M.

KUMARASAMY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,KARUR

16CE303 – SURVEYING -I II & III _____________________________

Unit 3 - PLANE TABLE SURVEYING

Definition- Instruments and Accessories – Advantages and disadvantages – Methods – Radiation,
Intersection, Resection, Two Point Problem ,Three point problem – Tracing Paper Method – Bessel‘s
Method – Trial and Error Method ––Traversing

3.1 General: Accessories

Plane tabling is a graphical method of survey in which the field observations and plotting
proceed simultaneously. It means of making a manuscript map in the field while the ground can be
seen by the topographer and without intermediate steps of recording and transcribing field notes. It can
be used to tie topography by existing control and to carry its own control systems by triangulation or
traverse and by lines of levels.
3.2 Instruments used:
The following instruments are used in plane table survey:
1. The plane table with levelling head having arrangements for
a) levelling,
b) rotation about vertical axis, and
c) clamping in any required position.
2. Alidade for sighting
3. Plumbing fork and plumb bob.
4. Spirit level.
5. Compass.
6. Drawing paper with a rainproof cover.
1. The Plane Table:
Three distinct types of tables (board a d tripod) having devices for levelling the plane table and
controlling its orientation are in common use:
(i) The Traverse Table,
(ii) The Johnson Table and
(iii)The Coast Survey Table.
(i) The Traverse Table: The traverse table consists of a small drawing board mounted on a light
tripod in such a way that the board can be rotated about the vertical axis and can be clamped I any
position. The table is levelled by adjusting tripod legs, usually by eye-estimation.
(ii) The Johnson Table: This consists of a drawing board usually 45x60 cm or 60x75cm. The
head consists of a ball-and-socket joint and a vertical spindle with two thumb screws on the underside.
The ball-and-socket joint is operated by the upper thumb screw. When the upper screw is free, the
table may be tilted about the ball-and-socket for levelling. The clamp is then tightened to fix the board
in a horizontal position. When the lower screw is loosened, the table may be rotated about the vertical
axis and can thus be oriented.
(iii) The Coast Survey Table: This table is superior to the above, two types and is generally used
for work of high precision. The levelling of the table is done very accurately with the help of the three
foot screws. The table can be turned about the vertical axis and can be fixed in any direction very
accurately with the help of a clamp and tangent screw.
2. Alidade:
A plane table alidade is a straight edge with some form of sighting device. Two types are used:
(i) plain alidade and
(ii) telescopic alidade.
(i) Plain Alidade: The figure shows the simple form and used for ordinary work. It generally
consist of a metal or wooden rule with two vanes at the ends. The two vanes or sights are hinged to
fold down on the rule when the alidade is not in use. One of the vanes is provided with a narrow slit

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while the other is open and carries hair or thin wire. Both the slits thus provide a definite line of sight
which can be made to pass through the object to be sighted. The alidade can be rotated about the point
representing the instrument station on the sheet so that the line of sight passes through the object to be
sighted. A line is the drawn against the working edge (known as the fiducial edge) of the alidade. It is
essential to have the vanes perpendicular be the surface of the sheet. The alidade is not very much
suitable on hilly area since the inclination of the line of sight is limited. A string joining the tops of the
two vanes is sometimes provided to use it when sights of considerable inclination have to be taken.
(ii) Telescopic alidade: The telescopic alidade is used when it is required to take inlined sights.
Also the accuracy and range of sights are increased by its use. It essentially consists of a small
telescope with a level tube and graduated arc mounted on horizontal axis. The horizontal axis rests on
a A-frame fitted with verniers fixed in position in the same manner as that in a transit. All the parts are
finally supported on a heavy rule, one side of which is used as the working edge along which line may
be drawn. The inclination of the line of sight can be read on the vertical circle. The horizontal distance
between the instrument and the point sighted can be computed by taking stadia readings on the staff
kept at the point. The elevation of the point can also be computed by using usual tacheometric
relations. Sometimes, to facilitate calculation work, a Beaman stadia arc may be provided as an extra.
Thus, the observer can very quickly and easily obtain the true horizontal distance from the plane table
to a levelling staff placed at the point and the difference in elevation between them. The same
geometric principle apply to the alidade as to the transit, but the adjustments are somewhat modified in
accordance with the lower degree of accuracy required.

3. Plumbing Fork: The plumbing fork used in large scale work, is meant for centring the table
over the point or station occupied by the plane when the plotted position of that point is already known
on the sheet. Also, in the beginning of the work, it is meant for transferring the ground point on to the
sheet so that the plotted point and the ground station are in the same vertical line.
The fork consists of a hair pin-shaped light metal frame having arms of equal length, in which a
plumb-bob us suspended from the end of the lower arm. The fitting can be placed with the upper arm
lying on the top of the table and the lower arm below it, the table being centred when the plumb-bob
hangs freely over the ground mark and the pointed end of the upper arm coincides with the equivalent
point on the plan.

4. Spirit Level:
A small spirit level may be used for ascertaining if the table is properly level. The level may be
either of the tubular variety or of the circular type, essentially with a flat base so that it can be laid on
the table and is truly level when the bubble is central. The table is levelled by placing the level on the
board in two positions at right angles and getting the bubble central in both positions.

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5. Compass: The compass is used for orienting the plane table to magnetic north. The compass used
with a plane table is a trough compass in which the longer sides of the trough are parallel and flat so
that either side can be used as a ruler or laid down to coincide with a straight line drawn on the paper.

6. Drawing Paper: The drawing paper used for plane tabling must be if superior quality so that it
may have minimum effect of changes in the humidity of the atmosphere. The changes in the humidity
of the atmosphere produces expansion and contraction in different directions and thus alter the scale
and distort the map. To overcome this difficulty, sometimes two sheets are mounted with their grains
at right angles and with a sheet of muslin between them. Single sheet must be seasoned previous of the
use by expressing it alternatively to a damp and a dry atmosphere. For work of high precision, fibre
glass sheets or paper backed aluminium are often used.

3.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 0F PLANE TABLING

Advantages:
1. The plan is drawn by the out-door surveyor himself while the country is before his eyes, and
therefore, there is no possibility of omitting the necessary measurements.
2. The surveyor can compare plotted work with the actual features of the area.
3. Since the area is in view, contour and irregular objects may be represented accurately.
4. Direct measurements may be almost entirely dispensed with, as the linear and angular dimensions
are both to be obtained by graphical means.
5. Notes of measurements are seldom required and the possibility of mistakes in booking is eliminated.
6. It is particularly useful in magnetic areas where compass may not be used.
7. It is simple and hence cheaper than the theodolite or any other type of survey.
8. It is most suitable for small scale maps
9. No great skill is required to produce a satisfactory map and the work may be entrusted to a
subordinate.
Disadvantages:
1. Since notes of measurements are not recorded, it is great inconvenience if the map is required to be
reproduced to some different scale.
2. The plane tabling is not intended for very accurate work.
3. It is essentially a tropical instrument.
4. It is most inconvenient in rainy season and in wet climate.
5. Due to heavyness, it is inconvenient to transport.
6. Since there are so many accessories, there is every likelihood of these being lost.
3.4 METHODS (SYSTEMS) OF PLANE TABLING
Methods of plane tabling can be divided into four distinct heads:
1. Radiation.
2. Intersection.
3. Traversing.
4. Resection.
The first two methods are generally employed for locating the details while the other two
methods are used for locating the plane table stations.
3.4.1 Radiation

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In this method, a ray is drawn from the instrument station towards the point, the distance is
measured between the instrument station and that point, and the point is located by plotting to some
scale the distance so measured. Evidently, the method is more suitable when the distances are small
(within a tape length) and one single instrument can control the points to be detailed. The method has a
wider scope if the distances are obtained has a wider scope if the distances are obtained
tacheometrically with the help of telescopic alidade.
The following steps are necessary to locate the points from an instrument station T:
1. Set the table at T, level it and transfer the point on to the sheet by means of plumbing fork,
thus getting point t representing T. Clamp the table.
2. Keep the alidade touching and sight to A. Draw the ray along the fiducial edge of the
alidade. Similarly, sight different points B,C,D,E etc., and draw the corresponding rays. A pin may be
inserted at t, and the alidade may be kept touching the pin while sighting the points.
3. Measure TA, TB, TC, TD, TE etc., on the field and plot their distances to some scale along
the corresponding rays, thus getting a, b, c, d, e etc., Join these if needed.
3.4.2 Intersection
Intersection is resorted to when the distance between the point and the instrument station is
either too large or cannot be measured accurately due to some field conditions. The location of an
object is determined by sighting at the object from two plane table stations(previously plotted) and
drawing the rays. The intersection of these rays will give the position of the object. It is therefore very
essential to have at least two instrument stations to locate any point. The distance between the two
instrument stations is measured and plotted on the sheet to some scale. The line joining the two
instrument stations is known as the base line. No linear measurement other than that of the base line is
made. The point of intersection of the two rays forms the vertex of a triangle having the two rays as
two sides and the base line as the third line of the triangle. Due to this reason, intersection is also
sometimes known as graphic triangulation.
Procedure: The following is the procedure to locate the points by the method of intersection.
1. Set the table at A. level it and transfer the point A on the sheet by way of plumbing fork.
Clamp the table.
2. With the help of the trough compass, mark the north direction on the sheet.
3. Pivoting the alidade about a, sight it to B. Measure AB and lot it along the ray to get b. The
base line ab is thus drawn.
4. Pivoting the alidade about a. sight the details C, D, E etc., and draw the corresponding rays.
5. Shift the table at B and set it there. Orient the table roughly by compass and finally by
backsighting A.
6. Pivoting the alidade about b, sight the details C, D, E etc., and draw the corresponding rays
along the edge of the alidade to intersect with the previously drawn rays in c, d, e etc. The positions of
the points are thus mapped by way of intersection.
The method of intersection is mainly used for mapping details. If this is to be used for locating
a point which will be used as subsequent plane table station, the point should be got by way of
intersection of at least three or more rays. Triangles should be well conditioned and the angle of
intersection of the rays should not be less than 45° in such cases. Graphic triangulation can also
proceed without preliminary measurement of the base, as the length of the base line influences only the
scale of plotting.
3.4.3 Resection
Resection is the process of determining the plotted position of the station occupied by the plane
table, by means of sights taken towards known points, location of which have been plotted.
The method consists in drawing two rays to the two points of known location on the plan after
the table has been oriented. The Rays drawn from the unplotted location of the station to the points of
known location are called resectors, the intersection of which gives the required location of the
instrument station. If the table is not correctly oriented at the station to be located on the map, the
intersection of the two resectors will not give the correct location of the station. The problem,

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therefore, lies in orienting table at thestations and can be solved by the following four methods of
orientation.
(i) Resection after orientation by compass.
(ii) Resection after orientation by backsighting.
(iii)Resection after orientation by three-point problem.
(iv) Resection after orientation by two-point problem.
3.4.1.1 Resection after orientation by compass
The method is utilised only for small-scale or rough mapping for which the relatively large
errors due to orienting with the compass needle would not impair the usefulness of the map.
The method is as follows figure:
1. Let C be the instrument station to be located on the plan. Let A and B be two visible stations
which have been plotted on the sheet as a and b. Set the table at C and orient it with compass. Clamp
the table.
2. Pivoting the alidade about a, draw a resector (ray) towards A; Similarly, sight B from band
draw a resector. The intersection of the two resectors will give c, the required point.
3.4.1.2 Resection after orientation by backsighting
If the table can be oriented by backsighting along a previously plotted backsight line, the
station can be located by the intersection of the backsight line and the resector drawn through another
known point. The method is as follows figure:
1. Let C be the station to be located on the plan and A and B be two visible points which have
been plotted on the sheet as a and b. Set the table at A and orient it by backsighting B along ab.
2. Pivoting the alidade at a, sight C and draw a ray. Estimate roughly the position of C on this
ray as c1.
3. Shift the table to C and centre it approximately with respect to c1. Keep the alidade on the
line c1 a and orient the by backsight to A. Clamp the table which has been oriented.
4. Pivoting the alidade about b, sight B and draw the resector b B to intersect the ray c1 a in c.
Thus, c is the location of the instrument station.
3.4.1.3 Resection by Three-point Problem and Two-point Problem
Of the two methods described above, the first method is rarely used as the errors due to local
attraction etc., are in evitable. In the second method, it is necessary to set the table on one of the known
points and draw the ray towards the station to be located. In the more usual case in which no such ray
has been drawn, the data must consist of either:
(a) Three visible points and their plotted positions (The three-point problem).
(b) Two visible point and their plotted positions(The two-point problem).
3.4.1.3.1THE THREE-POINT PROBLEM
Statement. location of the position, on the plan, of the station occupied by the plane table
by means of observations to three well-defined points whose positions have been previously
plotted on the plan.
In other words, it is required to orient the table at the station with respect to three visible points
already located on the plan. Let P be the instrument station and A, B, C be the points which are located
as a, b, c respectively on the plan. The table is said to ne correctly oriented at P when the three
resectors through a, b and c meet at point and not in a triangle. The intersection of the three resectors in
a point gives the location of the instrument station. Thus, in three-point problem, orientation and
resection are accomplished the same operation.
The following are of the important methods available for the solution of the problem;
1. Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper Method)
2. Graphical Method
3. Lehman’s Method (Trial and Error Method)
1. Mechanical Method (Tracing Paper Method)

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The method involves the use of a tracing paper and is, therefore, alos known as tracing paper
method.
Procedure
Let A, B, C be the known points and a, b, c be their plotted positions. Let P be the position of
the instrument station to be located on the map.
1. Set the table on P. Orient the table approximately with eye so that ab is parallel to AB.
2. Fix a tracing paper on the sheet and mark on it p’ as the approximate location of P with the
help of plumbing fork.
3. Pivoting the alidade at p’, sight A, B, C in turn and draw the corresponding lines p’a’, p’b’
and p’c’ on the tracing paper. These lines will not pass through a, b and c as the orientation is
approximate.
4. Loose the tracing paper and rotate it on the drawing paper in such a way that the lines p’a’,
p’b’ and p’c’ pass through a, b and c respectively. Transfer p’ on to the she and represent it as p.
Remove the tracing paper and join pa, pb and pc.
5. Keep the alidade on pa. The line of sight will not pass through A as the orientation has not
yet been corrected. To correct the orientation, loose the clamp and rotate the plane table so that the line
of sight passes through A. clamp the table. The table is thus oriented.
6. To test the orientation, keep the alidade along pb. If the orientation is correct, the line of
sight will pass through B. Similarly, the line of sight will pass through C when the alidade is kept on
pc.
2. Graphical Methods
There are several graphical methods available, but the method given by Bessel is more suitable
and is described first.
Bessel’s Graphical solution
1. After having set the table at station P, keep the alidade on b a and rotate the tale so that A
is bisected. Clamp the table.
2. Pivoting the alidade about b, sight to C and draw the ray xy along the edge of the alidade.
3. Keep the alidade along ab and rotate the table till B is bisected. Clamp the table.
4. Pivoting the alidade about a, sight to C. Draw the ray along the edge of the alidade to
intersect the ray xy in c’. Join cc’.
5. Keep the alidade along c’c and rotate the able till C is bisected. Clamp the table. The
table is correctly oriented.
6. Pivoting the alidade about b, sight to B. Draw the ray to intersect cc’ in p. Similarly. if
alidade is pivoted about a and A is sighted, the ray will pass through p if the work is accurate.
The point a, b, c ad p form a quadrilateral and all the four points lie along the circumference of
a circle. Hence, this method is known as “Bessel’s Method of Inscribed Quadrilateral’.
In the first four steps, the sighting for orientation was done through a and b, and rays wee
drawn through c. However, any two points may be used for sighting and the rays drawn towards the
third point, which is then sighted in step 5 and 6.
Alternative Graphical Solution.
1. Draw a line ae perpendicular to ab at a. Keep the alidade along ea and rotate the plane table
till A is bisected. Clamp the table. With b as centre, direct the alidade to sight B and draw the ray be to
cut ae in e.
2. Similarly, draw of perpendicular to bc at c. Keep the alidade along fc and rotate the plane
table till C is bisected. Clamp the table.
With b as centre, direct the alidade to sight B and draw the ray bf to cut cf in f.
3. Join e and f. Using a set square, draw bp perpendicular to ef. Then p represents on the plan
the position P of the table on the ground.
4. To orient the table, keep te alidade along pb and rotate the plane table till B is bisected.
To check the orientation, draw rays aA, eC, both of which should pass through a, as shown
in figure.

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3. Lehmann’s Method
We have already seen that the three-point problem lies in orienting the table at the point
occupied by the table. In this method, the orientation is done by trial and error and is, therefore, also
known as the trial and error method.
Procedure
1. Set the table at P and orient the table approximately so that axis parallel to AB. Clamp the
table.
2. Keep the alidade pivoted about a and sight A. Draw the ray. Similarly, draw rays from b
and c towards B and C respectively. If the orientation is correct, the three rays will meet at one point. If
not, they will meet in three points forming one small triangle of error.
3. The triangle of error so formed will give the idea for the further orientation.
The orientation will be correct only when the triangle of error is reduced to one point. To do
this, choose the point p’ as shown. The approximate choice of the position may be done with the help
of Lehmann’s Rules described later.
4. Keep the alidade along p’a and rotate the table to sight A. Clamp the table. This will give
next approximate orientation (but more accurate than the previous one).
5. Keep the alidade at b to sight B .and draw the ray. Similarly, keep the alidade at c and
sight C. Draw the ray. These rays will again meet in one triangle, the size of which will be smaller than
the previous triangle of error, if p’ has been chosen judiciously keeping in the view the Lehmann’s
Rules.
6. Thus, by successive trial and error, the triangle of error can be reduced to a point.
The final and correct position of the table will be such that the rays Aa, Bb and Cc meet in one single
point, giving the point p.
The whole problem, thus, involves a fair knowledge of Lehmann’s Rules for the approximate fixation
of p’ so that the triangle of error may be reduced to a minimum.
The lines joining A, B, C (or a,b,c) form a triangle known as the Great Triangle. Similarly, the circle
passing through A, B, C or (a,b,c) is known as the Great Circle.
Lehmann’s Rules
1. If the station P is outside the great triangle ABC, the triangle of error will also fall outside the great
triangle and the point p’ should be chosen outside the triangle of error. Similarly, if the station P is
inside the great triangle, the triangle of error will also be inside the great triangle and the point p’
should be chosen inside the triangle of error.
2. The point p’ should be so chosen that its distance from the rays Aa, Bb, and Cc is proportional to
the distance of P from A, B and C respectively.
3. The point p’ should be so chosen that it is to the same side of all the three rays Aa, Bb and Cc. That
is, if point p’ is chosen to the right of the ray Aa, it should also be to the right of Bb and Cc.
Though the above rules are sufficient for the location of p’, the following sub-rules may also be useful:
3(a). If the point P is outside the great circle, the position if p’ should be so chosen that the point e
(got by the intersection of the two rays drawn to nearer points) is midway between the point p’ and the
ray to the most distant point.
3(b). When P is outside the great triangle but inside the great circle (say in one of the segments of
great circle), the point p’ must be so chosen that the ray to middle point may lie between p’ and the
point e which is the intersection of the rays to the other two extreme points.
Special Cases: The following few rules for special cases;
4(a). If the positions of A, B, C and P are such that P lies on or near the side of AC of the great
triangle, the point p’ must be so chosen that it is I between the two parallel rays drawn to A and C and
to the right (or to the same side of each of the rays) of each of the three rays to satisfy Rule 3.
4(b). If the point P (as in 4(a)) lies on or near the prolonged line AC, the point p’ must be chosen
outside the parallel rays and to the right of each of the three rays to satisfy both Rules 2 and 3.
4(c). If A, B and C happen to be in one straight line the great triangle will be one straight line only
and the great circle will be having abc as its arc the radius of which is infinite. In such cases, the point

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p’ must be so chosen that the rays drawn to the middle point is between the point p’ and the point e got
by the intersection of the rays to the extreme point.
4(d).If the positions A,B,C and P are such that P lies on the great circle, the point p’ cannot be
determined by three-point problem because three rays will intersect in one point even when the table is
not at all oriented.
TWO-POINT PROBLEM
Statement. Location of the position on the plan, of the station occupied by the plane table by
means of observations to two well defined points whose positions have been previously plotted on
the plan.
Let us take two points A and B, the plotted positions of which are known, Let C be the point to be
plotted. The whole problem is to orient the table at C.
Procedure.
1. Choose an auxiliary point D near c, to assist the orientation at C. Set the table at D in such a way
that ab is approximately parallel to AB (either by compass or by eye judgement). Clamp the table.
2. Keep the alidade at a and sight A. Draw the resector. Similarly, draw Resector from b and B to
intersect the previous one in d. The position of d is thus got, the degree of accuracy of which depends
upon the approximation that has been made in keeping ab parallel to AB. Transfer the point d to the
ground ad drive a peg.
3. Keep the alidade at d and sight C. Draw the ray, Mark a point c1 on the ray by estimation to
represent the distance DC.
4. Shift the table to C, orient it (tentatively) by taking backsight to D and centre it with reference to
c1. The orientation is, thus, the same as it was at D.
5. Keep the alidade pivoted at a and sight it to A. Draw the ray to intersect with the previously drawn
ray from d in c. Thus, c is the point representing the station C, with reference to the approximate
orientation made at D.
6. Pivoting the alidade about c, sight B. Draw the ray to intersect with the ray drawn from D to B in
b’. Thus b’ is the approximate representation of B with respect to the orientation made at D.
7. The angle between ab and ab’ is the error in orientation and must be corrected for. In order that ab
and ab’ may coincide (or may become parallel) keep a pole P in line with ab’ and at a great distance.
Keeping the alidade along ab. Rotate the table till P iis bisected. Clamp the table. The table is thus
correctly oriented.
8. After having oriented the table as above, draw a resector from a to A and another from b to B, the
intersection of which will give the position C occupied by the table.
It is to be noted here that unless the point P is chosen infinitely distant, ab and ab’ cannot be made
parallel. Since the distance of P from C is limited due to other considerations, two-point problems does
not give mush accurate results. At the same time, more labour is involved because the table is also to
be set on one more station to assist the orientation.
Alternative Solution of Two-point Problem
1. Select an auxiliary point D very near to B and orient the table there by estimation (making ba
approximately parallel to BA). If D is chosen in the line BA, orientation can be done accurately.
2. With b as centre, sight b and draw a ray Bb. Measure the distance BD and plot the point d to the
same scale to which a and b have been previously plotted. Since the distance BD is small, any small
error in orientation will not have appreciate effect on the location of d. The dotted lines show the first
position of plane table with approximate orientation.
3. Keep the alidade along da and rotate the table to sight A, for orientation. Clamp the table. The firm
lines show the second position with correct orientation.
4. With d as centre, draw a ray towards C, the point to be actually occupied by the plane table.
5. Shift the table to C and orient it by backsighting to D.
6. Draw a ray to A through a, intersecting the ray dc in c. Check the orientation by sighting B
through b. The ray Bb should pass through c is the orientation is correct.

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It should be noted that the two-point resection and three point resection give both an orientation as well
as fixing.
Traversing
Plane table traverse involves the same principles as a transit traverse. At each successive station
the table is set, a foresight is taken to the following station and its location is plotted by measuring the
distance between the two stations as in the radiation method described earlier. Hence, the traversing is
not much different from radiation as far a working principle are concerned- the only difference is that
in the case of radiation the observations are taken to those points which are to be detailed or mapped
while in the case of traversing the observations are made to those points which will subsequently be
used as instrument stations. The method is widely used to lay down survey lines between the
instrument stations of a closed or unclosed traverse.
Procedure:
1. Set the table at A. Use plumbing fork for transferring A on to the sheet. Draw the direction
of magnetic meridian with the help of trough compass.
2. With the alidade pivoted about α, sight it to B and draw the ray. Measure AB and scale off
αb to some scale. Similarly, draw a ray towards E, measure AE and plot e.
3. Shift the table to B and set it. Orient the table accurately by backsighting A. Clamp the table.
4. Pivoting the alidade about b, sight to C. Measure BC and plot it on the drawn ray to the same
scale. Similarly, the table can be set at other stations and the traverse is completed.
It is to be noted here that the orientation is to be done by backsighting. If there are n stations in a
closed traverse, the table will have to be set on at least (n-1) stations to know the error of closure
though the traverse may be closed eve by setting it on (n-2) stations. At any station a portion of the
traverse may be checked if two or more of the preceding stations are visible and are not in the same
straight line with the station occupied.

3.5 ERRORS IN PLANE TABLING

The degree of precision to be attained in plane tabling depends upon the character of the survey, the
quality of the instrument, the system adopted and upon the degree to which accuracy is deliberately
sacrificed for speed. The various sources of errors may be classified as:
1. Instrumental Errors: Errors due to bad quality of the instrument. This includes all errors described
for theodolite, if telescopic alidade is used.
2. Errors of plotting:
3. Error due to manipulation and sighting: These include:
a) Non-horizontality of board.
b) Defective sighting.
c) Defective orientation.
d) Movement of board between sights.
e) Defective or inaccurate centring.
a) Non-horizontally of board: The effects of non-horizontality of board is more severe when the
difference in elevation between the points sighted is more.
b) Defective sighting: The accuracy of plane table mapping depends largely upon the precision
with which points are sighted. The plain alidade with open sight is much inferior to the telescopic
alidade in the definition of the line of sight.
c) Defective orientation: Orientation done with compass is unreliable, as there is every possibility
of local attraction. Erroneous orientation contribute towards distortion of the survey. This orientation
should be checked at as many stations as possible by sighting distant prominent.
d) Movement of board between sights: Due to carelessness of the observer, the table may be
disturbed between any two sights resulting in the disturbance of orientation, To reduce the possibility
of such movement, the clamp should be firmly applied. It is always advisable to check the orientation
at the end of the observation from a station.

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e) Inaccurate centring: It is very essential to have a proper conception of the extent of error
introduced by inaccurate centring, as it avoids unnecessary waste of time in setting up the table by
repeated trails.

Commented [Office1]: // Kindly use the font name called

Garamond
// All font size 12
// Title bold with font size 14

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