Computer Organisation: CPU Architecture

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit
(CU)

Arithmetic logic
unit (ALU)

Input Output
units units

Primary storage/
ROM and RAM

Backing
Storage

Computers process data, perform computations, make decisions and instigate actions un-
der the control of sets of instructions called computer programs. The computer (central
processing unit, keyboard, screen, memory, and disc) is commonly referred to as the hard-
ware while the programs that run on the computer (including operating systems, word
processors and spreadsheets) are referred to as software.

Program instructions are stored and processed by the computer as a sequence of binary
digits (i.e. 1's and 0's) called machine code. In the early days programmers wrote their
instructions in strings of numbers called machine language. Although these machine
instructions could be directly read and executed by the computer, they were too cumber-
some for humans to read and write. Later assemblers were developed to map machine
instructions to English-like abbreviations called mnemonics (or assembly language).

Note that the word \program" is used to describe both the set of written instructions
created by the programmer and also to describe the entire piece of executable software.

CPU
The central processing unit (CPU) of a computer is a piece of hardware that carries out the
instructions of a computer program. It is the unit of the computer system that includes the
circuits that control the interpretation and execution of instructions. It is the most important
component of a computer system.. The CPU is like the brains of the computer-every
instruction no matter how simple has to go the CPU.”lets say you press the letter ‘k’ on your
keyboard and it appears on the screen-the CPU of your computer is what makes this possible.
The CPU is sometimes also referred to as the central processor unit, or processor. When we
start to look at the various components of a CPU and how they function, remember that this is
all about speed. When we use a computer, we want the instructions to be carried out very fast.
As the instructions become more complicated for example, creating a 3D animation or editing
a video file we demand more from the CPU.
The primary memory is an extension of the CPU and assists the CPU in its operations.

Functions of the processor:

To control the use of the memory to store data and instructions.
To control the sequence of operations
To give instructions to all parts of the computer to carry out processing

Clock Rate
The clock rate of a processor is the speed at which instructions are executed. This speed is
regulated using an internal clock and is expressed as the number of clock cycles per second.
Modern CPUs can process billions of calculations per second. The unit used to express the
clock rate is hertz, abb as Hz.

The individual components of a CPU have become so integrated that you can’t even
recognize them from the outside. This CPU is about two inches by two inches in size.CPUs
are located on the motherboard. Motherboards have a socket for this which is specific for a
certain type of processor. A CPU gets very hot and therefore needs its own cooling system in
the form of a heat sink and /or fan.

Is the heart /main brain of the computer system with the following components:-

Control Unit
Is regarded as the computers “conductor”. It coordinates and controls all operations within
the CPU.It also manages the various components of the computer i.e. those of peripheral
units, main memory and the processor itself. Although it does not perform input and output it
initiates and controls all inputs and outputs.

How it initiates:-
 It controls the movement of data to or from memory and processors.
 It controls the movement of data from input device to memory.
 It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output devices.
NB:-The control unit does not perform any execution operations but rather direct and
activates other components which perform the actual operations to do so by issuing
commands/signals to those components which perform the actual operations.
Thus the control unit decides what specific components are needed for the execution of a
particular instruction.
 It is also responsible for interpretation of instructions and for seeing to it that operations in the
various components take place in the right sequence and the right time.
 The control unit calls upon the arithmetic logic unit to perform the necessary calculations.

ALU
The ALU contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and logical operations
as directed by the control unit.

Functions of ALU
-Carries out arithmetic tasks: - arithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, and
division of numbers.
-Performs logical operations (comparing data items):- are used to compare numbers e.g.is
equal to, greater, less than, <=,>=, true or false or 1 or 0, on /off.
How the ALU operates:-
-Data items to be processed are fetched from the main memory as directed by the CU into
registers or accumulators where they are stored.
Registers-these are high speed storage areas. They stores data temporarily in the electronic
power grid of the system and permanently when a command is given to the computer.
-The ALU then performs the operations as directed by the CU

How do these Calculations occur:-

The ALU is where the calculations occur, but how do these calculations actually get carried
out?=To a computer ,the world consists of 0s and 1s.These 0s and 1s are stored inside a
processor using transitors.These are microscopic switches that control the flow of electricity
depending on whether the switch is on or off. So the transistor contains binary information: a
one if current passes through and a zero if current does not pass through. Calculations are
performed by signals turning on or off of different combinations of transistors. More
transistors means more calculations.

Cache Memory
-it allows the computer to load and reference information that it anticipates it will need in the
near future. With controls, active program parts are stored there.
Cache memory, also called CPU memory, is a small type of volatile computer memory that
provides high speed data access to a processor and stores frequently used computer programs,
applications and data. It is the fastest memory in a computer, and is typically integrated onto
the motherboard and directly embedded in the processor or main random access memory
(RAM).
Cache memory provides faster data storage and access by storing instances of programs and
data routinely accesses by the processor. Thus, when a processor requests data that already
has an instance in the cache memory; it does not need to go to main memory or the hard disk
to fetch the data.

Data Processing
It is the process of collecting data and converting it into information. It may be manual
(where only human effort is used), semi-manual where human effort is aided by an electronic
device or mechanical/electronic, where computers replace human effort.

Types of Data Processing:-

Centralized data processing:- This is where data is sent to and processed at a central place

Distributed processing:-data is processed at different points in the organisation. Branch or

department may have a microcomputer or minicomputer that processes the information. The
computer in the branch then sends to a host computer after processing.

Batch Processing:-in batch processing transactions are accumulated over a period of time
and processed periodically. A batch system handles the inputting, processing, job queuing
and transmission of the data from the remote sites with little or no user intervention.
Examples of applications that use batch processing include producing gas, electricity or water
bills.

Time Sharing Processing:-processor time is shared between users to provide multi-access

(many users accessing data at the same time).