Developing a

Philosophy for tnquiry

ne of the prerequisites for becoming

philosophical mind-set founded on the ideals and principles of constructivism.

Today, there are as many interpretations of constructivism as there are interpreta-

inquiry-based teacher is embracing a

an

tions of inquiry, yet many high school science teachers may still be unaware of the prom-

inence that constructivism has attained in the last 25 years and its implications for science

education, instructional reform, and, specifically, inquiry-based classrooms. In this chap-

ter, you will gain a deeper understanding of how high school students learn through a

constructivist approach. You will also read several constructivist teaching strategies that

parallel this philosophy of learning.

Although it has implications for the classroom, constructivism is not about teaching

strategies, nor is it about designing curriculum. Rather, it is one

about how an individual learns

ment and is constantly constructing and reconstructing knowledge through hands-on

interactions. Because the tenets of constructivism align closely with the practice of

inquiry, it becomes essential that inquiry-based teachers have a firm foundation in the

propositions of constructivism.

This chapter will (a) introduce the philossophy and historical development of

constructivism that have shaped

learn science, (b) discuss how one's prior knowledge and misconceptions can influ-

ence learning, and (c) present constructivist learning strategies compatible with-

inquiry- and learner-centered classrooms. By understanding constructivist principles

we can better envision our role as inquiry-based teachers. For that reason, it become

crucial that science teachers interested in inquiry be able to articulate their philosc

theory or philosophy one in which the student is embedded in active engage

our understanding of how high school students are reflected in ou

phy of teaching and learning and apply it to classroom practice. After all, our valuebeliefs, and even

prejudices about teaching and learning

classroom culture. Our classrooms, in a sense, mirror and resonate with what -

believe are

good teaching and learning.

Oat is Constructivism?

Constructivism is a theory about how we come to know what we know. It is feunded on

the premise that children.

the world arcaund them based on the context of their existing knowledce. We do this by

reflecting on our prior experiences In this way, each of us constructs our own mental

models, or schema, as we actvale our experience to develop new conceptual stauctures

adolescerts, and even adults construct or make reaning about

In a constructivist point of view, the learner is ccnstantly filtering

based on hiss cr har existing conceptions and preconceived notions to corstruct and recon

struct his or her own understanding. Thus, the meaning of "knowing" is an active,

adaptive, and evolutionary process.

The construcivist perspective is startlingly

incoming information

about learring. Behaviorism, one earlier view, is huilt on the premise that learn.ng is an

acquisition or change in observable behavior initiated through stimuli and response

Although behavioral
distinct fro eailier views and theorles

psycholugy cr operant cone

applying positive and negative reinforcementnditioning is considered useful when

not account for the cogritive

it does

aspect of learning. Objectivism, occasionally paied widh behuviorism, presumes that al

that learning co

sists of imparting that body of knowledge from one person to another. Contrary to behat-

Iorists and objecivists' viaws, constautivists subscribe reither to the suPposition that

knowledge s

imparted, acquired, or transmitted from one irdividual o another. Constructivists believe

that learning is self-regulating and socially mediated as the student actively engages

interacts, and operates within the confines of his or her environment. Learning, to the

Constructivists do nat

view the mind as a "blank slate" or an "empty vessel," as in John Locke's famous expres

sion labulu rasa; teachers cannot dispense or pour information directly into a students

approacl the student is an active participant in the learning

with years of prior knowledge and even misco-

they interpret and make meaningful interpretaticna of the

According to the National Research Council (200b,

knowledge exists externally and independenly from the leamer and

students "absorb" information from the teacher ror to the beliet that

constructivist, is focused on cognitive, not behavioral, processes.

hcad. In the constructivist

process. Students enter our classrooms

ceptions that greatly affect how

phenomena being studied.

students come into the classroom with preconceptions about how the world

works. If their initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new

concepts and information that are taught, or they may learn for the purposes of a

test but revert to their preconoceptions outside the classroom. (p. 14)

studies focus on the attention sriene

This chapter and the accompanying case

teachers nced to placo cn what their high school students are thinking about as the

undertake inquiry investigations

Traditional

Versus Constructivist Classrooms

To construct an understanding of constructivism,

traditional, teacher-centered, and one constructivist, student-centered. In this case std

Mrs. Hennessey, a biology teacher at Northshore High School, is presenting an introa

let's consider two classrooms o

biology students

tory

unit on how the leaf carries out photosynthesis to her general

this classroom, student desks are arranged in straight rows, with the teacher's desk in

ngat nier of due room. Mrs. Hennesces

along with several demonstrations and labs she has maotcred from tse over many yeas.

During the unit, students take notes, fil out handouts and woksheets that emphnsice

rote momorization, and when time and supplies are aailable, perfom

ties thet verity information that was presented on previous days, Mrs, Heanessey starts
he unit by telling students that phctosynthesis is the process in which green plants un

light energy to make food She gnes on to exp.ain that "photo" means "light" and "sym

dhods" meane "o put together,

appropriate name for the process, Students then copy the formula jor photosynthesie, in

hoth words and chemical notation, en she writes i on the board. Ms. Hennessey contin

s by explaining in detail the process of photusnthesis and the role that light, carborn

dioxide, and water

Mrs. Hennessey

photosynthesis.

The following day, she teaches the impertae of photosynthesis by introducing the

carbon dioxide cycle and the in:erdependence of piants and anianab in ther quest to

us a single extbock for studving bielogy

laberatory activi-

and she indicates dut photosmthesis" is quite an

play in making food for plants. Later in the first dey's leson,

goes on to describe the production of sagar and oxygen as products in

survive.

identify the different

textbooks to label the different cell layers and:

The teacher

Psents a lab experience to view the cross section of a leaf and to

: leaf cells. During the lab, students use the cross section and their

son, students use their notes and textbook to prepare for a paper-and-panil unit tat In

the test, students are asked to define the tem photosunthesis and strte its formrala. Another

section include labeling a cross section of a leaf similar to the illustration from the lab.
In this elassiuUm, Mrs. Henrnessey is the infornation provider and views the stadents

as passive learners who have come to the elasroom to kauw and master a fixed tody of

information. Information is divided into distinct and separate parts, with little emphasis

structures of the leaf. At the end of the les

cn the students internalizing

Mr. Travers is also a biology

Mrs. Hennessey, he is presenting an introductory

the information.

teacher at Northshore

High School, and,

like

unit on photosynthesis to his general

biology students. In Mr Travers's dassroom, student desks are sometimes arranged in

straight rows,

sometimes

in groups of four, and sometimes in the shape of a "U." Mr.

Travers allows the purpose of the lesson to determine the appropriate room setup. Mr.

Travers uses several textbooks and primary sources for studying biology. He keeps a col-

Scientific American magazines on the shelf for students, along with

other science books and resources. Mr. Travers starts the lesson by having students

sthink

know about the leaf as the fcod manufacturing site and

lection of Science and

about and

record what they

encourages them to write down whatever comes to mind when they think about the term

photosynthesis.

After 2 minutes, he tells them, "Now turm to your partner aiul tell him or her your

Take 2 minutes to share your

At the

prior understandings

thoughts and experiences

end of the "pair and share" activity, he asks

ings about photosynthesis with the

writes and arranges their thoughts in a concept

beriod is spent having students work in groups to view a prepared section of a leaf cress

ection and

ection, Mr

wn to students

The next

about the word 'photosynthesis."

with your partner."

about the word 'photosynthesis'

several

students to share their understand-

Travers

dass. As students

share their ideas, Mr

map on the front board. The hest of the

compare it to the illustration in the book. As students are viewing the leaf
Travers walks around the room answering their questions and posing his

day, students take notes from a brief presentation and overview on the

leaf as it relates to the first day's activity of exploration and sharing

oss section of the

ngat nier of due room. Mrs. Hennesces

along with several demonstrations and labs she has maotcred from tse over many yeas.

During the unit, students take notes, fil out handouts and woksheets that emphnsice

rote momorization, and when time and supplies are aailable, perfom

ties thet verity information that was presented on previous days, Mrs, Heanessey starts

he unit by telling students that phctosynthesis is the process in which green plants un

light energy to make food She gnes on to exp.ain that "photo" means "light" and "sym

dhods" meane "o put together,

appropriate name for the process, Students then copy the formula jor photosynthesie, in

hoth words and chemical notation, en she writes i on the board. Ms. Hennessey contin

s by explaining in detail the process of photusnthesis and the role that light, carborn

dioxide, and water

Mrs. Hennessey

photosynthesis.

The following day, she teaches the impertae of photosynthesis by introducing the

carbon dioxide cycle and the in:erdependence of piants and anianab in ther quest to
us a single extbock for studving bielogy

laberatory activi-

and she indicates dut photosmthesis" is quite an

play in making food for plants. Later in the first dey's leson,

goes on to describe the production of sagar and oxygen as products in

survive.

identify the different

textbooks to label the different cell layers and:

The teacher

Psents a lab experience to view the cross section of a leaf and to

: leaf cells. During the lab, students use the cross section and their

son, students use their notes and textbook to prepare for a paper-and-panil unit tat In

the test, students are asked to define the tem photosunthesis and strte its formrala. Another

section include labeling a cross section of a leaf similar to the illustration from the lab.

In this elassiuUm, Mrs. Henrnessey is the infornation provider and views the stadents

as passive learners who have come to the elasroom to kauw and master a fixed tody of

information. Information is divided into distinct and separate parts, with little emphasis

structures of the leaf. At the end of the les

cn the students internalizing

Mr. Travers is also a biology

Mrs. Hennessey, he is presenting an introductory

the information.

teacher at Northshore

High School, and,

like
unit on photosynthesis to his general

biology students. In Mr Travers's dassroom, student desks are sometimes arranged in

straight rows,

sometimes

in groups of four, and sometimes in the shape of a "U." Mr.

Travers allows the purpose of the lesson to determine the appropriate room setup. Mr.

Travers uses several textbooks and primary sources for studying biology. He keeps a col-

Scientific American magazines on the shelf for students, along with

other science books and resources. Mr. Travers starts the lesson by having students

sthink

know about the leaf as the fcod manufacturing site and

lection of Science and

about and

record what they

encourages them to write down whatever comes to mind when they think about the term

photosynthesis.

After 2 minutes, he tells them, "Now turm to your partner aiul tell him or her your

Take 2 minutes to share your

At the

prior understandings

thoughts and experiences

end of the "pair and share" activity, he asks

ings about photosynthesis with the

writes and arranges their thoughts in a concept

beriod is spent having students work in groups to view a prepared section of a leaf cress
ection and

ection, Mr

wn to students

The next

about the word 'photosynthesis."

with your partner."

about the word 'photosynthesis'

several

students to share their understand-

Travers

dass. As students

share their ideas, Mr

map on the front board. The hest of the

compare it to the illustration in the book. As students are viewing the leaf

Travers walks around the room answering their questions and posing his

day, students take notes from a brief presentation and overview on the

leaf as it relates to the first day's activity of exploration and sharing

oss section of the

jean Piager

Anether influcntial 20h-century ccnstructivist was Swiss psychologist lean Piaget

Piaget began his career as a scientist studving bivalve molluske, Later, while

as96-1980)

orsing at the Binet Institete in the early 1920s translating intelligence tests from Englishe

to Eench, he became interesled in the mistakes chiüdren mada on 1Q tests. Unilike his

predecessors

studying hamans.

work did not catch the attention of A cu conitivists antil the 1960s. Like Dewe,

who studied behavior through animals.Piaepet cor.contrated his rescardh on

Unfertunately, because his nsearch was written in French, much ef his

Plaget (1970)

eevered, but

objects within the environment. Piaget was one of the first psychologists to shift the locas

of learning from a behavioral aspect to a cognitive one. Piaget theorized that cognitire
structures, called schemas,

that schemas represent our ability tc interpret incoming information. These schemas, in a

sense act as filters to assimilete new ideas, Unfcrtunately, one's mental mode's or scve

mas also can be a result ef misinformation, resulting in presentiy held naive belels or

misconceptions. We will address the significance of miscome tions ad Iow they afect

learning later in this chapter

Piaget used the termoperations to describe the waya child internalizes ts interaction with

the environment. The following is a triet summary of Piaget's four derelopmental stages

belleved that krowledge is rot "out there" aomewlere walting to be die-

tather is a result of an interaction betveen the leamer and the people ar

were the mental models that form by "acting cn an object" and

Sensorimotor

and coordinate its motor acticns through trial and error. Toward the end of this stage, the

child begins to develop and use language to communicate needs and feelings.

(birth-2 years): At this stage, the child kearno to adapt to its environament

Preoperational (2-7 years: At this stage, the child begins

become awae ef ib own

actions through thinking. The child also develops the ebility to plan selutions and actions

to solve problems Logic and contradictions are not yet part of the child's thinking.

Concrete Operational (7-11 years): At this age, the preadolescent begirs to develop the

ability to think logically. Preadolescents can now perform many science process skills

such as measuring, classifying, predicting, inferring, hypothesizing, and controlling

variables. The

and can explain the significance of the pattems to others. Tle student at this age can think

about and apply reason to problems that involve using manipulative and concreto objects.
At this point, however, little abstract thirking is experienced.

preadoiescent can also organize objects into sequences based on patternRS

older): A: this stage, the adolescent is able to hink and

and abstractly

Formal Operational (12 years and

to perform

relationships, the student can understand the interaction without the use of manipulative

or concrete objects.

reasoning about ideas not experenced can usually be understood.

When faced with cause and effect

operations logically

personal expenénce, and

At this stage, thirking goes beyond actual

In contrasting students at the levels of concrete and formal operafiors, Driscoll (1991)

says that

Inhelder and Piaget (1958) presented children and adolescents with a chemistry

problem, in which they were io mix clear liquid chemicals from four beakers until

they achieved a yellow color. Concrete operational children were rather rand
in their approach to the problem, sometimes repeating combinations of chenilcaS

they had tried before. In addition, they typically combined cnly two chemicels

a time, or all four, without considering combinations of three. By contrast, formal

operational adolescents generated a systematic plan of testirg chemical combina

tions until they found the solution Moreover they kept records of their tests and

gererated appropriate observations concerning their results. (p 178)

Piaget believed thhat although they progress at different rates, all humans go throug

these same four stages in mental development. Psycholcgists studying Piaget woula

later explain that the stages are not discrete and separate but continuous, as natran

often display behaviors characteristic of the grey areas between the stages. Critics

Piaget's findings would also argue that ch:ldren can manifest characteristics of mot

than one stage and that, at times, they may temporarily regress from one level

another

Hester (1994) states that these formal operations (often seen in high school student

as well as the

represent a new level of abstraction, of thinking about the possible.

actual, of making predictions, forming hypctheses, and thinking scientifically,

which sets the adolescent apart from the child with his or her dependence c

purely concrete objects and refererts for thinking. (p. 155)

on

Although Piaget's research identified age 11 as the point at which children begin to

move into forma! levels of thirking. high school teachers know that many of their stu

dents still operate at a concrete level. As high school teachers use inquiry and argumenta
tion strategies and provide opportunities for students to test their assumptions, describ

relationships and patterns, justify and defend their claims, and use scientific reasoring

tlhey propel the cognitive vehicles for students to nake the transition from concrete to

tormal cognitive levels. However, during this transitional phase, preadolescents can den

onstrate inconsistent reasoning and thought patterns concerming abstractions by showing

illogical or flawed evidence for their assertions.

What does Piaget's theory mean to high school science teachers? It means that every

day, high school suience teachers open their duOIS to students who may exhibit either

concrete or formal operational behaviors, or both. By understanding Piaget's stages of

cognitive development and being aware that students progress from concrete to formal

operations during their middle and high school grades, high school science teachers car

ease and accommodate the Lransition from one stage to another by providing a concrete

hands-on, and motivational experience before introducing a new, formal or abstract cor-

cept. By sequencing a lesson or unit of study from a hands-on mode to a lecture mode

rather than the other way around, teachers provide a lesson in a sequence compatible

with the studenl's cognitive development. This may seem, at first, counterproductive to

a high school science teacher's normal practice because most science teachers introduce

new concept by providing background information and preteaching vocabulary tern

before doing a hands-on lab. By using a constructivist approach to lesson design, scienc

teachers can plan a lesson or a unit that first engages the learner by providing a hands c

exploration or initial motivational discrepant event or quick lab, then explaining the co

cept, and finally extending the concept into an inquiry investigation or full laboratc

experience. It takes time for high school science teachers to feel comfortable with this n

notion of constructivist lesson design. After all, inost of us were taught by high school a

college teachers who lectured first and then gave us the hands-on experience later. T
jean Piager

Anether influcntial 20h-century ccnstructivist was Swiss psychologist lean Piaget

Piaget began his career as a scientist studving bivalve molluske, Later, while

as96-1980)

orsing at the Binet Institete in the early 1920s translating intelligence tests from Englishe

to Eench, he became interesled in the mistakes chiüdren mada on 1Q tests. Unilike his

predecessors

studying hamans.

work did not catch the attention of A cu conitivists antil the 1960s. Like Dewe,

who studied behavior through animals.Piaepet cor.contrated his rescardh on

Unfertunately, because his nsearch was written in French, much ef his

Plaget (1970)

eevered, but

objects within the environment. Piaget was one of the first psychologists to shift the locas

of learning from a behavioral aspect to a cognitive one. Piaget theorized that cognitire

structures, called schemas,

that schemas represent our ability tc interpret incoming information. These schemas, in a

sense act as filters to assimilete new ideas, Unfcrtunately, one's mental mode's or scve

mas also can be a result ef misinformation, resulting in presentiy held naive belels or

misconceptions. We will address the significance of miscome tions ad Iow they afect

learning later in this chapter

Piaget used the termoperations to describe the waya child internalizes ts interaction with

the environment. The following is a triet summary of Piaget's four derelopmental stages

belleved that krowledge is rot "out there" aomewlere walting to be die-

tather is a result of an interaction betveen the leamer and the people ar

were the mental models that form by "acting cn an object" and

Sensorimotor

and coordinate its motor acticns through trial and error. Toward the end of this stage, the

child begins to develop and use language to communicate needs and feelings.

(birth-2 years): At this stage, the child kearno to adapt to its environament

Preoperational (2-7 years: At this stage, the child begins

become awae ef ib own

actions through thinking. The child also develops the ebility to plan selutions and actions

to solve problems Logic and contradictions are not yet part of the child's thinking.

Concrete Operational (7-11 years): At this age, the preadolescent begirs to develop the

ability to think logically. Preadolescents can now perform many science process skills

such as measuring, classifying, predicting, inferring, hypothesizing, and controlling

variables. The

and can explain the significance of the pattems to others. Tle student at this age can think

about and apply reason to problems that involve using manipulative and concreto objects.

At this point, however, little abstract thirking is experienced.

preadoiescent can also organize objects into sequences based on patternRS

older): A: this stage, the adolescent is able to hink and

and abstractly

Formal Operational (12 years and

to perform
relationships, the student can understand the interaction without the use of manipulative

or concrete objects.

reasoning about ideas not experenced can usually be understood.

When faced with cause and effect

operations logically

personal expenénce, and

At this stage, thirking goes beyond actual

In contrasting students at the levels of concrete and formal operafiors, Driscoll (1991)

says that

Inhelder and Piaget (1958) presented children and adolescents with a chemistry

problem, in which they were io mix clear liquid chemicals from four beakers until

they achieved a yellow color. Concrete operational children were rather random

in their approach to the problem, sometimes repeating combinations of chenilcaS

they had tried before. In addition, they typically combined cnly two chemicels

a time, or all four, without considering combinations of three. By contrast, formal

operational adolescents generated a systematic plan of testirg chemical combina

tions until they found the solution Moreover they kept records of their tests and

gererated appropriate observations concerning their results. (p 178)

Piaget believed thhat although they progress at different rates, all humans go throug

these same four stages in mental development. Psycholcgists studying Piaget woula
later explain that the stages are not discrete and separate but continuous, as natran

often display behaviors characteristic of the grey areas between the stages. Critics

Piaget's findings would also argue that ch:ldren can manifest characteristics of mot

than one stage and that, at times, they may temporarily regress from one level

another

Hester (1994) states that these formal operations (often seen in high school student

as well as the

represent a new level of abstraction, of thinking about the possible.

actual, of making predictions, forming hypctheses, and thinking scientifically,

which sets the adolescent apart from the child with his or her dependence c

purely concrete objects and refererts for thinking. (p. 155)

on

Although Piaget's research identified age 11 as the point at which children begin to

move into forma! levels of thirking. high school teachers know that many of their stu

dents still operate at a concrete level. As high school teachers use inquiry and argumenta

tion strategies and provide opportunities for students to test their assumptions, describ

relationships and patterns, justify and defend their claims, and use scientific reasoring

tlhey propel the cognitive vehicles for students to nake the transition from concrete to

tormal cognitive levels. However, during this transitional phase, preadolescents can den

onstrate inconsistent reasoning and thought patterns concerming abstractions by showing

illogical or flawed evidence for their assertions.

What does Piaget's theory mean to high school science teachers? It means that every

day, high school suience teachers open their duOIS to students who may exhibit either

concrete or formal operational behaviors, or both. By understanding Piaget's stages of

cognitive development and being aware that students progress from concrete to formal
operations during their middle and high school grades, high school science teachers car

ease and accommodate the Lransition from one stage to another by providing a concrete

hands-on, and motivational experience before introducing a new, formal or abstract cor-

cept. By sequencing a lesson or unit of study from a hands-on mode to a lecture mode

rather than the other way around, teachers provide a lesson in a sequence compatible

with the studenl's cognitive development. This may seem, at first, counterproductive to

a high school science teacher's normal practice because most science teachers introduce

new concept by providing background information and preteaching vocabulary tern

before doing a hands-on lab. By using a constructivist approach to lesson design, scienc

teachers can plan a lesson or a unit that first engages the learner by providing a hands c

exploration or initial motivational discrepant event or quick lab, then explaining the co

cept, and finally extending the concept into an inquiry investigation or full laboratc

experience. It takes time for high school science teachers to feel comfortable with this n

notion of constructivist lesson design. After all, inost of us were taught by high school a

college teachers who lectured first and then gave us the hands-on experience later. T

DVELOPING APHILOSOPHY2OR INQUIRY

in the chapter.

ConstructivVist lesson format is called the 5E Learning Cycle and will be introduced later

Although Piaget's theory was never intended speciically for academic teaching, it

holds a special interest for scicnce teachers. In studying the transition that secondary

schoul students make from concrete to formal opeiations, inquiry-based teachers under-
stand that students need to explore a new concept through exploratory expericnces

before being intruduced to the terminology and vocabulary asscciated with the concept.

Introducing hands-on inquiry investigations first and saving the introduction cf termi-

nology and vocabulary development for later allows high school students to first engage

ir new cxpcriences, test their theories and assumptons against their peers, and make

Teaning of their newly acquired knowledge before heing intoduced to new vocabulary

terms. For non-inquiry teachers this seems like heresy, since many raditional teachers

believe they first need to pre-teach vocabulary terms at the beginung of a lesson.

The transfomation of previously held conceptions to newly held conceptions is what

Piaget called adaptat. According to Piaget, the process of adapta.ioi occurs through

assimilation and accommocation. Assimilation involves making use of new information

and transforming new knowledge to fit existing schemas and mental models. In actom-

modation, mental models are altered, mcdified, or changed to accept or fit the newly

perceived knowledge. Adaptation occurs when individuals encounter phenomena that

are contrary to their presently held understandings. They judge the new events and make

adjustments in their cognitive structures to accommodate the naw situations. This results

in the adaptation of new learning. In most cases, assimilation and accommodation func

tion simultaneously. Piaget refers to this as ecuilibrium. That is, the individual is sclf

regulating his or her understanding and maintaining stability. A: equilibrium, we are at

ease with our presently held notions.

Disequilibrium, cn the other hand, occurs when one exPeriences a newphenomenon

that does not neatly fit into his or her presently held schemas or models. Piaget called this

cognitive conflict or cognitive dissonance. Causing disequilibrium and cognitive conflict

is not all destructive. Often, constructivist teachers instill degrees of disequilibiium to

cause individuals to give up misconceptions or undergo cognitive change.

Constructivists believe dat when a new event doesn't fit an individual's presentiy

held belief system, it can possibly be discarded because it doesn't fit with the person's

cognitive model of understanding. Assimilation, accommodation, and disequilibrium are

the basis for constructivist thinking, with conceptual change constantly at work

According to Piaget, for conceptual change to occur, the individual must be faced with

new conceptions that are inconsistent with his or her presently held beliefs. The indi-

vidual must also acknowledge dissatisfaction with his or her present schema and accept

73

the plausibility of the new concept, thus substituting the new concept for the previously

eld one. There will be more about this topic in the upcoming sections.

Thus, Piaget's theory has four key principles:

1. People develop through "stages" of cognitive growth.

2. Knowledge

and the envirorunent.

a result of ever-changing social interactions between the individual

3. Knowledge is constantly being corstructed and reconstructed from previous and

new experiences.

4 Cognitive growth is self-regulating within the individual and between the indi

vidual and the interaction with the physical and social environment.

Russian psychologist Lev S. Vygotsky was born near Minsk in western Russia in 1896

the same year as Jean Piaget. He receiveda law degree in 1917 from Moscow Lniversiby

but later turned his attention to medicine and psychology, with a specific focus on lear

ing disabilities. With the prevailing behaviorist notion that animal behavior can be
applied to understand how humans learn, Vygotsky (1979) contrasted animal and hum

behavior by describing the abilities of humans as uniquely specific to he species

Vygotsky's theories on cognitive development were unique from those of his contempe

TEACHINC HICH SCHOOLSCIENCE

74

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky

raries, and although many of his theories on teaching and learning were never backed

with empirical data because of his early death in 1934, researchers recently have expanded

on his theories and framework on preschool and eaily childhood education, applyi

Vygotsky made a significant contribution to cognitive development and the theory of

constructivism by writing frantically for the last 3 years before his death from tubercu.o

sis at the age of 37. Most of his writings were still incomplete at the time of his death and

weren't translated into English until the early 1960s. His work Thought and Language

(1934/1962) did not capture the atter tion of Western constructivists until its translat.on

them to innovation in teaching at all grade levels K-12.

in 1962. Vygatsky and Piaget shared similar thoughts on constructivism; howeve

Vygotsky was not concerned with identifying stages of mental development. He explorei

the influence of language and social processes on cognitive development, as well as the

accomplishments a child could achieve when solving a problem alone as compared to

accomplishments achieved with assistance from an adult.

Two basic principles from the Vygotskian framework include the role language plays

in mental development and the impcrtance of social interaction within the context of

learning. Whercas Piaget's theory about learning focused mnainly on the interaction with

physical objects, Vygotsky believed that the construction of knowledge is predicated on

manipulation but additionally is socially mediated. In his work, Vygotsky emphasized

the importance of social interaction between the learner and his or ler peers; thus, he was

labeled as a "social constructivist." According to Vygotsky (1978), an "important factor in

social learring

Interacting with adults and peers in cooperative settings gave young children amn

opportunity to cbserve, imitate, and model" (pp. 79-80).

One of his foremost known theories is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD

According to Vygotsky, students' ability and skills to solve problems

egorized into two levels:

was the young person's ability to learn by imitating and modeling

or tasks can be cat-

1. Skills the student possesses to perform tasks independently

2- Skills the student lacks (at an

independent level) so that tasks can be performe

only with assistance from another student or adult

The independent level is a lower or minimum level of performance where studer

noperate unassisted. The assisted level is a higher

reach a more

e is an arbitrary continuum or area between these two levels. Most traditio

hing is focused more closely

tivist teacher teaches to the upper zone by providing assistance to students' pe

e through prompts, leading questiorns, hints and clues, or asking students to cla

thoughts about the phenomenon being studied. Although this interti

complex performance with the help

or maximum level where childr

or assistance from another. T

on what students can achieve independently, but a c

interpreted as an "expert-novice" relationship, Vygotsky believed that all students could

erthance their learning through social med ation with peers or an adult.

One instructional strategy based upon the idea of the ZPD 1s "scaffolding." a meta

plior for building construction. Scaffolding provides a level of support that enables the

fearner to accomplish a task that, normally, is beyond his or her current capabilities In

scaffolding situations, the teacher purposefully and intentionally designs a performance

task just beyond tlhe independent level. Provid ng gaidance at first, the teacher then

gradually decreases the assistance until the student can take more responsibility for com-

DEVELOPING APHILOEOPS FOR INOUTRY

75

pleting the task. Vygotsky suggests that teachers provide problems and tasks just beyond

the student's present capabilities tnrough cooperative learning groups and modeling

To provide

from adults, the student is scaffulded to high levels of thinking and performance.

ride a two-wheeled bike. She was the only one inher 4th-grade class who wasn't riding
a bike without training wheels. That was enough of an incentive for Janice to ask me for

heip. We got the bike out of the garage and headed for the otreet At first, she practiced

balancing on the bike without the trainirg wheels while I held the bike upright. Next, we

moved on tu short spurts where Janice pedaled and I ran alongside. holding the bike

upright. With one hand on the back of the seat. I held the bike while she pedaled down

the street. I can still recall her saying, "Daddy, don't et ime go!" Weil, what

know, as l ran alongside the bike for what seemed an eternity, was that I was sporadically

letting go of the bicycle seat, allowing anice to ride on her own. "I've got you," I said.

"Just keep pedaling!" Nearly out of breath, she began to gain confidence in balancing

without assistance. After a few spills and some scraped knees, she gained more confi

dence and achieved the gnal of riding t re bike on her own.

In many ways, good constructivist teachers teach in the same way. They are consciously

aware of the prompts and assistance they need to provide to have their students achieve at

higher levels of academic performance Constructivist and inquiry-based teachers do not

make the task easier; rather, they provide the appropriate level of support and assistance

for students to acquire the necessary kinowledge and skills in science. Constructivist and

inguiry-based teachers are also constartly aware of shifting the onus of responsibility from

the teacher to the student, enabling the studernt to become a more independent learner.

Sometimes unknowingly, high school teachers usc Vygotskian principles by implementing

guided, semi-guided, and independent approaches to providing tasks to students. The

teacher begins by providing a mental challenge task to the student. With help from the

teacher or a peer, the student is guided to the solution and begins to understand the nature

of the concept. With the second problem, the student is provided a semi-guided practice to

gain confidence and control over the task. Presented with a hird problem, the student

functions independently at solving the task. The teacher models appropriate behaviors and
assists students in working at levels hat stretch their imagination, thinking, and abilities.

As the communication exchanges between the student and the teacher continue, the

student begins to construct and mediate an understanding of the topic

an example of scaffolding I'll use the day I taught ny daughter, Janice, to

didn't

Constructivism today is having an increasingly significant impact on educational reiorm

and more frequently is viewed as the prevailing theory of how individuals learn, espe

cially preadolescents and adolescents at the high school level. Currertly, the majority of

K-12 exemplary teachers, leaders, and reforiners in science education carry the constructivist

Constructivism Today

about constructivism and its implications to inquiry and argument based teaching are

encouraged to sec the readings listed in Resource A.

In suummary, key points in constructivism include the following:

1. The senses are conduits to assimilating new knowledge.

2. The learner's existing or presently held understandings determine what new sita

torch for innovation in teaching and learning science. Ihose interested in learring more

3. The learmer's existing or presently held understandings determine how new situa-

tions are interpreted

ations are accepted or ignored.

Knowledge is not transmitted from one individual to another. Communication is

transmitted, but communication or incoming information is not knowledge.

Knowledge is constructed in the mind by the learner attempting to make linkages

between new and previously stored knowledge within the brain.

5. The leamer uses linkages to construct new understandings.

01he learner's understanding is constantly urdergoing construction and reconstruction.

. Learning is both personally (reflection) and socially constructed (testing one's

model against peers).

8. Inquiry is a viable teaching strategy for testing the degree of fit between ore'ss pres-

ently held theores and the scientific explanations of how the world actually seems

to be.

Metacognition

It seems appropriate at this puint to present a concept that underlies basic constructivism

ard inquiry philosophy-metacwgnition. Metacogaition is a term many science teachers

might have leard but seldom use in their everyday language. It is, however, a concept that

is fundamental to what we do and say as inquiry- and argument-based science teachers.

Metacognition refers to the awareness and regulation of one's own learning process.

It encompasses an internal conversation or reflective perspective in which an individ-

ual examines his or her own thinking and learning. Metacognition is of special interest

to inquiry- and argiment-based teachers because it focuses the responsibility of learn-

on the learner and the linkage of previously held notions to new information and

ing

understandings. According to the National Research Council (2000b), "A metacognitive

help students learn to take control of their learning by

approach to instruction can

defining learning goals and monitoring their progress to achieve them" (p. 18) The

NRC goes on to statę, "Children can be taught strategies, including the ability to predict

outcomes; explain to oneself in order to improve understanding, note failures to com-

prehend, activate background knowledge, plan ahead, and apportion tine and mem-

ory" (NRC, 2000b, p. 18).

Metacognition strategies can be promoted and implemented in the high school

science classroom by providing time for students to engage in self-reflection and to make

additions, corrections, and revisions to their work. These strategies are successful in help-

ing students use previouslyknown information and transfer it to new situations. Problem

solving, when anchored with effective and strategic questioning strategies, also serv

a vehicle for fostering metacognition and critical thinking. Other metacognitive strategies

include the use of concept maps (Novak, 1990,1998). Concept maps serve as vehicles that

illustrate the hierarchical connections among related entities in all areas of science. By

using concept maps, high school students practice organizational skills and develop rela-

tionship patterns. Concept maps are also excellent tools for self-assessmert.

Collaboration and reflection, two key poents of metacognition, often are facili-

tated during the inquiry process through cooperative learning groups and students using

journals to record their thoughts and ideas during the course of a scientific investigation.
As an encouraging note to teachers, findings suggest that metacognitive skills can be

taught to students regardless of their innate ability and result in higher achievement

(Baird, Fenshan, Gunstone, & White, 1989; Nolan, 1991; Novak & Gowin, 1989).

Developing a classroom culture of inquiry and argumentation provides an excellent

opportunity for teachers to engage students in scientific reasoning, decision making, and

olection all important aspects of metacognition.

77

HoW Adolescents Learn

Tlave you ever heard a teacher say, "Those kids' minds are just like sponges scaking up

knowledge?" Although some educators frequently describe an adolescent's learning from

a behaviorist/objectivist perspective, constructivist teachers view learning quite differ-

ently. Constructivists perceive learning

builder." In constructivist philosophy, one believes that knowledge is not imparted, accu-

mulated, absorbed, or transmitted from one individual to another, the sender to the

receiver. Rather, knowledge and meaning is constantly being assimilated and accommo-

dated in the mind of cognizant beings througli

as a process by which the student is a "theory

from the communication of language with o rpretations of their experiences and

Prior Knowledge

Adolescents bring many levels of scientific understanding to our high school class-

rooms. This can be simultancously necessary and problematic. On one hand, their prior

knowledge, along with their presently held models and theories, shapes how they inter-

pret the natural world and new scientific information; on the other hand, prior knowl-

edge, in the form of misconceptions, can mask the way information is interpreted and

lead to further misunderstandings

David Ausubel (1968) once said, "The most important single factor influencing learn-

ing is what the learner already knows; ascertain this and teach him accordingly" (p. vi).

But how, you might ask, can I get inside the heads of 28 high school students to assess

their prior knowledge? Before beginning a lesson on evolution, sedimentary rocks,

Prganic chemistry,

Pre-understandings. Students' prior knowledge can be ascertained simply by asking,

What do you know about [a particular subject]?" Tell students to write down on a paper

hatever they know about the subject you are about to introduce. They can make a list,

rite a short paragraph, construct a concept map, draw a picture, or use any method that

most convenient for then. After a few minutes, pair cach student with a partner to

are what each recorded. Tell them that they each get a minute to share what they wrote

or quantum physics, consider trying a few strategies to assess their

Vith their partner. Next, tell them to compare their statements and look for similarities

differences. After another 2 minutes, you can ask individual students to share their