Loading

 Can be divided into permanent actions and variable

actions
 Permanent actions - Dead Load
 Variable actions
 Imposed Load
 Wind Load
 Seismic load
 Wave load
 Crane load
Permanent actions (dead loads)

 Due to the densities and self-weight of materials

 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-1: General actions
 densities of construction materials, additional materials
for bridges and stored materials (Section 4 & Annex A)
 self-weight of construction elements (Section 5)
Permanent actions (dead loads)
 Densities of materials in Annex A
 Table A.1 - Construction materials-concrete and mortar
 Table A.2 - Construction materials-masonry
 Table A.3 - Construction materials-wood
 Table A.4 - Construction materials-metals
 Table A.5 - Construction materials- other materials e.g. glass, plastics
 Table A.6 - Bridge materials
 Table A.7 - Stored materials - building and construction
 Table A.8 - Stored products - agricultural
 Table A.9 - Stored products - foodstuffs
 Table A.10 - Stored products - liquids
 Table A.11 - Stored products - solid fuels
 Table A.12 - Stored products - industrial and general
Permanent actions (dead loads)
 Self-weight may be usually determined as a product of the volume and
the density.
 The self weight of the construction works includes the structure and
non-structural elements, fixed services as well as the weight of earth
and ballast.
 Non-structural elements include: roofing, surfacing and coverings,
partitions and linings, hand rails, safety barriers, parapets and kerbs,
wall cladding, suspended ceilings, thermal insulation, bridge furniture.
 Fixed services include: equipments for lifts and moving stairways,
heating, ventilating and air conditioning equipment, electrical
equipment, pipes without their contents, cable trunking and conduits.
Example of Dead Load
Calculation - Floor
 Slab Load:
 Assume thickness = 200 mm
 Concrete density = 24kN/m3
 Hence, slab load = 24 x 0.2 = 4.8kN/m2
 Add floor finishes = 1 kN/m2
 Brick wall
 Assume thickness = 130 mm
 Brick density = 19kN/m3
 Floor height = 4 m
 Hence, brick wall load = 19 x 0.13 x 4 = 9.9kN/m
Example of Dead Load
Calculation - Floor
 Glass curtain wall (search catalogue):
 Glass thickness = xx mm
 Glass curtain wall density = xx kN/m3
 Wall height = 4 m
 Hence, glass curtain load = xx kN/m
Example of Dead Load
Calculation - Roof
 Glass roofing material (search catalogue):
 Glass thickness = xx mm
 Glass density = xx kN/m3
 Hence, roof material load = xx kN/m2
Variable actions
 comprise of loads which are not always acting but may
exist at various times during the normal use of the
structure.
Variable actions (imposed loads)
 Imposed loads on buildings are those arising from occupancy.
 Given in Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 1-1: General actions –
Section 6, which include:
 normal use by persons;
 furniture and moveable objects (e.g. moveable partitions, storage,
the contents of containers);
 vehicles;
 anticipating rare events, such as concentrations of persons or of
furniture, or the moving or stacking of objects which may occur
during reorganization or redecoration
Variable actions (imposed loads)
 Characteristic values of imposed loads in EC1:Part 1-1 are
given based on 4 categories:
 A - Areas for domestic and residential activities
 B - Office areas
 C - Areas where people may congregate
 D - Shopping areas
Variable actions (imposed loads)
 The categories of loaded areas, are designed by using
characteristic values qk (uniformly distributed load)
and Qk (concentrated load).
Variable actions (imposed loads)

The recommended values, intended for separate application, are underlined.

Example of Imposed Load
Calculation
 Floor:
 Assume types of occupancy Category C5
 Hence, floor imposed load = 5.0 kN/m2

 Roof
 Assume inaccessible roof except for normal
maintenance and repair
 Hence, roof imposed load = 0.4kN/m2 (Table 6.10, EC1-1)
Wind Loads
 Wind is a randomly varying dynamic phenomenon.
 Within the earth’s boundary layer, the wind velocity
vary with height, and depends upon the approach
terrain and topography.
 For rigid structures, ‘equivalent static’ wind approach
is adequate,
Wind Loads
 Variation of wind with height – wind speed
increases with height
Wind Loads
 Influence of terrain and topography
 Movement of air parallel to the ground is termed as
“wind” for engineering purpose.
 Obstruction at ground level and at some height above
ground, referred as “gradient wind velocity”.
Wind Loads
 Influence of terrain and topography
 Gradient wind velocity close to sea is higher
 Site in town has lower gradient wind velocity due to
obstruction of nearby buildings.
Wind Load
 The wind speed is measured based on the
averaging time, it can be 2-3 seconds, 10 minutes to
1 hour.
 BS6399 – Part 2 – wind speed based on mean
hourly
 MS 1553 – wind speed based on 3 second gust
 Wind forces fluctuate with time but for many
structures the dynamic effect is small and the wind
load can be treated using normal static methods.
Wind Load
 Malaysia experiences low wind speed, however this does not
mean that constructed buildings or structures are free from the
consequential and adversarial effects of winds.
 For cities in Malaysia, particularly Kuala Lumpur, wind loads
have become particularly significant because of increasing
number of high-rise buildings.
 Other factors have also contributed to importance in wind
design such as lightweight low-slope roofs, curtain wall
construction and appearance of special structures having
aerodynamic shapes.
 Recent events such as wind forces which blown off anchored
lightweight roofs, and roofing materials (lifted by local suctions)
and eventually peeled from large areas of roofs are new concerns
faced by designers of high-rise buildings.
Wind Tunnel Testing
 Wind tunnel test is normally done for a big project (especially with
cladding and canopy structures) to obtain external wind loads to be
used in the design.
 The wind tunnel model is instrumented with pressure sensors to
determine the wind pressures on the external surface of the buildings.
 The tests are carried out on the scaled model of the subject buildings
and surroundings.
Wind Tunnel Testing
Building with cladding

Connection of cladding to embedded

channel on the floor
Building with Roof Canopy
 Wind Load Calculation
 In BS6399
 Standard Method
 Directional method
Procedure of wind load calculation based on
Standard Method in BS6399-2
1. Determine basic wind speed, Vb – refer to Zone map
or Station wind speed in MS 1553
2. Determine site wind speed, Vs – refer Clause 2.2.2
Vs = Vb × Sa × Sd × Ss × Sp
3. Calculate effective wind speed, Ve – refer Clause 2.2.3
Ve = Vs × Sb
Sb is the terrain and building factor obtained from 2.2.3.3
and Table 4.
4. Find dynamic wind pressure, qs – refer Clause 2.1.2
qs = 0.613Ve2
Procedure of wind load calculation based on
Standard Method in BS6399-2
5. Find external pressure coefficient, Cpe:
Wall – Clause 2.4
Roof – Clause 2.5
6. Find internal pressure coefficient, Cpi – Clause 2.6
7. Determine size effect factor, Ca – Refer Clause 2.1.3.4,
Figure 4 and Figure 5
Procedure of wind load calculation based on
Standard Method in BS6399-2
8. Calculate external pressure on wall, pe – Refer Clause 2.1.3.1
pe = qsCpeCa
9. Calculate internal pressure on wall, pi– Refer Clause 2.1.3.2
pi = qsCpiCa
10. Calculate net surface pressure on wall, p– Refer Clause
2.1.3.3, p = pe – pi
11. Calculate external pressure on roof, pe – Refer Clause 2.1.3.1
12. Calculate internal pressure on roof, pi– Refer Clause 2.1.3.2
13. Calculate net surface pressure on roof, p– Refer Clause
2.1.3.3
14. Step 8 – 13 to be checked for wind acting 0o and 90o
Station wind speeds in MS 1553:2002
Basic Wind Speed
in Peninsular
Malaysia
Wind Load Calculation
 Example on wind load calculation
 Refer Mc Kenzie (1998) Example 1.7 pg 22