TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF THE PHILIPPINES

938 Aurora Boulevard, Cubao, Quezon City

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE

Civil Engineering Department

CE 503
Water and Waste Water Engineering

DESIGN OF WELLS

PREPARED BY:
CULALIC, RODELIO JR. M.
EUSEBIO, KHYLE JOSHUA
MARQUEZ, RENCY
ORTEGA, DENISE
TUBANG, MA. PATRICIA E.

CE51FC2

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. JEROME TADIOSA
Instructor

2019
 ABSTRACT

In the field of groundwater hydrology, one of the major attentions on the field is the development and
application of aquifer hydraulics but much less consideration is given to the well structure itself. It would take
a lot of effort on aquifer testing and computations to quantify the groundwater withdrawal, but operation of
the system would not be successful if the structure of the well is not properly designed. In designing wells,
the main points to be considered are the following: (1) Choosing a good location, (2) Selecting an appropriate
drilling method, (3) Selecting appropriate construction materials which includes pump specification, (4)
Proper dimensional factors of borehole and well structure, (5) Geological and geophysical logging, water
quality sampling and test-pumping which can be carried out in a satisfactory way, (6) well pumping rate
should satisfy the demand for water, (7) inflow sections of the well should be designed opposite those
permeable geological formations, (8) Well design should be such that pollutants from land surface or other
sources would not enter the well which would cause contamination, (9) Materials that would be used in the
construction of the well should be resistant to corrosion and possess sufficient strength to prevent it from
collapsing, and lastly (10) the design should be based on low installation and running costs while not affecting
the performance of the well.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................... 2
TABLE OF CONTENTS................................................................................................................................. 3
LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ................................................................................................................. 4
INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................... 5
TYPES OF WELLS………………………………………………………………………………………………….6
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WELLS…………………………………………………………..7
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF WELLS…………………………………………………………..8
MAIN REPORT .............................................................................................................................................. 9
SECTION 1: STEPS OF DESIGNING A WELL......................................................................................... 9
SECTION 2: INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR WELL DESIGN ............................................................... 9
SECTION 3: WELL STRUCTURE ........................................................................................................... 10
SECTION 4: UPPER WELL CASING AND PUMP HOUSING ................................................................ 11
SECTION 4.1: LENGTH OF CASING ................................................................................................. 11
SECTION 4.2: DIAMETER OF CASING ............................................................................................. 12
SECTION 5: WELL SCREEN AND LOWER WELL CASING .................................................................. 13
SECTION 5.1: SCREEN LENGTH AND LOCATION .......................................................................... 14
SECTION 5.2: WELL SCREEN DIAMETER ....................................................................................... 17
SECTION 6: SLOT TYPES AND OPEN AREA ....................................................................................... 18
SECTION 6.1: SCREEN SLOT TYPES .............................................................................................. 20
SECTION 6.2: SCREEN SLOT SIZE .................................................................................................. 20
SECTION 7: GRAVEL AND FILTER PACKS .......................................................................................... 21
SECTION 7.1: BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF GRAVEL PACK ........................................................... 21
SECTION 7.2: NATURAL GRAVEL PACKS ....................................................................................... 21
SECTION 7.3: ARTIFICIAL GRAVEL PACK....................................................................................... 22
SECTION 7.4: GRAVEL PACK MATERIALS...................................................................................... 22
SECTION 7.5: THICKNESS OF GRAVEL PACK ............................................................................... 24
SECTION 7.6: SELECTION OF GRAVEL GRADING ......................................................................... 24
REFERENCE .............................................................................................................................................. 26
 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES
Figure 3.1 Components of a Typical Well .................................................................................................... 11

Figure 4.1 Hole and Casing diameter .......................................................................................................... 13

Table 4.1 Recommended well Diameters for various pumping rate* (after Driscoll, 1989) .......................... 12

Figure 5.1 Partial penetrations when the intake portion of the well is less than the full thickness of the
aquifer. This causes distortion of the flow lines and greater head losses. ................................................... 14
Figure 5.2 Suggested positioning of well screens in various stratified water-bearing formations................. 15
Figure 5.3 Flow line convergence to a screened interval is minimized and well performance can be
improved by using sections of well screen in a thick aquifer to reduce the effect of partial penetration. Total
screen length is the same in both wells. ...................................................................................................... 16
Figure 5.4 Screen Diameter Design Procedures ......................................................................................... 17

Figure 6.1 Some screen openings are produced by hand cutting and by punching holes or louvers in casing
.................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 6.2 Continuous-slot screens are widely used for water wells. They are constructed by winding cold-
rolled, triangular-shaped wire around a circular array of longitudinal rods ................................................... 19
Figure 6.3 V-shaped slot openings reduce clogging where straight cut, punched or gauze-type openings
can be clogged by elongate or slightly oversize particles ............................................................................ 19
Figure 6.4 Configuration of the slot openings ............................................................................................. 20
Figure 6.5 Selection of screen slot size for uniform sand ............................................................................ 21
Figure 6.6 (a) Stratigraphic section that will be screened with slot sizes corresponding to various layers. (b)
Sketch of screen showing the slot sizes selected on the previous rules (a and b)....................................... 21

Figure 7.1 Natural development removes most particles near the well screen that are smaller than the slot
openings, thereby increasing porosity and hydraulic conductivity in a zone surrounding the screen. .......... 22
Figure 7.2 The basic differences between the arrangement of the sand and gravel in natural and artificial
gravel packed wells ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 7.3 Illustration of Terzaghi rule ......................................................................................................... 24
Figure 7.4 Selection of gravel grading ......................................................................................................... 25

Table 7.1 Desirable filter pack characteristics and derived advantages ...................................................... 23
 INTRODUCTION

Water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground digging, driving, or drilling to access liquid
resources, usually water. Occasionally, wells also serve as subsurface explorations and observation artificial
recharge and disposal of wastewaters. Different methods can be use in designing wells. It depends on its
purpose, which particular method should be use in designing. Other factors to be considered are the quantity
of water required, depth to groundwater, geologic conditions and economic factors.

In the field of groundwater hydrology, one of the major attentions on the field is the development and
application of aquifer hydraulics but much less consideration is given to the well structure itself. It would take
a lot of effort on aquifer testing and computations to quantify the groundwater withdrawal, but operation of
the system would not be successful if the structure of the well is not properly designed.

In many occasions, the project hydrogeologist or contractor has only brief knowledge of screen entrance
velocity criteria and artificial gravel filters are often designed individually using other previously installed wells
near the area for design basis. Because of this lack of attention in designing, it can result to an inefficient
design of well, requiring constant cleaning and redevelopment.

Proper design will lead to efficient and long-lived wells. It reduces the risk of failure in the design of wells,
therefore guarantees that the well will satisfy its main purpose. The following are main aims in designing the
well:

 To obtain the design yield with minimum drawdown consistent with the aquifer capability and
economic optimization of the well;
 A good quality of water with appropriate protection from contamination;
 Water that remains solid-free;
 Long-lived well (more than 25 years);
 Feasible capital and operational costs.
TYPES OF WELLS

Dug wells
Dug/Bored wells are holes in the ground dug by shovel or backhoe. They are lined (cased) with stones, brick,
tile, or other material to prevent collapse. Dug wells have a large diameter, are shallow (approximately 10 to
30 feet deep) and are not cased continuously.

Driven wells
Driven wells are constructed by driving pipe into the ground. Driven wells are cased continuously and shallow
(approximately 30 to 50 feet deep). Though driven wells are cased, they can be contaminated easily because
they draw water from aquifers near the surface. These wells draw water from aquifers near the surface.
 Drilled wells
Drilled wells are constructed by either cable tool (percussion) or rotary-drilling machines. Drilled wells that
penetrate unconsolidated material require installation of casing and a screen to prevent inflow of sediment
and collapse. They can be drilled more than 1,000 feet deep. The space around the casing must be sealed
with grouting material of either neat cement or bentonite clay to prevent contamination by water draining from
the surface downward around the outside of the casing.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WELLS

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Low maintenance cost Well water does contain more minerals
Environmentally Friendly danger of consuming chemicals if the well is close
to surface
Cheaper to construct Open wells open to contamination from runoff, air
borne pollutants and contamination of water lifting
equipment
Do not require much larger areas or construction Excavation is dangerous and requires support in
unsoldered ground
COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF WELL
DUG WELLS
Excavated by hand shovel to
below the water table until
incoming water exceeded the
digger’s bailing rate.
Can go deeper beneath the
water table than can hand-dug
wells.
The well was lined with stones,
bricks, tile, or other material to
prevent collapse, and was
covered with a cap of wood,
stone, or concrete tile.
Have a large diameter and
expose a large area to the
aquifer.
Able to obtain water from less-
permeable materials such as
very fine sand, silt, or clay.
DRIVEN WELLS
Constructed by driving a small-
diameter pipe into shallow water-
bearing sand or gravel.
Usually a screened well point is
attached to the bottom of the
casing before driving.
Relatively simple and
economical to construct, but they
can tap only shallow water and
are easily contaminated from
nearby surface sources because
they are not sealed with grouting
material.
Hand-driven wells usually are
only around 30 feet deep;
machine-driven wells can be 50
feet deep or more.
DRILLED WELLS
Constructed by either cable tool
(percussion) or rotary-drilling
machines.
Can be drilled more than 1,000
feet deep.
The space around the casing
must be sealed with grouting
material of either neat cement or
bentonite clay to prevent
contamination by water draining
from the surface downward
around the outside of the casing.
Drilled wells that penetrate
unconsolidated material require
installation of casing and a
screen to prevent inflow of
sediment and collapse.
 MAIN REPORT
SECTION 1: STEPS OF DESIGNING A WELL
The following are the steps to be followed in designing wells:

1. Determination of the required yield

2. Identification of formation with potential to support yield
3. Identification of drilling method to be used
4. Identification of type of aquifer
5. Determination of depth of borehole
6. Determination of minimum diameter of well
7. Determination of maximum discharge vs. drawdown
 If Q > yield; reduce diameter of well
 If Q < yield; drill another well
8. Determination of dimension of pump chamber
9. Determination of characteristic of screen and filter
10. Determination of characteristic of pump including stages and pumping rate

SECTION 2: INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR WELL DESIGN

The following are the information or data needed before the design to be completed:

 Aquifer location
 Depth to water bearing strata
 Thickness of strata
 Aquifer nature
 consolidated or unconsolidated material
 hard or friable rock
 confined or unconfined
 leaky or with delayed yield, etc.
 Aquifer parameters:
 hydraulic conductivity
 transmissivity
 storability
  grain size
 Location of aquifer boundaries
 Aquifer recharge characteristics
 Nature of formations above aquifer

The need for this type of data is:

1. To establish where should be location of the intake parts of the well

2. To design the required type of well casing to ensure that the borehole remains stable and does not
collapse
3. To allow computation of likely drawdown in the well and so determine the location of the pump intake.
This in turn controls the diameters and length of upper well casing

SECTION 3: WELL STRUCTURE

The main composition of a well structure is its housing and the well screen at the intake zone in which the
water enters. Shown in figure 3.1 are the components of a typical well structure. The components that are
needed to be specified in a properly designed well are the following:

1. Upper Well Casing and Pump Housing (prevents the hole from collapsing. Keeps the borehole
and conduit open.)
 Length
 Diameter
 Materials
 Thickness
2. Well Screen (enables water, but not aquifer material, to enter the well which enables development
and/or rehabilitation of the well, and structurally supports the well in loose formation materials)
 Location in well
 Length
 Diameter
 Slot types
 Open area (slot dimensions)
 Materials
 Thickness
 3. Filter or Gravel Pack (enables good flow to the well, without pumping fine-grained materials)
 Material
 Grading

Figure 3.1 Components of a Typical Well

SECTION 4: UPPER WELL CASING AND PUMP HOUSING
SECTION 4.1: LENGTH OF CASING
The length of the upper casing is:

𝑳 = 𝑯 + 𝑺𝒘 + 𝑺𝑭 + 𝑷𝑹
Where,
𝑳 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 (m)
𝑯 = 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙 (m bgl)
𝑺𝒘 = 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 (m)
𝑺𝑭 = 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛(𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟) 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟:
 The variation in aquifer transmissivity due to aquifer heterogeneity;
 Well deterioration;
  Well energy losses (arising from flow through the screen and gravel pack);
 Future contingencies for well interference, seasonal or over-year decline in
static water levels etc.;

𝑷𝑹 = 𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑓:

 Pump submergence to the impeller inlet; plus

 Length of pump below this point; plus
 Manufacturer’s recommended clearance below this point;

SECTION 4.2: DIAMETER OF CASING

The table below shows the recommended minimum sizes of casing of manufacturers of pumps. The diameter
of the casing must be large enough to be able for the pump to be a comfortable fit.

Note: For specific pump information, the engineer should ask a pump supplier about the anticipated yield,
head conditions and the required pump.

The size of the casing is based on the outer diameter of the bowls for vertical turbine pumps, and on
the diameter of either the pump bowls or the motor for submersible pumps.

Anticipated Well Nominal Size of Pump Optimum Size of Well Smallest Size of Well
Yield 𝒎𝟑 /𝒅𝒂𝒚 Bowls Casing Casing
in mm in mm in mm
Less than 545 4 102 6 ID 152 ID 5 ID 127 ID
409 - 954 5 127 8 ID 203 ID 6 ID 152 ID
818 - 1,910 6 152 10 ID 254 ID 8 ID 203 ID
1,640 - 3,820 8 203 12 ID 305 ID 10 ID 245 ID
2,730 - 5,450 10 254 14 OD 356 OD 12 ID 305 ID
4,360 – 9,810 12 305 16 OD 406 OD 14 OD 356 OD
6,540 – 16,400 14 356 20 OD 508 OD 16 OD 406 OD
10,900 – 20,700 16 406 24 OD 610 OD 20 OD 508 OD
16,400 – 32,700 18 508 30 OD 762 OD 24 OD 610 OD
Table 4.1 Recommended well Diameters for various pumping rate* (after Driscoll, 1989)
The diameter of the casing is based on the size of the bit used in drilling the borehole. The figure below
shows the relationship of the casing diameter and the hole.
 Figure 4.1 Hole and Casing diameter
SECTION 5: WELL SCREEN AND LOWER WELL CASING
Lower well casing and screen is used:

 To give the formation support preventing the well to collapse

 To prevent entry of the fine aquifer material into the well
 To reduce loss of drilling fluids
 To facilitate installation or removal of other casing
 To aid in placing a sanitary seal
 To serve as a reservoir for a gravel pack

The following is to be considered in designing the well screen:

 Minimum entrance velocity

 Maximum open area of screen
 Correct design of slot to fit aquifer or gravel pack material
 Periodic maintenance
 Selection of screen material for corrosion resistance
SECTION 5.1: SCREEN LENGTH AND LOCATION
The optimum length of well screen is based on the thickness of the aquifer, available drawdown, stratification
within the aquifer, and if the aquifer is unconfined or confined.

At first assumption, the basic design principle is to screen the whole aquifer. This kind of approach is
inefficient in:

 Very thick aquifers – use existing developments to have some guidelines (either local “rules of thumb”
indicating a certain length of screen per unit discharge or data to use in equations to calculate
optimum screen length for a specified discharge)
 Shallow unconfined aquifers – It is likely to happen that the upper well casing is to occupy much of
the aquifer thickness. The relative dimensions of the upper and lower parts of the well will be
dependent upon the relative importance of well efficiency and maximum yield.

The figure below shows that the partial penetration of the well-screen will be less efficient. The cost of the
additional screen should be balanced against the benefits of reduced drawdown.

Figure 5.1 Partial penetrations when the intake portion of the well is less than the full thickness of
the aquifer. This causes distortion of the flow lines and greater head losses.
 Figure 5.2 Suggested positioning of well screens in various stratified water-bearing formations
Unconsolidated formations with grain size less than the “design” formation must be case out. This:

 Protects the material from being eroded thereby placing the casing under stress.
 Protects the pump from the ill effects of pumping sand.

SECTION 5.1.1: Homogeneous Confined (Artesian) Aquifer

Provided the pumping level will not induce drawdown below the top of the aquifer (the aquifer does not
become unconfined), 70 to 80 percent of the thickness of the water-bearing unit can be screened.

Below are the general rules to be considered for the length of screen in confined aquifers:

 If the aquifer thickness is less than 8 m, screen 70% of the aquifer.

 If the aquifer thickness is (8 - 16) m, screen 75% of the aquifer.
 If the aquifer thickness is greater than 16 m, screen 80% of the aquifer.

For best result, the screen section needs to be centered or divided into sections of equal length and
interspersed with sections of blank pipe to minimize convergence of flow lines that approach the well bore,
and improve well performance.
 Figure 5.3 Flow line convergence to a screened interval is minimized and well performance can be
improved by using sections of well screen in a thick aquifer to reduce the effect of partial
penetration. Total screen length is the same in both wells.

SECTION 5.1.2: Heterogeneous Confined (Artesian) Aquifer

Within this section, most permeable zones are needed to be screened in which these zones can be
determined by one or several of the following methods given below:

 Permeability tests (falling head and constant head tests)

 Sieve analysis and comparison of grain-size curves.
 Well-bore velocity surveys, if feasible, to start well production prior to completion or to install an
extended section of perforated casing or screen in the borehole;
 Interpretation of borehole geophysical logs;

Note: Almost 80-90% of permeable layers needs to be screened

SECTION 5.1.3: Homogeneous Unconfined (Water-Table) Aquifer
 Screening the bottom one-third of the saturated zone in a homogeneous unconfined aquifer normally
provides the optimum design.
 In some wells, screening the bottom one-half of the saturated layers may be more desirable for
obtaining a larger specific capacity (if well efficiency is more desirable than the maximum yield).
 In water-table wells, larger specific capacity is obtained by using as long screen as possible;
therefore, convergence of flow lines and the entrance velocity through the well screen are minimized.
However, there is more available drawdown when a shorter screen is used.

SECTION 5.2: WELL SCREEN DIAMETER

Figure 5.4 Screen Diameter Design Procedures

SECTION 6: SLOT TYPES AND OPEN AREA
From a various type of materials and range from crude hand-made contrivance to highly efficient and long-
life models made on machines, well screens are manufactured. Its value depends on how it contributes to
the success of the well.

Criteria:

1. Larger percentage of open area

2. Non-clogging slots
3. The ability to resist corrosion
4. Sufficient column and collapse strength

Functions:

1. Easily developed
2. Minimal incrusting tendency
3. Low head loss through the screen
4. Control sand pumping in all types of aquifers

Figure 6.1 Some screen openings are produced by hand cutting and by punching holes or louvers
in casing
Figure 6.2 Continuous-slot screens are widely used for water wells. They are constructed by
winding cold-rolled, triangular-shaped wire around a circular array of longitudinal rods

 Slot openings should be continuous around the circumference of the screen, permitting maximum
accessibility to the aquifer so that efficient development is possible.
 Slot openings should be spaced to provide maximum open area consistent with strength
requirements to take advantage of the aquifer hydraulic conductivity.
 Individual slot openings should be V- shaped and widen inward to reduce clogging of the slots and
sized to control sand pumping

Figure 6.3 V-shaped slot openings reduce clogging where straight cut, punched or gauze-type
openings can be clogged by elongate or slightly oversize particles
SECTION 6.1: SCREEN SLOT TYPES
There are four (4) main types of well screen:

Figure 6.4 Configuration of the slot openings

 Continuous slot screen
 Bride slot screen
 Louvered screen
 Slotted pipe

SECTION 6.2: SCREEN SLOT SIZE

 Figure 6.5 Selection of screen slot size for uniform sand

Figure 6.6 (a) Stratigraphic section that will be screened with slot sizes corresponding to various
layers. (b) Sketch of screen showing the slot sizes selected on the previous rules (a and b)

SECTION 7: GRAVEL AND FILTER PACKS

SECTION 7.1: BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF GRAVEL PACK
Below are the necessary conditions for a gravel pack:

 Sand-free operation after development,

 Highest permeability with stability (low resistance),
 Low entrance velocities,
 Efficient service life, i.e. resistant to chemical attack.

SECTION 7.2: NATURAL GRAVEL PACKS

Suitable aquifers are coarse grained and ill sorted, generally with a uniformity coefficient greater than 3.
 Figure 7.1 Natural development removes most particles near the well screen that are smaller than
the slot openings, thereby increasing porosity and hydraulic conductivity in a zone surrounding the
screen.

SECTION 7.3: ARTIFICIAL GRAVEL PACK

Below are functions that the gravel pack should fulfilled:

 To support the aquifer formations and prevent collapse into the casing;
 To laterally restrain the casing, effectively strengthening the casing;
 To prevent the movement of fine aquifer material into the well.

When to use filter pack:

 The uniformity coefficient < 3;

 The aquifer is fine, with D10 of the formation < 0.25 mm.

SECTION 7.4: GRAVEL PACK MATERIALS

Gravel Pack should be:

 Clean.
 Have well-rounded grains.
 Free from water soluble compounds such as carbonates (siliceous sands and gravels)
 Be well graded to ensure its function as designed.

Characteristic Advantage
Clean Little loss of material during development
Less development time
 Well-rounded grains Higher hydraulic conductivity and porosity
Reduced drawdown
Higher yield
More effective development
(90-95) % quartz grains No loss of volume caused by dissolution of
minerals
Uniformity coefficient of 2.5 or less Less separation during installation
Lower head loss through filter pack
Table 7.1 Desirable filter pack characteristics and derived advantages
From the given figure below:

(a) The principle of the natural or ‘developed’ well with each zone correctly graded to the next so that
the whole pack is stabilized.
(b) An artificial gravel packed well in which the correct size relationship is established between the size
and thickness of the gravel pack material and the screen slot width. Such a well can be effectively
developed and will be efficient and stable.
(c) Undesirable result of using gravel that is too coarse. The aquifer sand is not stabilized and will
eventually migrate into the well. This unstable condition will persist regardless of how thick the gravel
pack may be, thus causing a continued threat of sand pumping.

Figure 7.2 The basic differences between the arrangement of the sand and gravel in natural and
artificial gravel packed wells
SECTION 7.5: THICKNESS OF GRAVEL PACK
Based on theory, a pack thickness of 2 or 3 grains is all that is required to retain formation particles. But in
practice, around 10 cm is used to ensure an envelope around the well.

Upper limit of thickness of the gravel pack is 20 cm; otherwise, final well development becomes too difficult
and cost of drilling escalates.

Packs with a thickness of less than 5 cm are simply formation stabilizers, acting to support the formation, but
not effective as a filter.

SECTION 7.6: SELECTION OF GRAVEL GRADING

Several methods of determining the gravel pack grain sizes have been suggested. All based initially on a
sieve analysis of the aquifer.

The basic rule is (after Terzaghi, 1943):

𝑫𝟏𝟓 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝟏𝟓 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓
<𝟒<
𝑫𝟖𝟓 𝒂𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝟏𝟓 𝒂𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒇𝒆𝒓

Figure 7.3 Illustration of Terzaghi rule

Figure 7.4 Selection of gravel grading
 REFERENCE

CHAPTER FIVE : GROUNDWATER WELLS DESIGN

(https://www.coursehero.com/file/27187581/Chapter-5-Groundwater-Well-Designpdf/)

SESSION 13: WELL DESIGN 1 by Dr. Amjad Aliewi