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Finding system integration resources
S
ystem integrators represent a significant is a tool for identifying automation system
demographic of the AppliedAutomation integrator talent. This searchable guide provides
readership. Regardless of whether information about company size, industries
automation end users are discrete, supported, engineering specialties, product
process, batch, or hybrid manufacturers, or experience, professional affiliations, and other
whether they are utilities or municipalities, important search criteria.
chances are your organization has had some Webcasts and training videos are available
contact with automation system integrators. online by accessing the Education & Training
Jack Smith Automation system integration is among and People and Training tabs on the Control
Edit or the many information channels on the Control Engineering and Plant Engineering Websites,
Engineering and Plant Engineering Websites. respectively.
Content specific to this topic can be located by Each year, a panel of Control Engineering
searching the archives maintained by both of editors and industry expert judges select
these CFE Media publications. System Integrator of the Year Award winners
Several types of media are included in this by evaluating business skills, technical
content. For example, Control Engineering competence, and customer satisfaction.
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Guide annually. Each issue features articles Engineering System Integrator Hall of Fame.
about automation system integration best Control Engineering also names System
practices, industry outlooks, and an industry Integrator Giants, the 100 largest automation
directory with profiles of automation system system integration firms, according to revenue,
integrators. The online version of this directory that respond to the magazine’s annual survey.
E
APRIl: Electric motor power measure-
ment and analysis
electrons. Current is the rate of the
flow of charge per second through
nergy is one of the high- JunE: Selecting the right instruments a material to which a specific
est cost items in a plant AuguST: Electrical power measurements voltage is applied. By taking the
or facility, and motors for a 3-phase ac motor. voltage and multiplying it by the
often consume the lion’s associated current, the power can
share of plant power, so making sure motors be determined.
are operating optimally is vital. Accurate power
measurements can help to reduce energy consumption, as P = V x I where power (P) is in watts, voltage (V) is in
measurement is always the first step toward better perfor- volts, and current (I) is in amperes.
mance and can also help extend the life of a motor. Small
misalignment or other issues are often invisible to the A watt (W) is a unit of power defined as one Joule
naked eye, and the slightest wobble in a shaft can nega- per second. For a dc source the calculation is simply
tively affect productivity and quality, and even shorten the the voltage times the current: W = V x A. However,
life of the motor. determining the power in watts for an ac source must
Over the next three issues of AppliedAutomation, we include the power factor (PF), so W = V x A x PF for ac
will discuss a three-step process for making precision systems.
electrical and mechanical power measurements on a The power factor is a unitless ratio ranging from -1 to
variety of motors and variable speed drive (VSD) sys- 1, and represents the amount of real power performing
tems. We will also show how these measurements are work at a load. For power factors less than unity, which is
used to calculate the energy efficiency for motor and almost always the case, there will be losses in real power.
drive systems. This is because the voltage and current of an ac circuit are
In addition, we will provide an understanding of how to sinusoidal in nature, with the amplitude of the current and
make precision power measurements on complex distorted voltage of an ac circuit constantly shifting and not typically
waveforms, as well as what instruments to use for different in perfect alignment.
applications. Since power is voltage times current (P = V x I), power
is highest when the voltage and current are lined up
Basic electrical power measurements together so that the peaks and zero points on the voltage
Electric motors are electromechanical machines that and current waveforms occur at the same time. This would
convert electric energy into mechanical energy. Despite be typical of a simple resistive load. In this situation, the
differences in size and type, all electric motors work in two waveforms are “in phase” with one another and the
much the same way: an electric current flowing through power factor would be 1. This is a rare case, as almost all
a wire coil in a magnetic field creates a force that rotates loads aren’t simply and perfectly resistive.
the coil, thus creating torque. Two waveforms are said to be “out of phase” or “phase
Understanding power generation, power loss, and the shifted” when the two signals do not correlate from point to
different types of power measured can be intimidating, so point. This can be caused by inductive or nonlinear loads.
let’s start with an overview of basic electric and mechani- In this situation, the power factor would be less than 1,
cal power measurements. and less real power would be realized.
What is power? In the most basic form, power is work Due to the possible fluctuations in the current and the
performed over a specific amount of time. In a motor, voltage in ac circuits, power is measured is a few differ-
power is delivered to the load by converting electrical ent ways.
energy per the following laws of science. Real or true power is the actual amount of power being
used in a circuit, and it’s measured in watts. Digital power dc or dc component. Total power is calculated by consider-
analyzers use techniques to digitize the incoming voltage ing and summing all content, including harmonics.
and current waveforms to calculate true power, following The calculation methods in Figure 3 are used to pro-
the method in Figure 2: vide a true power measurement and true root mean
square (RMS) measurements on any type of waveform,
including all harmonic content, up to the bandwidth of the
instrument.
Figure 2: True power calculation.
Power measurement
In this example the instantaneous voltage is multiplied We’ll next look at how to actually measure watts in a
by the instantaneous current (I) and then integrated over a given circuit. A wattmeter is an instrument that uses volt-
specific time period (t). A true power calculation will work age and current to determine power in watts. The Blondel
on any type of waveform regardless of the power factor Theory states that total power is measured with a mini-
(Figure 3). mum of one fewer wattmeter than the number of wires. For
example, a single-phase two-wire circuit will use one watt-
meter with one voltage and one current measurement.
A single-phase three-wire split-phase system is often
found in common housing wiring. These systems require
two wattmeters for power measurement.
Most industrial motors use three-phase three-wire
circuits that are measured using two wattmeters. In the
Figure 3: These equations are used to calculate a true power mea- same fashion, three wattmeters would be necessary for a
surement and true RMS measurements. three-phase four-wire circuit, with the fourth wire being the
neutral.
Harmonics create an additional complication. Even Figure 4 shows a three-phase three-wire system with
though the power grid nominally operates at a frequency load attached using the two-wattmeter method for mea-
of 60 Hz, there are many other frequencies or harmonics surement. Two line-to-line voltages and two associated
that potentially exist in a circuit, and there can also be a phase currents are measured (using wattmeters Wa and
Wc). The four measurements (line-to-line and phase current the voltage and current (Cos Ø). This is defined as the
and voltage) are utilized to achieve the total measurement. “displacement” power factor, and is correct for sine waves
only. For all other waveforms (non-sine waves), the power
factor is defined as real power in watts divided by appar-
ent power in voltage-amperes. This is called the “true”
power factor and can be used for all waveforms, both sinu-
soidal and non-sinusoidal.
Bill Gatheridge is a product manager at Yokogawa. He is Download the Plant EngineeringEditorial Research Studies:
a member and vice chairman of the ASME PTC19.6 com-
mittee on electrical power measurements for utility power www.plantengineering.com/
plant performance testing.
media-library/research
Applied Automation April 2014 • A7
DATA CAPTURE
Steve Wyse are understood because the price quoted for the job
I n fi n i ty QS I nternat ional includes an allowance for their associated costs, many
K
of these risk items are actually either unknown or not
fully defined. Thus, decisions to pursue a job are usually
nowing right way to look at collected manu- based on history, opinion, and faith alone.
facturing or process data turns numbers into Luckily, the chance of a catastrophic financial hit
valuable information; here’s how to choose due to these unknowns is relatively small as long as
the right control chart to make real-time con- the profit margins remain high enough after negotia-
trol monitoring more valuable. tions. However, as margins are squeezed and demands
Would a manufacturer knowingly embark increase, manufacturers must understand these uncer-
on a fixed-cost job without first understanding the risks tainties better to ensure they avoid the financial break-
of losing money, shipping defective product, missing ing point. The good news is that understanding risk and
the delivery schedule, running on incapable equipment, making better business decisions is as simple as apply-
or using unqualified employees? While all these risks ing statistical monitoring and analytics.
Real-time monitoring,
Variable control chart decision tree control charts
Statistics is the science of pre-
dicting the future. Industrial statis-
tical methods are the application
of statistical methods where the
population of “things to measure”
is produced in real time. For real-
time monitoring, the prescribed
statistical tool is a control chart.
Academic training introduces stu-
dents to three types of variables
charts (Xbar-R, Xbar-s, and IX-MR)
and four types of attribute charts
(p, np, u, and c). There are hun-
dreds of control charts from which
to choose. Regardless of statistical
background, not having the right
control chart increases the risk of
encountering Type I (false positive)
and Type II (false negative) errors.
The purpose of a control chart is
to describe a process’s personality
1) What is the sample size? 2) Will multiple parts be combined on the same chart? in terms of normal versus abnor-
3) Will test characteristics with different target values be combined on the same chart? For
mal levels of variation. When using
control charts for real-time deci-
example, if the sample size is 1, multiple parts will be combined, but all the targets are the
sion making, corrective actions are
same, so the perfect control chart to use is the Group IX-MR. Alternately, if the sample size
recommended only when variation
is 5 with multiple parts and different targets, the chart to use is the Group Target Xbar-R. levels or patterns exceed the statis-
Courtesy: InfinityQS International
We don’t like to brag, but we are proud of our ability to offer the highest quality
drives and servos in the industry. We also work very hard at providing quick response
to customer orders and questions. And, we boast some of the best meantime between
failure rates in the industry.
Is that because of our quality products and innovative manufacturing processes? Sure.
But it’s also because of the Yaskawa associates that come to work every day looking
to maintain a standard of excellence in serving you that we’d match against anybody’s.
Our people and our products are held to this standard every day.
That’s why we spell reliable Y-A-S-K-A-W-A.
YA S K A W A A M E R I C A , I N C .
DRIVES & MOTION DIVISION
1 - 8 0 0 - YA S K A W A YA S K A W A . C O M
T
The primary winding is excited with an ac supply
generating a magnetic field which, when the core is
oday’s industrial process control applications placed in the central or “null” position, includes equal
increasingly use automated systems to optimize voltages in both of the secondaries. The secondaries
operations and ensure a safer, more productive are wired series opposed so that their combined output
process. Linear position sensors used in these represents the difference in voltage indicated in them,
automated systems provide highly accurate which in this case is zero. As the core is moved left or
feedback on product parameters, control states, right, the difference in inducted voltages produces an
and outputs to machine controllers. output that is linearly proportional in magnitude to the
Whether implemented as a stand-alone component or displacement of the core. Its phase changes 180-deg
as part of a control or safety system, the linear variable dif- from one side of the null position to the other.
ferential transformer (LVDT) is capable of providing linear In the oil and gas industry, compact LVDTs are used
displacement measurements from micro inches to several in the position feedback control of down-hole drilling
feet, under various operating and environmental conditions equipment such as bore scopes that measure the ID
with high accuracy and reliability. Essentially, the LVDT of the drilled hole. The sensor coil assembly and sepa-
plays an important role in machine control by providing rable core inherent to the technology can withstand
feedback about product location. To some extent, it is the extremely high pressures of the environment as the
LVDT that ensures proper machine operation. mechanical configuration of the coil assembly is vented
(pressure balanced)
Mechanics of a LVDT to the pressure of the
In basic terms, a LVDT nonconductive medi-
is an electromechanical ums. As the sensor coil
device that converts linear assembly can withstand
position or motion to a a combination of high
proportional electrical out- pressure, elevated tem-
put (see Figure 1). More peratures, shock, and
specifically, the LVDT pro- vibration, the LVDT is
duces an electrical output able to make measure-
signal directly proportional ments in down-hole
to the displacement of a drilling equipment pos-
separate movable core. sible where space is
Typically, the ferrous at a premium and the
core within the LVDT is environment is hostile.
attached to the moving In operation, the
element on the piece of LVDT’s primary winding
equipment requiring posi- is energized by alter-
tion feedback. nating current of appro-
The basic LVDT design priate amplitude and
consists of three elements: frequency, known as
1. One primary winding the primary excitation.
2. Two identical second- The LVDTs’ electrical
ary windings Figure 1: The basic LVDT design. All images courtesy: Macro Sensors output signal is the dif-
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