabatic compression from state 1 to the intermediate state 2', where
T2' = T2 • The second segment is a reversible and isothermal process from state
2' to state 2. During this second process the air system is in thermal communi-
cation with a heat reservoir of temperature T2 • Process (1 ~ 2),ev is the combined
process 1 ~ 2' ~ 2.

d. Determine the intermediate volume V2.; does the air system expand or con-
tract from state 2' to state 2?
20

e. Calculate the overall heat transfer and work transfer experienced by the
system during process (1 ~ 2)rev• Q(1.2)rev and w(1,2)rev•
f. As a check on the reversibility of process 1 ~ 2' ~ 2, verify that the entropy
generation sgen,(1,2)rev is zero.
g. Recognizing that processes 1 ~ 2 and (1 ~ 2)rev represent two different ways
in which the air system can be compressed from state 1 to state 2, compare
the two work transfer requirements, W1,2 and '"'( 1_2Jrev· Show analytically that

1.5. Consider the flight of a hot air balloon between two cities situated a distance L
apart. The average wind velocity u (parallel to the ground and to the city to city
direction) increases linearly with the altitude y,

u= a.y

On the same day, the atmospheric temperature T drops linearly with altitude,

T= T0(1- ~ y),

where T0 is the ground temperature. The balloon can be modeled as a shell of

volume V and total mass M. It is understood that the balloon is maintained at a
certain altitude by the temperature difference between hot air (T8 , inside V) and
atmosphere T (outside V). Fuel is burned at the base of the balloon at a rate
necessary to match the steady heat leak from balloon to atmosphere,

where C is a proportionality constant. Analytically, determine the optimum

flight altitude Yopt so that the travel is accomplished using the least amount of fuel
(least total heat leak}. Model the atmospheric pressure as independent of altitude,
P a· State clearly any other assumptions necessary for carrying out the derivation.
If two balloons (M1 > M2) are to make the trip, which should be flying at a higher
altitude, the larger or the smaller?
References

1 Chapter 1 Thermodynamic concepts and

laws

Bejan, A. 1977. Graphic techniques for teaching engineering

thermodynamics. Mech. Eng. News. May: 26-28.

Bejan, A. 1988. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics.

Wiley, New York.

Bejan, A. and Paynter, H. M. 1976. Solved Problems in

Thermodynamics. Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge.

Moran, M. J. 1989.AvailabilityAnalysis: A Guide to

Efficient Energy Use. ASME Press, New York.

PROBLEMS

1.1. Two pools A and Bare filled with equal quantities of

water, mA = m 8 . Initially, pool A is warmer than pool
B:TA.o > T 8 • 0 • 17 a. The two water bodies are now
placed in direct thermal contact and eventually reach
thermal equilibrium: TA.= T 8 __ = T_. Determine: The
final temperature T_. The entropy generated during the
heat transfer process, sgen· b. Consider now the
alternative process in which a reversible heat engine
operates steadily between heat reservoirs TA and T 8 •
After a sufficient number of cycles, the two pools reach a
common temperature T-.rev· Determine: The new final
temperature T -,rev· The net work output of the heat
engine, W. c. Show that W is proportional to Sgen• and
determine the characteristic temperature factor in this
proportionality.

Answers a. T_ = ±(TA.o + Ts,o) b. T = (T T )1/ 2 -.rev

A,O 8,0 w = me( TA,O + TB,O 2 T __ rev) w where E =
(TA.o T 8 • 0 )/T 8 , 0 • Graphically one can show: T
<-W-<T oo,rev s gen

1.2. Consider the hot exhaust stream from a chemical

process plant, tiz. The starting conditions of the hot
stream are TH and P 0 • The atmospheric temperature and
pressure are T 0 , Po· a. The stream is cooled to T 0
by direct thermal contact with the atmosphere. Modeling
the exhaust as an ideal gas (constants Rand c.),
determine: The beat transfer rate to the atmosphere, Q.
The entropy generation rate associated with the cooling
process, sgen.
1 8 b . A p o s s i b l e m e t h o d f o r u t i l i z i n
g t h e h o t e x h a u s t t o p r o d u c e u s e f u l m
e c h a n i c a l p o w e r i s t o o p e r a t e a h e a t
e n g i n e b e t w e e n t h e s t r e a m a n d t h e a t
m o s p h e r e . M o d e l i n g t h e f u n c t i o n i n
g o f t h i s s c h e m e a s r e v e r s i b l e , d e t e
r m i n e : ~ e n e t s h a f t p o w e r d e l i v e r e d
b y t h e h o t s t r e a m h e a t e n g i n e a r r a n g
e m e n t , w . T h e r a t e o f h e a t r e j e c t i o n
t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e . c . D e m o n s t r a t e t
h a t t h e m e c h a n i c a l p o w e r p r o d u c e d i
n p a r t b o f t h i s p r o b l e m i s p r o p o r t i o
n a l t o t h e r a t e o f e n t r o p y g e n e r a t i o
n c a l c u l a t e d i n p a r t a . , , ; : 0 ( ~ ) ~ : ~
~ ~ ( ) ~ I I I I I . . . . , . _ + R e v e r s i b l e • :
I h e a t e n g i n e ~ l I I L _ _ _ _ _ T ~ _ _ _ _ _ j A
t m o s p h e r e : 1 Q

A n s w e r s a . Q = r i i e A T H T 0 ) . T Q s g e n = m
e l n 0 + p T H ' F o . [ T T ' \ b . W = m e T l n 0 + _ _
l L l J P 0 T T H 0 . T Q = r i t e T I n _ _ 1 L P o T 0 w
c . . = T 0 s g e n

1 . 3 . A c o l d s p a c e i s m a i n t a i n e d a t a t
e m p e r a t u r e T L b e l o w t h e e n v i r o n m e n
t a l t e m p e r a t u r e T H b y t h e c y c l i c a l o
p e r a t i o n o f a n i r r e v e r s i b l e r e f r i g
e r a t o r . T h e 19 refrigeration load QL is attributed
to the leakage of heat Q 0 from T 8 to TL and by the
dissipation of electrical power (joule heating) at a rate
We 1 in the cold space. Prove that the total power used
by the arrangement, 'Vrotal = wref + wei• is equal to the
total rate of entropy generation in the temperature domain
below T 8 times the heat rejection temperature T 8 :
This result is the Gouy-Stodola theorem for refrigeration
installations. The Gouy-Stodola theorem is generalized in
Equation (2.8). Cold space I w., I I L _____________ J

1.4. A piston and cylinder apparatus contains a certain

amount of air at temperature T 1 = 300 K and pressure P
1 = 1 atm. The air can be modeled as an ideal gas with cv
= 0.718 J/g K and R = 0.286 J/g K. During process 1 ~ 2,
the air system is compressed adiabatically from the
initial volume V 1 = 0.03 m 3 to the final volume V 2
= 0.015 m 3 and final temperature T 2 = 550 K. a.
Determine the heat and work transfer interactions, Q 1 , 2
and W 1 , 2 , experienced by the system during process 1
~ 2. b. Calculate the entropy change S 2 S 1 and the
entropy generation Ssen. 1 , 2 • c. Is process 1 ~ 2
irreversible, or does it violate the second law of
thermodynamics? Consider now the following reversible
process (1 ~ 2),ev, which consists of two distinct
segments (processes) in succession. The first segment is a
reversible and adiabatic compression from state 1 to the
intermediate state 2', where T 2 ' = T 2 • The second
segment is a reversible and isothermal process from state
2' to state 2. During this second process the air system is
in thermal communication with a heat reservoir of
temperature T 2 • Process (1 ~ 2),ev is the combined
process 1 ~ 2' ~ 2. d. Determine the intermediate volume
V 2 .; does the air system expand or contract from state
2' to state 2?

20 e. Calculate the overall heat transfer and work

transfer experienced by the system during process (1 ~
2)rev• Q(1.2)rev and w(1,2)rev• f. As a check on the
reversibility of process 1 ~ 2' ~ 2, verify that the
entropy generation sgen,(1,2)rev is zero. g. Recognizing
that processes 1 ~ 2 and (1 ~ 2)rev represent two
different ways in which the air system can be compressed
from state 1 to state 2, compare the two work transfer
requirements, W 1 , 2 and '"'( 1 _ 2 Jrev· Show
analytically that

1.5. Consider the flight of a hot air balloon between two

cities situated a distance L apart. The average wind
velocity u (parallel to the ground and to the city to city
direction) increases linearly with the altitude y, u =
a.y On the same day, the atmospheric temperature T drops
linearly with altitude, T= T 0 (1~ y), where T 0 is the
ground temperature. The balloon can be modeled as a shell
of volume V and total mass M. It is understood that the
balloon is maintained at a certain altitude by the
temperature difference between hot air (T 8 , inside V)
and atmosphere T (outside V). Fuel is burned at the base
of the balloon at a rate necessary to match the steady
heat leak from balloon to atmosphere, where C is a
proportionality constant. Analytically, determine the
optimum flight altitude Yopt so that the travel is
accomplished using the least amount of fuel (least total
heat leak}. Model the atmospheric pressure as independent
of altitude, P a· State clearly any other assumptions
necessary for carrying out the derivation. If two balloons
(M 1 > M 2 ) are to make the trip, which should be flying
at a higher altitude, the larger or the smaller?
2 Chapter 2 Entropy generation and exergy
destruction

Alefeld, G. 1987. Efficiency of compressor heat pumps and

refrigerators derived from the second law of
thermodynamics. Int. J. Refrig. 70:331-341.

Alefeld, G. 1988a. Probleme mit der Exergie.

Brennstoff-Waenne-Kraft. 40:72-80.

Alefeld, G. 1988b. Die Exergie und der ll. Hauptsatz der

Thermodynamik. BrennstojfWaenne-Kraft. 40:458-464.

Baehr, H. D. 1973. Thermodynamik. Springer Verlag, Berlin.

Bejan, A. 1977. Graphic techniques for teaching engineering

thermodynamics. Mech. Eng. News. May: 26-28.

Bejan, A. 1982. Entropy Generation through Heat and Fluid

Flow. Wiley, New York.

Bejan, A. 1988. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics.

Wiley, New York.

Bejan, A. 1994. Engineering advances on finite-time

thermodynamics. Am. J. Phys. 62:11-12.

Bejan, A. and Paynter, H. M. 1976. Solved Problems in

Thermodynamics. Mech. Eng. Dept. Massachusetts Institute
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Bosnjacovic, F. 1953. Technische Thermodynamik. Vol. 1,

Steinkopf, Dresden.

Brodianskii, V. M. 1973. Exergetic Method ofThennodynamic

Analysis. Energia, Moscow.

Bucher, M. 1986. New diagram for heat flows and work in a

Carnot cycle. Am. J. Phys. 54:850-851.

Clausius, R. 1887. Die Mechanische Waennetheorie.

Braunschweig.

Darrieus, G. 1931. L'evolution des centrales thermiques et

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Jin, H. and Ishida, M. 1993. Graphic exergy analysis of

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Cambridge, MA.

Kestin, J. 1980. Availability: the concept and associated

terminology. Energy. 5:679--692.

Mironova, V. A., Tsirlin, A.M., Kazakov, V. A., and Berry,

R. S. 1994. Finite-time thermodynamics: exergy and
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Moran, M. J. 1989. Availability Analysis: A Guide to

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Arbeitsflihigkeit," Forsch. Ing. Wes. 22:36.

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42

Stodola, A. 1910. Steam and Gas Turbines. McGraw-Hill, New

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PROBLEMS

2.1. A supply of superheated steam (800°C, 2 MPa) is being

considered for possible use in a steady flow power
apparatus. Taking the dead state at T 0 = 25°C, P 0 = 1
atm (0.1013 MPa), calculate the availability (b) and the
exergy (e,.) of superheated steam under the above
conditions. Report your results in kilojoules per
kilogram.

2.2 A heat engine communicating with two heat reservoirs

(Tn, TL) can be modeled as a Carnot engine connected in
parallel with a conducting strut. In this model the
conducting strut accounts for the leakage of heat from Tn
to TL around the power-producing components of the engine
(Bejan and Paynter, 1976). The bypass heat leak Qc is
proportional to the temperature difference across it, Qc =
C(TnTL), where Cis a measured constant. a. Is the heat
engine operating reversibly? Explain. b. For a fixed heat
input Qn, determine an expression for the entropy generated
in the heat engine, sgen• c. If Tn is a design variable,
determine the optimal temperature TH. opt such that the
production of entropy is minimized. d. Show that the
optimum determined at part (c) corresponds to the case of
maximum work output (maximum heat engine efficiency W!Qn).
--------, r------1 .----.L..----. I I I I Heat I
engine I ~ I I I L-----______ _j TL Carnot engine

2.3. A source of geothermal steam is to be utilized to

provide heating for a large building (TB > T 0 ). As
shown on the left side of the figure, the simplest method
is to heat the building directly. At steady state, the
steam-building direct heat transfer QD is matched by the
building-environment heat leak Q 0 . The heat leak 43 Q 0
is proportional to the building-environment temperature
difference, Q 0 = C(T 8 T 0 ), where C is the thennal
conductance, assumed fixed. A second heating arrangement
is shown on the right side of the figure. Here, the
steambuilding heat transfer is used to produce work in a
reversible device; the work is then used to power a
reversible heat pump installed outside the building. a.
Show that the ratio of steam flow rates required to
maintain the building at T 8 is b. Compute the ratio m
2 /m 1 , assuming P;n = 0.6 MPa, Tout= 25°C, Pout= 1 atm
(0.1013 MPa), T 8 = 22°C, T 0 = -5°C. c. Comment on the
practical importance of results (a) and (b): What major
design change has taken place between the two heating
methods considered in this problem? Saturated Water
Saturated Water vapor m, (liquid) vapor "7 (liquid) ~
m out ~ rev building I T 8

2.4. Consider the refrigerator shown in the figure. The

refrigerator operates in cycles between the load (TL) and
the ambient (T 11 ). The thermal contact between the
refrigerator and the two heat reservoirs (TL, T 11 ) is
imperfect; this means that finite temperature differences,
!J.TL and !J.T 11 , exist between the cycle (working
fluid) and the heat reservoirs. Consequently, the actual
temperature extremes faced by the refrigeration cycle are
The refrigeration cycle between T (. and T If can be
modeled as reversible. Assume also that !J.T 11 = !J.TL.
The thetmal contact with T 11 or TL can be improved

44 by upgrading (adding more surface area to) the heat

exchangers that occupy the two temperature gaps (!lTL,
!lTH). Suppose you have enough means to decrease either
!lTH or !lTL by a small amount OT. Which of the two heat
exchangers should you upgrade? Base your answer on
thermodynamic analysis. -o Reversible refrigeration
cycle I Ambient D .__ __ r._L __ .....JI Load

2.5. Express the steady flow exergy ex of an ideal gas in

terms of the temperature and pressure ratios TIT 0 and
PIP 0 , _x_ = unctton -, e fi . ( T cPT 0 ~ Compare
this result with the equivalent expression for the nonflow
exergy sl(cPT 0 ) of the same ideal gas.

2.6. A house is to be heated via a heat pump placed between

the house and the environment, as shown in the figure
below. The house interior is to be kept at a fixed
temperature level T 8 • The rate of heat transfer from the
house to the ambient (TA) can be modeled as Q = C(T 8 TA),
where Cis a known constant. Two designs are being
considered. In the first design the heat pump is in
communication with the atmosphere; the daily atmospheric
temperature variation is described by TA(t) = TA + !lT
sin(27tt/day) where TA and !lT are the average temperature
and the daily fluctuation amplitude, respectively. In the
second design the cold end of the heat pump cycle is
buried in the ground, where the temperature is Ta
=constant. In both designs the heat pump operates
irreversibly, with a known second-law efficiency 'Tln = W
min(Camot/ W actual• 45 Calculate and compare the daily
heat pump work requirement W corresponding to the two
designs. Assuming that the ground temperature Ta is known,
under what atmospheric temperature conditions (T A• A.T)
is the frrst design preferable? T House 0 --8 0 Ground
TG 1---------Winter time

2.7. A power plant operates irreversibly between the

high-temperature reservoir TH and the environment Tv
Assume that the power plant operates in the steady state
or executes an integral number of cycles. The heat input QH
is flxed. Show that to maximize the power output W is the
same as minimizing the entropy generation associated with
the power plant system delineated in the flgure below. D
QH TH Actual (irreversible) w power plant TL DQL
3 Chapter 3 Entropy generation in fluid
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a heated finned-tube. ASME HTD. 266:81-91.

Bergles, A. E. 1985. Techniques to augment heat transfer.

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Bishop, J. E. and Kinra, V. K. 1993b. Elastothermodynamic

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Bisio, G. 1988. Thermodynamic analysis of the

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the heat flux direction. Waerme Stoffuebertr. 23:143-151.

Bisio, G. 1990. Entropy production rate in the

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25:117-127.

Bisio, G. 1992. Critical points of various functions in

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Carrington, C. G. and Sun, Z. F. 1992. Second law analysis

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Chen, B. H. and Huang, W. H. 1988. Performance-evaluation

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Drost, M. K. and White, M.D. 1991. Local Entropy

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Drost, M. K. and Zaworski, J. R. 1988. A review of second

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110

Fowler, A. J. and Bejan, A. 1994. Correlation of optimal

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Kreith, F. and Bohn, M. 1986. Principles of Heat Transfer.

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Milligan, K. and Kinra, V. 1993b. On the damping of a

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Mironova, V. A., Tsirlin, A.M., Kazakov, V. A., and Berry,

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Nag, P. K. and Mukheljee, P. 1987. Thermodynamic

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with constant wall temperature. Int. J. Heal Mass
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Nelson, R. M. 1988. The effects of using in-tube heat

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Nikuradse, J. 1950. Laws for flow in rough pipes. NACA TM.

1292, November.

Ouellette, W. R. 1979. Entropy Generation Criterion

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Paoletti, S., Rispoli, F., and Sciubba, E. 1989.

Calculation of exergetic losses in compact heat exchanger
passages. ASME AES. 10-2:21-29.

Perez-Blanco, H. 1984. Irreversibility in heat transfer

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Petukhov, B. S. 1970. Heat transfer and friction in

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Prasad, R. C. and Shen, J. 1993. Performance evaluation of

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Prasad, R. C. and Shen, J. 1994. Performance evaluation

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Purl, I. K. 1992. Second law analysis of convective

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San, J. Y., Worek, W. M., and Lavan, Z. 1987b. Entropy

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Sekulic, D., Campo, A., and Morales, J. C. 1994. The

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Selamet, A. and Arpaci, V. S. 1990. Entropy production in

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Sun, Z. F. and Carrington, C. G. 1991. Application of

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White, M. D. and Drost, M. K. 1989. Numerical predictions

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Zimparov, V. D. and Vulchanov, N. L. 1994. Performance

evaluation criteria for enhanced heat transfer surfaces.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 37:1807-1816.

PROBLEMS
4.1. Derive an expression for the volumetric rate of
entropy generation s~~D [W/m 3 K] in a parallel-plate
duct in Poiseuille flow (laminar flow regime). The
plate-toplate spacing is D and the uniform wall heat flux
is q' (W/m 2 ]. Furthermore, the longitudinal temperature
gradient (dTidx) is fixed by design. Plot a set of
representative entropy generation profiles across the
parallel plate channel.

4.2. In a certain heat exchanger passage heat is to be

transferred at a rate q [Wim] to a gaseous stream (tit,
cP, R) in a parallel plate channel (D, W) arrangement as
shown in the figure. In general, the duct can be designed
inn parallel channels (Din, W), each handling a flow rate
min and a heat transfer rate q ln. Derive an expression
for the rate of entropy generation in this heat exchange
passage. Determine the optimal number of parallel
channels nopt needed for minimum irreversibility if the
flow regime is (a) laminar, (b) turbulent. / nq· / min/
nq'ln / t --Din m D / * ~ min --Din ~w Tiq'ln

112

4.3. Consider the heat transfer from a sphere of diameter D

situated in a uniform flow U_, T_. The total sphere-fluid
heat transfer rate is fixed, q [W]. Determine the rate of
entropy generation associated with this geometry, S [W/K].
Determine also the optimal sphere diameter Dop 1
necessary for minimum entropy generation. Perform this
analysis in the range 10 3 <Rev< 10 5 , where the sphere
drag coefficient is approximately Cv = 0.5.

4.4. Consider the irreversibility a<;sociated with heat

transfer from a plate fm in turbulent flow, as shown in
the figure. The skin-friction coefficient correlation for
this flow is c = X = 0 0576 _y_ 't ( )1/5 f,x (lf2)pU2 .
Ux whereas the local heat transfer coefficient follows
from the Colburn analogy between momentum and heat
transfer: The heat transfer rate integrated over the swept
length of the fin, q, is fixed. Express the entropy
generation rate as a function of the swept length L.
Determine the optimal length L for minimum entropy
generation. ~------------£------------~

4.5. Show that above a certain speed U, it is more

economical (less irreversible) to drive a car with the
window up and the air conditioner on than to drive with the
window down and the air conditioner off. Model the car as a
blunt body with frontal area A= 5m 2 traveling through
an infinite medium (air). Assume that the power input to
the air conditioner is constant (WAc = 1 HP). Wind tunnel
tests conducted by McDonneii-Dougla<> Corporation (Long
Beach, CA) have shown that in the Reynolds number of
interest, the drag coefficient Cv increases from 0.47 to
0.51 as the car window is rolled down.
5 Chapter 5 Heat exchangers

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4:34-42.

Bejan, A. 1977. The concept of irreversibility in heat

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Bejan, A. 1980. Second law analysis in heat transfer.

Energy. 5:721-732.

Bejan, A. 1982a. Second-Jaw analysis in heat transfer and

thermal design. Adv. Heat Transfer. 15:1-58.

Bejan, A. 1982b. Entropy Generation through Heat and Fluid

Flow. Wiley, New York.

Bejan, A. 1984. Second-law a~pects of heat transfer

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Vol. 1A. T.N. Veziroglu and A.E. Bergles, Eds. pp. 1-22,
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Bejan, A. 1988. Advanced Engineering Thermodynamics.

Wiley, New York.

Bejan, A. 1993. Heat Transfer. Wiley, New York.

Bejan, A. 1995. Convection Heat Transfer. 2nd ed. Wiley,

New York.

Bejan, A. and Ledezma, G. 1996. Thermodynamic optimization

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Heat Mass Transfer. 39: in press.

Benedetti, P. and Sciubba, E. 1993. Numerical calculation

of the local rate of entropy generation in the flow around
a heated finned-tube. ASME HTD. 266:81-91.

Bruges, E. A. 1959. Available Energy and the Second Law

Analysis. p. 62, Butterworths, London.

Chato, J. C. and Damianides, C. 1986. Second-law-based

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Cheng, C.-H. and Huang, W.-H. 1989. Entropy generation and

heat transfers via laminar forced-convection channel flows
over transverse fins in entrance regions. Appl. Energy.
32:241-267.

Cheng, C.-H., Ma. W.-P., and Huang, W.-H. 1994. Numerical

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Commun. Heat Mass Transfer. 21:519-530.

da Costa, C. E. S. M. and Saboya, F. E. M. 1985. Second

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HTD. 97:19-24.

Evans, R. B. and von Spakovsky, M. R. 1988. Two principles

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31:2547-2554.

Hesselmann, K. 1984. Optimization of heat exchanger

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149

Hutchinson, R. A. and Lyke, S. E. 1987. Microcomputer

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Li, D., Scott, D. S., and Crane, P. 1993. Exergy analysis

of heat exchangers with multiple, independent flows on one
side. ASME HTD. 266:93-102.

Liang, H. and Kuehn, T. H. 1988. Irreversibility analysis

of a water to water mechanical compression heat pump.
ASME AES. 6:31-36.

London, A. L. 1982. Economics and the second law: an

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Calculation of exergetic losses in compact heat exchanger
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Ranasinghe, J., Aceves-Saborio, S., and Reistad, G. M.

1987. Optimization of heat exchangers in energy conversion
systems. In Second Law Analysis of Thermal Systems. M.J.
Moran and E. Sciubba, Eds. pp. 29-38. ASME, New York.

Reistad, G. M. 1970. Availability: Concepts and

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Madison.

Sarangi, S. and Chowdhury, K. 1982. On the generation of

entropy in counterflow beat exchangers. Cryogenics.
22:63-65.
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law performance analysis for offset strip-fin heat
exchangers. Heat Transfer Eng. 12:19-27.

Sekulic, D. P. 1985-1986. Unequally sized passes in

two-pass crossflow beat exchangers: a note on the
thermodynamic approach to the analysis. Faculty of
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Yugoslavia.

Seku!ic, D. P. 1986. Entropy generation in a heat

exchanger. Heat Transfer Eng. 7:83-88.

Sekulic, D. P. and Bac!ic, B. S. 1984. Enthalpy exchange

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Sekulic, D. P. and Herman, C. V. 1986. One approach to

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exchanger design. Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transfer.
13:23-32.

Sekulic, D.P. and Milosevic, Z. S. 1988. Entropy

generation in heat exchanger networks: the component
balance approach. ASME HTD. 97:49-55.

Sekulic, D.P. and Shah, R. K. 1995. Thermal design theory

of three-fluid heat exchangers. Adv. Heat Transfer.
26:219-328.

Soumerai, H. P. 1984. Second law thermodynamic treatment

of heat exchangers. ASME HTD. 33:11-18.

Soumerai, H. 1987. Practical Thennodynamic Tools for Heat

Exchanger Design Engineers. Wiley, New York.

Tapia, C. F. and Moran, M. J. 1986. Computer-aided design

and optimization of heat exchangers. ASME AES. 2-1:93-103.

150

Tondeur, D. 1990. Equipartition of entropy production: a

design and optimization criterion in chemical engineering.
In Finite-Time Thermodynamics and Thermoeconomics. S.
Sieniutycz and P. Salamon, Eds. p. 175-208. Taylor &
Francis, New York.

Tondeur, D. and Kvaalen, E. 1987. Equipartition of entropy

production. An optimality criterion for transfer and
separation processes. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 26:50-56.
Tribus, M. 1978. Course '"'berrnoeconomics", class notes,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge.

Tsujik:awa, Y., Sawada, T., Morimoto, T., and Murata, K..

1986. Thermodynamic optimization method of regenerator of
gas turbine with entropy generation. Heat Recovery Syst.
3:245-253.

Wepfer, W. J., Gaggioli, R. A., and Obert, E. F. 1979.

Economic sizing of steam piping and insulation. J. Eng.
Ind. 101:427-433.

White, M.D. and Drost, M. K. 1989. Numerical predictions

of local entropy generation for an impinging jet. ASME
AES. 10-2:13-19.

Witte, L. C. 1987. Second Law Optimization of Heat

Exchangers. ASME paper No. 87-HT65.

Witte, L. C. and Shamsundar, N. 1983. A thermodynamic

efficiency concept for heat exchange devices. J. Eng.
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Zubair, S. M., Kadaba, P. V., and Evans, R. B. 1987. Second

law based therrnoeconomic optimization of two-phase heat
exchangers. J. Heat Transfer. 109:287-294.

PROBLEMS

5 .1. An oil-cooler counterflow heat exchanger consists of

two concentric pipes, with oil flowing through the inner
space and water flowing in the opposite direction through
the annular space. The oil flow rate is 2500 kg/h, while
the inlet temperature is 77°C and the outlet temperature
is 55°C (coil = 1.67 J/g K). The water flow rate is 2000
kg/hand the inlet temperature is 32°C (cwater = 4.18 Jig
K). Calculate the effectiveness (E), the number of heat
transfer units (N 1 "), and the entropy generation number
[ sgen /( mcp)onl. neglecting the irreversibility due to
fluid friction. Consider the option of increasing the heat
transfer area by increasing the total length of the
concentric-pipe heat exchanger by 20%. If the flow rates,
fluid properties, and inlet temperatures remain unchanged,
determine: (a) the oil outlet temperature, (b) the water
outlet temperature, (c) the effectiveness and number of
heat transfer units, and (d) the entropy generation
number. Wa~ ln~la~d---------~~ter Oil Oil --------~

5.2 Consider the heat exchanger shown in the next figure.

One stream of ideal gas is in contact with an isolhermal
(cold) pool of temperature T 0 • The overall heat
transfer coefficient is U. a. Qualitatively sketch the
stream bulk temperature vs. the longitudinal position. 151
b. For the entire system (the dashed boundary), determine
the rate of entropy generation. c. The global heat
transfer rate, rhcp(TinTout), is fixed; however, rh and
Tout are not. Assuming also that Tin and D are known,
discuss the effect of heat exchanger length (L) on
entropy generation. P+AP~-----------~~----~ p I I I I I
10 !cold) I I I I I I I -() iflcp T)Tin I I I : Tout Hot
1 Not as hot I I I I I ~X _, dx I-I L ___________ L_j
____ _J 0 L

5.3 Consider the design of an underground heat exchanger

for the residential heat pump system shown in the figure.
The heating rate ( Q), house temperature (T 8 ), and
ground temperature (T 0 ) are known constants. The heat
exchanger consists of a single tube of diameter D and
length L; through this tube, the working fluid of the heat
pump cycle is heated from T 1 (fixed) to a new temperature
T 2 closer to the ground temperature T 0 • Determine
analytically the relationship between the power
requirement W and the heat exchanger geometry (D, L).
Model the above-ground portion of the heat pump as
reversible. The working fluid can be modeled as an
incompressible liquid between states 1 and 2. Assume also
that the overall heat transfer coefficient between ground
(T 0 ) and bulk fluid temperature (D is a known constant
U. Do not neglect the frictional pressure drop P 1 -P 2
= AP in the analysis. House 780Q w Reversible heat
pump ,n ~ <D ® IE L ,.I

152

5.4. An enclosure filled with electronic components is

cooled by a stream of forced room-temperature air. The air
is drawn through the enclosure by a fan positioned
downstream of the electronics. The specified operating
temperature and power (Joule heating) of the electronic
components are T. and Q. Inside the enclosure, the air
stream is well-mixed at the temperature Tmix· The
enclosure with electronic components constitutes a
complicated (rough) duct with pressure drop AP, flow
cross-section Ar, heat transfer (contact) area A, and
overall heat transfer coefficient U. It is reasonable to
assume that AP ~ P 0 , and that the friction factor (f)
and Stanton number (St) are sufficiently insensitive to
changes in the flow rate. Show that the required fan
power is proportional to the product mAP, and that it can
be minimized with respect to the total heat transfer area
A (Bejan and Ledezma, 1996). Show further that the
optimal heat transfer area for minimum fan power is Aopt
= (2/St)Ar. The optimization of the cooling of electronics
operating at low temperatures is proposed in Problem 10.7.
Tmix electric fopower ant model rii rii -To Po Po
fan electronic packages

5.5. Reconsider Problem 5.4 in which the fan power required

to cool a space filled with electronics was minimized.
Repeat the modeling assumptions spelled out in Problem
5.4, however, this time assume that the air flow path is
such that the stream is unmixed. This means that both the
electronics and the coolant

become hotter in the downstream direction. The highest

temperature of the electronic components (T.) occurs at
the downstream end of the flow path. Show that the fan
power is minimum when the total heat transfer area is

approximately Aopt = (2/St)A 1 , where A 1 is the flow

cross-sectional area, and

2/St is a number of order 10 2 • L electric power x=O

~~~ ..................................................
······-~:.:.; .. J fan m Po 153 Tout
6 Chapter 6 Insulation systems

Bejan, A. 1979. A general variational principle for thermal

insulation system design. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer.
22:219-228.

Bejan, A. 1982. Second-law analysis in heat transfer and

thermal design. Adv. Heat Transfer. 15:1-58.

Bejan, A. and Smith, J. L., Jr. 1974. Thermodynamic

optimization of mechanical supports for cryogenic
apparatus. Cryogenics. 14:158-163.

Grassmann, P. and Kopp, J. 1957. Zur gunstigsten Wahl der

Temperaturdifferenz und der Wiirmeiibergangszahl in
Wiirmeaustauschern. 157. Kaeltetechnik. 9:306-308.

Hila!, M.A. and Eyssa, Y. M. 1980. Minimization of

refrigeration power for large cryogenic systems. Adv.
Cryogenic Eng. 25:350--357.

Kropschot, R. H., Birmingham, B. W., and Mann, D. B., Eds.

1968. Technology of Liquid Heliwn, Monogr. No. 111,
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C.

Schultz, W. and Bejan, A. 1983. Exergy conservation in

parallel thermal insulation systems. Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer. 26:335-340.

Szargut, J. 1980. International progress in second law

analysis. Energy. 5:709-718.

PROBLEMS

6.1. Consider an insulated vessel (Dewar) containing M [kg]

of saturated liquid helium at atmospheric pressure (TL =
4.2 K). The insulation allows the heat leak Q (W) to
reach the liquid pool; as a result, the liquid boils and
the boiloff (saturated vapor, 4.2 K) escapes directly into
the atmosphere (the boiloff does not cool the insulation).
Demonstrate analytically that the instantaneous boil-off
rate is in proportion to the rate of entropy generation in
the system. (Warning: this is an open system in unsteady
state.) Discuss the mechanism for entropy generation, and
what the designer can do to reduce the boil-off rate.
r----1 I I I I T 8 1 Ql I I I I I ------, I I
I I I I ISVstem I I I I I L------------_ _J 169

6.2. Consider the minimization of entropy generation in the

one-dimensional insulation (k, A, L, T 8 , TL) sketched
in Figure 6.2. Assume that the insulation is cooled only
at one intermediate point (location x, temperature Tm).
Determine the optimal x and Tm for minimum entropy
generation.

6.3. A special kind of unidirectional thermal insulation

is a radiation shield that separates two surfaces (T 8 ,
TL). Model the net heat transfer rate between each surface
and the shield as Q 8 _s = a. ( T~ 'fs 4 ), and Qs-L = a. (
'fs 4 r:), where a. is a known constant and Ts is the
absolute temperature of the shield. Assuming that the
shield temperature can be controlled externally (by contact
with a reversible cyclic device), determine the optimal
Ts for minimum irreversibility in the space between T 8
and TL. OQS-L
7 Chapter 7 Storage systems

Aceves-Saborio, S., Hernandez-Guerrero, A., and Nakamura,

H. 1993. Heat transfer and exergy analysis of the charge
process of a heat storage cell. ASME HTD. 266:73-80.

Aceves-Saborio, S., Nakamura, H., and Reistad, G. M. 1994.

Optimum efficiencies and phasechange temperatures in
latent heat storage systems. 1. Energy Resources TechnoL
116:79--86.

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PROBLEMS

8.1. Novikov's steady-state model of an irreversible power

plant is shown below. The heat exchanger of finite thermal
conductance UA drives the heat transfer rate Q, into the
working fluid, which is heated at constant temperature from
(b) to (c). The fluid is expanded irreversibly from (c) to
(d). Novikov accounted for this irreversibility by
writi~g (sd Sa) = (1 + i) (Sd.rev s.), Or Q 2 = (1 + i) Q
2 rev' where (1 + i) ~ 1, and Q 2 is the heat
transferred to the ambient T 2 • The rest or'the power
plant operates reversibly. Determine the optimal hot-end
temperature T 1 c for maximum power. Show that the
efficiency at maximum power is power plant _r:::-1 heat
exchanger ~.!I ..... reversible compartment .I~

8.2. Chambadal's optimization of the steady-state power

plant can be reproduced by considering the model shown
below. The power plant is powered by a stream of hot
single-phase fluid of inlet temperature T 1 and constant
specific heat cr The power plant model consists of two
compartments. The lower compartment sandwiched between the
surface of temperature T 2 and the ambient T 0 operates
reversibly. The area of the heat transfer surface T 2 is
infinite, and, as a consequence, the outlet temperature of
the stream is equal to T 2 • Determine the optimal hot-end
temperature T 2 such that the instantaneous power output
W is maximized. Show that when the power is maximum the
efficiency TJ = W I Q is equal to 1(T 0 /T 1 ) 112 • max
power plant heat exchanger mcP
----t---------+--reversible compartment

244

8.3. Chambadal's maximum-power efficiency is based on an

analysis in which

the heat exchanger area is treated as infinite (Problem

8.2). Show that the same efficiency formula holds when the
heat exchanger size is finite. The stream is unmixed, the
finite thermal conductance between the stream and the T 2
surface is specified (UA), and the outlet temperature
varies according

to UA in the figure below (part a). The second model (b) is

the same as the first, except that the stream is well
mixed at the temperature Tout inside the

heat exchanger. power plant T I beat exchanger Tout T I

rilcp -----t---------+-rilcp -+----1 reversible

compartment a UA power plant beat exchanpr reversible
compartment b

8.4. The power plant model shown in the next figure

contains three compartments: the hot-end heat exchanger, an
inner compartment that houses the circulating working
fluid, and the cold-end heat exchanger. Assume that the
heat transfer rates are proportional to the respective
temperature differences, and that the thermal resistance R
characterizes both heat exchangers. Assume also that the
inner compartment operates reversibly. Derive an expression
for the instantaneous power output W as a function of T 1
c, T 1 , T 2 , and R. Maximize W with respect to T 1 c
apd show that T 1 ciT 2 c = (T 1 /T 2 ) 112 • Show further
that the efficiency 11 = W /Q 1 at maximum power is equal
to 1 (T 2 /T 1 ) 112 • Finally, calculate the ratio of the
entropy generated in the hot heat exchanger divided by the
entropy generated in the cold heat exchanger, and show that
the cold heat exchanger generates more entropy. R heat
exchanger Tic 1-------------l reversible compartment
T2c 1-----------1 heat exchanger 245

8.5. The conclusions reached in Section 8.1 were made

possible by the simplicity of the power plant model
proposed in Figure 8.1. More realistic models require more
complex analytical and numerical work. For illustration,
consider the ideal Brayton cycle shown in the figure
below. The working fluid (ideal gas with constant cP) is
heated at constant pressure PH as it flows from the
compressor outlet (1) to the turbine inlet (2). The
compressor and the turbine process the fluid reversibly and
adiabatically, i.e., isentropically. Between the turbine
outlet (3) and the compressor inlet (4), the working fluid
is cooled at constant pressure Pv The power plant is
sandwiched between two temperature reservoirs, TH and TL.
The Brayton cycle is said to be "ideal" because the only
irreversibilities accounted for by this model are external
to the space occupied by the working fluid itself. These
irreversibilities are associated with the heat transfer
from (T 8 ) to the heater tube (1) ~ (2), and with the
heat transfer from the cooler (3) ~ (4) to the
low-temperature reservoir (TL). Assume that the total
thermal conductance UA of the two heat exchangers is fixed.
Show analytically that the entropy generation rate of the
power plant is minimized when UA is divided equally
between the heat exchangers. T I I

246

8.6. Consider the adiabatic steady flow turbine shown

below. An ideal gas of flow rate m expands from P 1 to
P 2 , as shown on the attached T -s diagram. The stream
experiences the pressure drop !J.P 1 as it is ducted and
distributed to the first turbine stage. It then expands
through the turbine stage (or sequence of stages) with the
isentropic efficiency 11 1 < 1. The final pressure drop
is due to the discharge and ducting of the stream to the
next component in the power plant (the cooler, or
condenser). Assume that the relations between m and
pressure drops are nonlinear, !J.P 1 = r 1 thn and !J.P
2 = r 2 mn, where r 1 and r 2 are the inlet and outlet
flow resistances. Determine the optimal pressure drops and
flow rate for maximum turbine power output. Compare the
maximum power with the power (at the same flow rate) in
the limit of zero pressure drops (r 1 = r 2 = 0). T T2
T 2,rev

8.7. The steady-flow adiabatic compressor shown below has

pressure drops at the inlet and the outlet, !J.P 1 =
1jthn and M 2 = r 2 mn. The isentropic efficiency of the
compressor stage (or sequence of stages) is Tlc < 1. The
fluid is a ideal gas. Derive an expression for the
compressor power input W as a function of M 1 , and show
• c that W, does not have a minimum with respect to M 1
(or m, or !J.P 2 ). 247
8.8. In Section 8.6.2 we used a power plant model with one
heat exchanger to demonstrate that maximizing the power
output W is equivalent to minimizing the total entropy
generation rate Sg•n. Consider the model shown below,
where the hot-end and cold-end thermal conductances are
generally not equal. Recognize the availability of a
larger heat input Q such that QH can be varied. Derive an
expression for the total rate of entropy generation rate,
and show that the minimization of sgen is analytically
the same as the maximization of w. r: ~'!'
~y~t~~---------Q ~~T~-------~~ D~ I__ internal 1
irreversibility external _____] irreversibility~

8.9. In the power plant model shown in the following figure

the heat input QH is jaed. The power plant can be modeled
as a reversible compartment sandwiched between two heat
exchangers, Qn = (UAMTn-Tnc) and QL = (UAMTLc-TL). The
total conductance inventory is fixed, (UA)n + (UA)L = UA.
Show that to maximize W we have only one degree of
freedom, namely the conductance allocation ratio x =
(UA)u!UA. Show further that the maximum power and
efficiency are described by ~max = 1 _ TL [1 _ 4QH )-I
Ql/ ~I THUA and provide in this way an alternative
explanation as to why the reported efficiencies (Figure
8.6) fall at a certain level below the Camot limit
(1TL!Tn).

248 This explanation is at least ~l'> plausible m; the

other theories given in Chapter 8, because real power
plants are designed for steady power production at ftxed
heat (fuel rate) input. heat exchanger (UA)H reversible
~ compartment heat exchanger (UA)L
9 Chapter 9 Solar-thermal power generation

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274

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PROBLEMS

9 .1. The simplest model of the irreversible operation of

a solar driven refrigerator is shown below. A solar
collector with heat loss to the ambient heats the hot end
of a reversible refrigeration cycle. The collector model is
described by Equations (9.1) and (9.2). Show that when the
refrigeration load temperature TL is fixed, the
refrigeration load is maximum when the collector
temperature is the geometric average of the stagnation
temperature and the ambient temperature. Sun ~Q'
collector Tc 1. :g; .. r ·. · ., · .. , •. 1 load
TL--------------------reversible refrigerator 275

9.2. Suppose you are installing an air conditioning unit on

the side of a house. On which side (north or south) should
you install the unit, and why? On which side should you
install a heat pump? Does your answer depend on the
hemisphere you happen to live in?

9.3. Maximize the power output of a reversible heat-engine

cycle that is driven by heating ( Q, n from a solar
collector with ideal concentrator (see figure below)
(Bejan, 1988b, pp. 502-503). The solar beam intercepted by
the concentrator (mirror) is directed fully into the focal
aperture A of an enclosure placed near the focal point
of the mirror. In other words, an observer placed at A sees
only the sun T, when looking at the mirror. The enclosure
fills with blackbody radiation of temperature T. The
direct heat leak from the enclosure to the ambient (T 0 =
300 K) is negligible. The heat engine draws steadily the
heat transfer rate Q from the focal enclosure. Determine
the optimal enclosure temperature for maximum power. The
solar radiation can be modeled as blackbody radiation of
temperature T, = 5762 K. reversible power plant

9.4. Consider again the solar-thermal power plant described

in the preceding problem statement, this time determining
the optimal collector temperature T by minimizing the
entropy generation rate associated with the power plant
(Bejan, 1988b, pp. 503-505). (a) Attribute the generation
of entropy solely to the net heat transfer rate Q that
crosses the temperature gap T, T. Minimize this entropy
generation rate and comment on the physical significance
of the optimal collector temperature and on the
correctness of the assumed locus of entropy generation.

276 (b) Recognize that the variability of the heat input Q

(or T) requires the existence of a larger (fixed) heat
transfer Qt from T,, such that always Qt is greater than
Q. The unused portion Q tQ reaches the ambient T 0 • Use
the figure below to evaluate the total entropy generation
rate and show that the minimization of sgen yields the
same optimal collector temperature as the maximization of
W in the preceding problem. sun Ts Q I I 0 I I I
I I I I collector I T reversible power plant w
ambient 0 To

9.5. A room is maintained at the temperature T, above the

ambient temperature T 0 by the heat input Q, received
from a reversible heat pump driven by the heat input Qc
from a solar collector of temperature Tc. Assume that the
net solar heat transfer into the collector is fixed, Q*.
The rate of collector-ambient heat loss is Q 0 = UcAc
(TcT 0 ), where the thermal conductance Uc Ac is fixed.
Determine the optimal collector temperature such that the
heat input Q, is maximized. Sun collector Tc
c:::========::::J room ambient T 0 ---------reversible
heat pump 277

9.6. The refrigerator shown on the right side of the figure

below is powered by the heat input QH received at the
temperature Tn from a solar collector of temperature Tn
(Bejan et al., 1995). The refrigeration load QL is
extracted from a cold space of temperature TL. The
refrigerator rejects heat at the rate Q 0 to the ambient
T 0 • The heat transfer rates of the evaporator and
condenser are proportional to the respective temperature
differences, QL = ( UA)L (TLT u) and Q 0 = (UA) 0 (ToeT
0 ). The evaporator and condenser thermal conductances
(UA)L and (UA) 0 are related through the total thermal
conductance constraint (UA)L + (UA) 0 = UA, constant.
The rest of the refrigerator is assumed reversible and
labeled (C) in the figure. The collector experiences heat
loss to the ambient (Section 9.1.1) such that the
collector efficiency decreases linearly with the collector
temperature [ cf. Equation (9.4)]. Nondimensionalize the
equations that describe the refrigerator model, and
maximize numerically the refrigeration load. In particular,
determine the optimal conductance allocation fraction z =
(UA)LIUA as a function of the collector stagnation
temperature and other dimensionless parameters of the
model. GT TH,AC ~ QH ¢ TH solar collector heat
leak Toe condenser Qo..(J.(UA)o (C) ambient To
ToTLevaporator Q~(UA)L TLC
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PROBLEMS

10.1. In Section 10.1 the optimization was aimed at

maximizing the refrigeration load when the total heat
exchange inventory is fixed. Now use the reverse approach
and optimize the simpler refrigeration plant model shown in
Figure 10.8b. In other words, minimize the total heat
exchanger inventory UA = (UA) 11 + (UA)L while regarding
the refrigeration load as a specified quantity. Assume the
linear models Q 11 = (UA) 11 (T 11 cT 11 ) and QL =
(UA)L(TL -TLd· Show that the optimal design is the one in
which tl1c minimum heat exchanger inventory (UA)min is
divided equally between the two heat exchangers. Derive an
expression for the second law efficiency, and comment on
the effect of (UA)min on Tln·

10.2. Consider the refrigeration plant model of Figure

10.8b, which is also described in the preceding problem
statement. This time assume that the power input W is
specified. Derive an expression for tlle minimum total heat
exchanger equipment (UA)min• and show tllat tllis optimal
design is characterized by (UA) 11 = (UA)L. Comment on
tlle way in which tlle oilier degrees of freedom of tlle
design influence (UA)min and tlle corresponding second law
efficiency.

10.3. The working fluid in the refrigerator of Figure

10.23 is to be compressed from tlle initial state (T 0 ,
PL) in n stages, i.e., n compressors alternating witll n
aftercoolers. The right side of Figure 10.23 shows only
tlle special case n = 3. The refrigerant can be modeled as
an ideal gas witll constants Rand k = cplcv. Each
aftercooler performs well enough so tllat tlle temperature
of tlle inlet to each compressor is approximately equal to
T 0 • The isentropic efficiency of each compressor is 11,
. Also known are the low and high pressures of tlle cycle,
PLandP 11 • There arc (n -1) degrees of freedom left in
tlle design oftllis multistage compressor, namely, tlle
pressures of tlle first (n1) aftercoolers. Let tllese
unknowns be P 1 , P 2 , ... , Pn-l• so tllatP;IP;_ 1 is
the pressure ratio seen by the itll compressor. Show that
the total compressor power required by the n compressors
is minimized when the (n1) aftercooler pressures are chosen
such tllat the pressure ratio P; IP;_ 1 does not vary
from one compression stage to the next. Determine tllis
optimal per-stage pressure ratio. Show tllat tlle minimum
total compressor power is

314 . n . [(PH )(k-1)/(nk) l W=-mcT -1 c n pOp 'lc L

Derive the limit n ~ oo and Tlc ~ 1 of the minimum total
compressor power expression.

10.4. A vessel contains a slowly vanishing amount of

Tctemperature liquid cryogen (e.g., liquid helium) boiling
at constant pressure under the influence of the heat leak
QL which penetrates the insulation and reaches the pool of
liquid. The boil-off flow rate m escapes through a top
vent port into the atmosphere. Demonstrate that as long as
liquid is inside the vessel, the boil-off rate is
proportional to the heat leak and that the proportionality
is The quantities in the parentheses represent the
saturation properties of the cryogen at atmospheric
pressure.

10.5. We want to solve simultaneously the heating

requirements of an office building and the refrigeration
requirements of an ice-storage facility by installing the
refrigerator/heat pump system shown in the figure below.
The temperature of the ice-storage facility (T 1 ) and
the temperature of the office building interior (T 2 )
are fixed by design. The steady-state heat leak from the
ambient to the ice-storage facility ( Q 1 ) and the heat
leak from the building interior to the ambient ( Q 2 )
are both proportional to the respective temperature
differences that drive the leak, i.e., where T 0 is the
ambient temperature and heat conductances C 1 and C 2 are
known constants. The refrigerator/heat pump system is also.
in thermal contact with the ambient and experiences the
heat transfer input On (note the physically positive
direction of the energy interaction arrows and the
vertical alignment of temperatures in the figure).
Finally, it is assumed that the refrigerator/heat pump
system operates in reversible cycles. (a) Determine the
mechanical power requirement W as a function of T 0 , T 1
, T 2 , C 1 , and C 2 • (b) Recognizing that the
ambient temperature T 0 can vary daily or seasonally
while T 1 and T 2 remain fixed, determine th~ ambient
temperature To,opt that would minimize the power
requirement W. (c) Show that the optimal condition
described in part (b) corresponds to the special case in
which the refrigerator/heat pump system does not exchange
heat with the ambient ( Q 0 = 0). 315 (d) What is the
entropy-generation rate Ssen of the aggregate system which
includes the refrigerator/heat pump apparatus, the
ice-storage facility, and the office building? (e) Show
that regardless of weather conditions (T 0 ), the power
requirement W is directly proportional to sgen.
Reversible refrigerator/ heat pump system

10.6 A low-temperature installation must use a counterflow

heat exchanger with the capacity rate thcP on both sides
of the heat transfer surface 1t D;L. The inlet
temperatures of the two streams (TL, Tn) are lower than
the ambient temperature T 0 , and the range covered by
the counterflow on the temperature scale is considerably
smaller than T 0 ; in other words, TnTL <a; T 0 • As
shown on the next page, the heat exchanger consists of
two concentric tubes with the diameters D; and D 0 and
negligible wall thicknesses. The pressure drops of the two
streams are negligible. (a) First, assume that the outer
surface 1t D 0 L is perfectly insulated. Determine the
entropy generation rate of the counterflow heat exchanger
as a function of mcP, Tn, Tv the heat transfer area 1t D;
L, and the heat transfer coefficient based on that area,
U;, which is assumed known. Treat the heat exchanger as a
column with adiabatic sides and end-to-end convective heat
leak Qc = mcpl:lT, where l:lT <a; (TH, TL) is the
stream-to-stream temperature difference defined by me P
dT = (1t D; dx) U; l:lT, and x is measured along the
counterflow. Show that to decrease the entropy generation
rate means to increase the length L. (b) Assume that the
outer insulation is not perfect. As L increases, the outer
area of the heat exchanger increases and so does the heat
leak from T 0 to the heat exchanger. Assume that the
overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outer
surface 1t D 0 L and its insulation is known, U 0 •
Furthermore, in view of the TnTL <a; T 0 assumption, treat
the outer surface of the heat exchanger as isothermal at
an average temperature T, which is comparable to the
average of Tn and TL. Model the heat leak as proportional
to the ambient-heat exchanger temperature difference, f2o
= 1t D 0 L U 0 (T 0 T). Determine the entropy generation
rate due to the heat leak and show that it increases as L
increases.

316 (c) Consider the total rate of entropy generation

(counterflow+ heat leak), and minimize it by selecting the
optimal counterflow length L. ambient To counterflow n
Qo vheatleak heatexchanger ~ j_ m~cp,TH ---------Do,Uo
--------~ T ' Di, ui L_ 0 X

10.7. Consider the cooling of a space filled with

heat-generating electric components such as electronic
packages or superconducting windings (Bejan and Ledezma,
1996). In the arrangement shown in the figure below the
space operates at the temperature T. below the ambient T
0 , and generates Joule heat at the rate Q. The coolant
is a stream of single phase fluid of flow rate m and
specific heat cP' The contact area between the
heat-releasing surfaces and the coolant is fixed, A.
Assume that the overall heat transfer coefficient U is
proportional to m, and that the coolant is well mixed at
the temperature Tout inside the electric device. The inlet
temperature is controlled by a reversible steady-state
refrigerator that receives the stream from room
temperature, and rejects heat to room temperature, Q 0 _
Minimize the refrigerator power W required to assist the
electric function of the cold space (T., Q ), and report
the optimal coolant flow rate. ambient refri erator
electric power electronic packages Tout Tout

10.8. The main external features of a heat-driven

refrigerator are shown on the left side of the figure
below (Bejan et al., 1995). The working fluid executes
cycles 317 while removing the refrigeration load QL from
the refrigerated space TL, and rejecting the heat transfer
Q 0 to the ambient T 0 • The cycle is driven by the heat
transfer QH received from the source temperature Tn. No
work transfer occurs between the refrigerator and its
environment From the outset. we recognize that the
refrigerator operates irreversibly because of several
entropy generating mechanisms that are always present, for
example, heat transfer, throttling, and mixing. In the
model shown on the right side of the figure below, we have
divided the refrigerator into four compartments, the three
heat exchangers (QH, GJ, QL), and the rest The heat
exchangers account for the irreversibility of the machine,
and the remaining components [labeled (C)] are modeled as
irreversibility free. heat source cooled space
irreversible refrigerator THQHD(UA)H THe,-----, (a) w
generator Toe '"------, condenser Q~(UA) 0 ToTLQLn (UA)L
evaporator 'V (P) ~ Toe Q~D(uA)~ Qo (UA)o \CJ; R (R)
To TLQL.(yuA)l TLc (b) (C)

318 Assume that in each heat exchanger the heat transfer

rate is proportional to the respective temperature
difference, Q 8 = (UA) 8 (T 8 T 8 c), Q 0 = (UA) 0 (T
ocT 0 ) and QL = (UA)L (TLT LC). The thermal conductances
are related by the total conductance constraint (UA) 8 +
(UA) 0 + (UA)L = UA, constant. Find the optimal way to
divide UA between the three heat exchangers in such a way
that QL is maximized. To obtain this result with maximum
generality and minimum computational work (i.e., mainly
analytically), it is instructive to use the path suggested
by the figure b, which shows that the refrigerator is
equivalent to a power plant (P) that drives a refrigerator
(R). Note also that the solutions to the optimal
allocation of thermal conductance in (P) and (R) are
presented in Sections 8.1.2. and 10.3.1.
11 Chapter 11 Time-dependent operation

Abe, H. 1988. Design of HDR reservoir-an overview of

r-project. Proc. Int. Workshop on Hot Dry Rock. Tsukuba,
Japan, Nov. 4-5.

Abe, H., Keer, L. M., and Mura, T. 1979. Theoretical study

of hydraulically fractured pennyshaped cracks in hot, dry
rocks. Int. J. Numerical Anal. Methods Geomech. 3:79-96.

Abe, H., Sekine, H., and Shibuya, Y. 1983. Thermoelastic

analysis of a cracklike reservoir in a hot dry rock
during extraction of geothermal energy. J. Energy
Resources Technol. 105:503-508.

Bejan, A. 1993. Heat Transfer. p. 187, Wiley, New York.

Bejan, A. 1994. Contact melting heat transfer and

lubrication. Adv. Heat Transfer. 24:1-38.

Bejan, A., Vargas, J. V. C., and Lim, J. S. 1994. When to

defrost a refrigerator, and when to remove the scale from
the heat exchanger of a power plant. Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer. 37:523-532.

Bodvarsson, G. 1969. On the temperature of water flowing

through fractures. J. Geophys. Res. 74:1987-1992.

Dossat, T. J. 1981. Principles of Refrigeration, 2nd ed.

Wiley, New York, chap. 11 and 20.

Epstein, N. 1979a. Fouling in heat exchangers. In Heat

Transfer 1978Proc. 6th Int. Heat Transfer Conf, Vol. 6,
pp. 235-253, Hemisphere, New York.

Epstein, N. 1979b. Optimum evaporator cycles with scale

formation. Can. J. Chem. Eng. 57:659-661.

Gringarten, A. D., Witherspoon, P. A., and Ohnishi, Y.

1975. Theory of heat extraction from fractured hot dry
rock. J. Geophys. Res. 80:1120-1124.

Konings, A.M. 1989. Guide values for the fouling

resistances of cooling water with different types of
treatment for design of shell-and-tube heat exchangers.
Heat Transfer Eng. 10:54-61.

Lim, J. S., Bejan, A., and Kim, J. II. 1992.

Thermodynamics of energy extraction from fractured hot dry
rock. Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow. 13:71-77.
Ma, R. S. T. and Epstein, N. 1981. Optimum cycles for
falling rate processes. Can. J. Chern. Eng. 59:631-633.

Radcenco, V., Vargas, J. V. C., Bejan, A., and Lim, J. S.

1995. Two design aspects of defrosting refrigerators.
Int. J. Refrig. 18:76-86.

Rite, R. W. and Crawford, R. R. 1991. An experimental

investigation of air-side heat and mass transfer on
domestic refrigerator-freezer finned-tube evaporators.
Proc. 18th Int. Congr. Refrig. 806-810.

Vargas, J. V. C. and Bejan, A. 1995. Fundamentals of ice

making by convection cooling followed by contact melting.
Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer. 38: 2833-2841.

Vargas, J. V. C., Bejan, A., and Dobrovicescu, A. 1994.

The melting of an ice shell on a heated horizontal
cylinder. J. Heat Transfer. 116:702-708.

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probabilistic approach to the maintenance of
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17:769-776.

PROBLEMS

11.1. The optimal regime of operation of the defrosting

refrigerator of Section 11.1.1 was determined based on the
assumption that the electric power used for melting the
ice is negligible. Consider now the more general case in
which the electrical power used for resistively melting
the ice is not negligible (Bejan et al., 1994). That power
level (Joule heating rate) is the known 345 constant q 1
• Note that a new, additional term q 1 t 2 will appear
on the right side of Equations (11.1) and (11.5). Derive
an expression for the dimensionless average power
requirement Tin WI q (t 1 + t 2 ), and find the optimal
ratio t = t/t 2 that maximizes the average power. Comment
on how the dimensionless Joule heating rate qJq
influences the 'topt value.

11.2. In the initial state 1 the cylinder and piston

apparatus shown in the figure contains an amount of ideal
ga<; at T 0 and P 0 • The process 1-2 begins with
heating the left wall such that its temperature is
maintained at T 0 . The piston temperature continues to
be T 0 • The gas undergoes a quasistatic expansion from
V 0 to V, or in terms of displacement, from Xo to x. The
piston face area is A. The thickness x is small enough
such that the temperature distribution across the gas
layer is always linear. (a) Determine the relation between
the pressure and volume of the gas at any position
between 1 and 2. (b) Derive an expression for the work
transferred from the gas to an external mechanism during
the process 1-2. (c) The thermal conductivity of the gas
is a constant, k. Fromx 0 toxthepiston moves with a
constant velocity, u. Determine the total heat transfer
received by the gas through the left wall during the
process 1-2. (1) (2) To '--------"'--• 0 L...c,

11.3. Consider the configuration sketched in the next

figure, in which ice forms on the inner surface of a
cylindrical wall cooled on the outside by convection. In
the beginning the cylinder is filled with water at the
freezing point, Tm. The outer wall of the cylinder is
exposed to a coolant (T_ < Tm) when t > 0. Furthermore,
heat transfer coerticicnt between the wall and the coolant,
h, is

346 assumed constant. The water movement can be neglected

because the buoyancy effect is zero (the liquid is
isothermal at Tm). The heat transfer through the ice
shell and the tube wall are by quasi-steady conduction. The
formation of an ice column with annular cross-section
lasts t 1 seconds. Determine the relation between the ice
inner radius rand t 1 (as a guide, use Bejan, 1993, p.
187). Assume that the time associated with the removal of
the ice column is fixed, t 2 • Determine the optimal
freezing time t 1 ,opt• or optimal inner radius r opt•
for maximum time-averaged rate of ice production. _ h, T~
, coolant

11.4. In the following figure it is shown that ice is being

made on the outside of a tube cooled internally by
convection. The coolant temperature is T_, and the
wall-coolant heat transfer coefficient is h. The wall has
the radii Rand R 0 and the thermal conductivity k,.. The
tube is immersed in water at the freezing point Tm. Ice
grows to the radius r during the time t 1 • The time
needed to remove the ice column is fixed, t 2 •
Determine the relation between rand the freezing time t 1
(e.g., Bejan, 1993, p. 187). Maximize the time-averaged
rate of ice production during a complete freezing and
removal cycle. Report formulas for calculating the optimal
freezing time and the optimal outer radius of the ice
column. tube wall, k., Tm water 347