The Rock Cycle is a group of changes.

Igneous rock can change into

sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can change into
metamorphic rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can change into
igneous or sedimentary rock.

Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is a hot
liquid made of melted minerals. The minerals can form crystals when they
cool. Igneous rock can form underground, where the magma cools slowly. Or,
igneous rock can form above ground, where the magma cools quickly.

When it pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Yes, the same
liquid rock matter that you see coming out of volcanoes.

On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into pieces. They can also
carry rock pieces to another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called sediments,
drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can be buried under
other layers of sediments. After a long time the sediments can be cemented
together to make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock can become
sedimentary rock.

All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come from? Inside Earth
there is heat from pressure (push your hands together very hard and feel the
heat). There is heat from friction (rub your hands together and feel the heat).
There is also heat from radioactive decay (the process that gives us nuclear
power plants that make electricity).

So, what does the heat do to the rock? It bakes the rock.

Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it has
crystals already, it forms larger crystals. Because this rock changes, it is
called metamorphic. Remember that a caterpillar changes to become a
butterfly. That change is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis can occur in
rock when they are heated to 300 to 700 degrees Celsius.

When Earth's tectonic plates move around, they produce heat. When they
collide, they build mountains and metamorphose (met-ah-MORE-foes) the
rock.

The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be

broken up and washed away by streams. New sediments from these
mountains can make new sedimentary rock.

The rock cycle never stops.

 Precious metals refer to the classification of metals that are considered to be rare
and/or have a high economic value.

precious stone or semi-precious stone) is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished
form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments.
producing attractive cabochons, paper weights and clocks of banded and fire agate from
the Rupununi. The agates are associated with well-rounded but unsorted quartz sand,
pebbles and cobbles.
Black pearls from Aranka, Upper Cuyuni
At the Lapidary Workshop of the Guyana Geology and Mines Commission, they tumble
and polish unique brown concretionary, ferruginous nodules from Aranka to produce
‘Black Pearl’ beads of high quality, famed for their roundness, high lustre and the eye-
catching silver jewellery creations they produce when set in rings, earrings, pendants
and much more. Black pearl beads can be drilled and strung or pasted on to jewellery
mounts. These pearls are easily recovered from enclosing Aranka clay by simply sieving
and washing.
Although the black pearls are reported in several other countries, Aranka black pearls
are known to be the best quality. The legend associated with black pearls is that the
original male Amerindian inhabitants of Guyana wore them to enhance their
masculinity. Not surprisingly, the legend goes, the Amerindian women ensured that
their men always carried at least one black pearl in their possession.
Green quartz from the South Rupununi
At the Lapidary Workshop of the Guyana Geology and Mines Commission, an unusual
sea-green variety of quartz from a residual deposit approximately 8km west North West
of Aishalton is used to produce cabochons, paper weights and clocks. It is thought that
the striking green colour is due to copper impurities in the quartz. Green quartz is
especially appealing when set in gold, gold-plated, or costume jewellery.
Geologist Karen Livan, manager of the environmental division of the GGMC, said
concerning the potential of developing these semiprecious stones, “We concede that we
have just touched the tip of the iceberg. There remains largely untapped, good potential
for the production of artefacts and jewellery of these stones. Resources are substantial,
possibilities are many.” (Text by Geologist Karen Livan)
Make a facial mask
This is the form in which most of us encounter clay these days. Make a paste of clay
and water (1:3 is the recommended ratio) and apply to face. Leave on for 20 minutes
and rinse off for noticeably smoother, clearer skin. It can be used on the entire body, for
irritated skin, cuts, burns, bug bites, cellulite, and eczema.
2. Use for oral health
Some homemade toothpaste recipes call for clay, such as this Tooth Powder from
Wellness Mama. The powder cleans thoroughly while providing minerals orally. You can
also blend ½ tsp of clay with ¼ cup water and use as remineralizing mouth wash.
http://wellnessmama.com/5252/remineralizing-tooth-powder/
3. Bathe in clay
Fill a tub and add 1-2 cups of clay. Mix to combine, then soak yourself. Rinse off. Your
skin will feel supple and smooth.
4. Use as a soap replacement
You can use it to wash your entire body, including your hair, although this does require
a radically different mindset to how it feels to wash one’s body, not to mention a bit
more bathroom cleanup! Read this post from TreeHugger on switching to rhassoul clay.
Clay is very good for exfoliating too.
5. Drink it
According to Free People blog, you can cleanse your body from the inside by drinking
clay in water, and apparently it doesn’t taste as ‘dirty’ as you might expect. Just make
sure that whatever clay you use is deemed safe for internal use, and check with your
healthcare provider before starting a cleanse.
“Mix 1 teaspoon of food grade calcium bentonite clay powder in about 2 ounces of water – but
don’t drink right away! The powder needs time to generate its electrical charge in the water. You
should wait at least one hour before drinking.”

6. Diaper care
Instead of baby powder, sprinkle dry clay on baby’s bottom while changing diaper. You
can also use as a paste in order to speed healing of diaper rash.
7. Hair care
Bentonite clay can make hair softer and shinier, with curls more defined. Use as a mask
to cover hair (recipe here), or try washing your hair with it. Be aware that this can slightly
darken the color of your hair temporarily.
8. Reduce puffy eyes
If you have puffy under-eye bags, you can apply a thick layer of clay paste and let sit for
at least 20 minutes. By doing this a couple times per week, the clay will reduce
inflammation by absorbing excess fluid, according to In The Gloss.
Because of these properties, clay is used for making pottery, both utilitarian and decorative, and
construction products, such as bricks, wall and floor tiles. Different types of clay, when used
with different minerals and firing conditions, are used to produce earthenware, stoneware, and
porcelain.

This section will give an overview of the brickmaking process.

 Clay Preparation
 Molding
 Drying
 Firing

Clay

Clay soil must be able to show several properties to be used for brickmaking.

 Plastic when mixed with water

 Have enough tensile strength to keep its shape
 Clay particles must fuse together

Clay soils are compounds of silica and alumina. Calcareous clays have calcium carbonate and will burn
to a yellow or cream color. Non-calcareous typically contain feldspar and iron oxides, and will burn
to a brown, pink or red, depending on the amount of iron oxide.
The silica in the clay, when fired at 900-1200 degrees C, will turn to a glassy phase. This process,
called vitrification, will turn the clay to a crystalline structure. Therefore, temperature is
important. If under-fired, the bonding between the clay particles will be poor and the brick will be
weak. If the temperature is too high, the bricks will melt or slump.

Vitrification does not have to be complete, and does not actually occur in many of the small
traditional brickmaking plants around the world. However, the vitrification does occur enough to
give sufficient strength to the brick.

It takes approximately 3 m3 of clay soil to make 1000 bricks.

Water

There will need to be enough water for the clay, a source of water must be available during brick
production. Therefore, a source that is not present the entire year (for example, only during rainy
season) will limit the brick production.

Also, the brickmaking production should not be in competition for water with other users. If a
water source is a communal source, the water needed for brick production can take away from the
other uses of water, such as drinking and cooking, washing, livestock watering and other domestic
uses. It takes approximately 600L of water to produce 1000 bricks. A convenient method of
storage is to use 3-200L drums.

Sand

Sand can be used to make minor adjustments to the quality of soil-it can be added to soil when
drying to prevent the soil from becoming too brittle. Sand is also be used as a stabilizer in a
mixture. An important use of sand is in the brickmaking process, where it is used to keep the bricks
from sticking to the molds.

If no sand is available in a location where brickmaking is going to start up, sawdust, ash and fine dry
soil can also be used to keep the clay from sticking to the mold.

Fuel

Firewood and coal are the most common fuel sources used for firing bricks.
Coal waste from a power plant is the easiest coal source to use, if available in the area. For 1000
bricks, it takes 1 and 1/8 sacks of coal and 1/2 sack of cinder.

Approximately 3 m3 of firewood is needed to fire 1000 bricks. Since so much firewood is needed,
there is a risk of denuding a natural forest and depleting a family's supply. On average, only 2 to 8
m3 of firewood per hectare per year is available in a natural forest. In a well managed woodlot, 25
to 60 m3 of firewood can be produced annually in the same area. There are also other advantages to
woodlots, such as another food source, use as a wind break and erosion protection.

Site Characteristics and Access

Space

It is recommended that a brick production of 1000 bricks per day will require 600-1000 m3 of
space.

Transport

Brick production requires transport for supplies and the finished bricks. Depending on the rate of
production, frequent transportation will be required so there will need to be reliable tractors or
trucks, etc. Also, access must be good for where the completed bricks will be transported.

Tools and Equipment

The following is a sample list of tools and equipment recommended for a 15 person crew, working to
produce 1000 bricks per day, taken from Village Level Brickmaking.

 6 hoes
 2 pick axes
 4 shovels
 4 axes
 4 machetes
 2 wheelbarrows
 3 empty fuel drums, each 200 liter capacity
 7 buckets or pails
 6 hinge molds
 2 molding tables
  4 bow cutters
 8 pallets
 4 carrying boards

Clay Preparation

Tempering

Tempering is adding water to the clay soil in order to make it more workable. Too much water added
to the clay mix will decrease quality, though.

Disintegration and Crushing

An alternative to tempering is disintegration or weathering, which involves allowing clay to dry in

the sun and accept moisture from rain and dew. The repeated drying and moistening of clay will
bring clay to a plasticity and workability appropriate for brickmaking. Crushing will make the
mixture more homogeneous.

Mixing

Mixing is done to make the clay soil homogeneous and smooth. There are different techniques that
can be used to do this, including using animal power or letting humans mix the clay with their feet.
Different admixtures such as coal or sawdust can be added to the clay for two beneficial reasons:
1) reduce cracking during drying and 2) reduce fuel usage during firing.

Molding

Importance of Standardizing the Brickmaking Process

Bricks should have standard characteristics if they are to be used in construction. For example,
contractors may buy bricks from several different sources for one project: the bricks must be the
same size or there will be problems matching the construction of different sections of the building.
Moreover, a standard brick size will allow a contractor to more accurately determine how many
bricks will be needed for a project. A new brickmaker, therefore, should follow local standards,
checking with other brickmakers in the area or with local authorities or construction contractors.

Shrinkage

When determining the size of a mold for brickmaking, a necessary consideration must be shrinkage.
Bricks will shrink when drying, so the mold size must be larger than the intended finished brick.

Slop Molding
In slop molding, a wet clay mixture is used- the mix is put into a rectangular form without a top or
bottom. A problem with this technique is that because the mix is so wet, the brick may deform
under its own weight and the surface can be marked easily.

Sand Molding

Sand molding utilizes a drier clay mix, formed into a wedge and thrown into a mold. A bow cutter
will be used to smooth the top of the brick, and the form will can be released because of a hinged
bottom. Since the clay is drier, the brick can be moved with wooden palettes which can reduce the
amount of surface marks. There are multiple benefits to using sand molding instead of slop molding,
such as:

 Less water is used, so there is less cracking and the bricks are stronger.
 Fewer molds are needed because they can be removed from the brick right away.
 The work space is cleaner because of less splashing of the drier mix.
 The worker is standing up instead of squatting down, so they are more comfortable.
 The bricks are more regular because they don't deform like slop molded bricks, so a better
product is produced. Therefore, better construction and better looking buildings will be
possible.
 Slop molded bricks can be imprinted with the brickmaker's name, called a "frog," on the flat
side of the brick. This helps the brick dry and fire better, and is a good form of
advertising.

Drying

Water was added during clay preparation to increase workability of the mixture, but in drying it is
removed for several reasons. First, there will be less cracking in fired bricks with less water
content. Second, additional fuel is needed, beyond what is used for firing, to dry the bricks in the
kiln. Proper drying of bricks will involved rotating the bricks for different exposures to ensure even
drying rates.

For best results, drying should be done slowly. This will help with more even drying. Also, the best
drying technique may change from location to location, so the brickmakers must gain experience to
determine the best way to dry bricks for each production process.

Firing

Laying out and constructing a clamp

A clamp is a field kiln built from the green bricks that will be fired. Clamps vary with size and shape
and must be oriented with respect to wind direction. Once a clamp is laid out and constructed, it
must be insulated.

Finally, the process of firing the clamp will take place in several steps. First, pre-heating, or water-
smoking, will remove the water leftover from the drying process. This process is still physical. The
second stage is firing, where the clay bricks will vitrify through a chemical process. The
temperature must remain constant at this stage for complete vitrification. Finally, for the cooling
stage, the temperature must be slow and steady. A clamp may take two weeks to cool.