Stress-Strain characteristics

Mild steel

If tensile force is applied to a steel bar it will have some extension. If the force is small the ratio of the stress and
strain will remain proportional. And the graph will be a straight line (up to point A). So, the 0 to point A is the
limit of proportionality.
If the force is considerably large the material will experience elastic deformation but the ratio of stress and strain
will not be proportional. (point A to B). This is the elastic limit. Beyond that point the material will experience
plastic deformation. The point where plastic deformations start is the yield point which is show in the figure as
point B. 0 B is the upper yield point. Resulting graph will not be straight line anymore. C is the lower yield point.
D is the maximum ultimate stress. E is the breaking stress.
Young’s modulus of elasticity
Within the proportional limit, stress α strain, hence, stress = E × strain
E is a proportionality constant known as Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus of elasticity.
This constant of proportionality is called Young’s modulus of elasticity and is given the symbol E. E has the same
unit as the unit of stress because strain is dimensionless.

After a strain of 0.002 (0.2%), the stress becomes constant with increasing load, until a strain of 0.0035 is reached
and here the concrete is assumed to have failed.

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Compressive strength of wood
Parallel to Grain: The specimen may be 50 x 50 x 200 mm or 20 x 20 x 80 mm. The load is applied continuously
during the test at a constant rate of 0.6 mm per minute for both the sizes. For 200 mm specimen a load of 2.5 kN
is initially applied to set the specimen. Deformation under compression is then measured over a central gauge
length of 150 mm. Where possible, direct points are obtained on a graph sheet. The reading is continued well
beyond the proportional limit. The final reading at the maximum load is recorded. For 80 mm- specimen, final
reading of the Crushing
maximum load only is recorded. Compression failures are recorded according to the appearance of the fractured
surface as shown in Fig. 1. In case two or more kinds of failures develop, they are described in the order of their
occurrence (for example, shearing followed by Shearing crushing). The load deformation curves are drawn. Load
and deformation at limit of proportionality are then read accordingly. The various characteristics are determined
by the following formulae:

Fig. 1: Failure of Timber Specimen Under Compression Parallel to Grain

Perpendicular to grain: The specimen may be 50 × 50 × 150 mm or 20 × 20 × 100 mm. It should be free from
defects and faces should approach closely to the true radial and tangential direction. The load is applied to the
radial surface continuously at a constant rate of 0.6 mm per minute for both the sizes. A small load not more than
500 N on 150 mm and 100 N on 100 mm specimen is initially applied to set the specimen and the deformation is
measured to obtain to 10 readings up to limit of proportionality and is continued up to a deformation of 2.5 mm.
If maximum load is reached at some lesser value of compressive deformation, the same is recorded along with
corresponding deformation. A curve between load and deformation is plotted. The load and deformation at limit
of proportionality is then read. The load at 2.5 mm compression is also recorded. The various characteristics are
determined by the following formulae:

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where P = load at the limit of proportionality
A = cross-sectional area
P` = at 2.5 mm compression
L = gauge length between compressometer points
 = deformation at the limit of proportionality
P0 = maximum load if reached at a compression less than 2.5 mm
h = height of the specimen

Hardness Test
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a material to permanent deformation such as indentation, wear, abrasion,
scratch. Principally, the importance of hardness testing has to do with the relationship between hardness and other
properties of material. For example, both the hardness test and the tensile test measure the resistance of a metal
to plastic flow, and results of these tests may closely parallel each other. The hardness test is preferred because it
is simple, easy, and relatively non-destructive.
Hardness represents the resistance of material surface to abrasion, scratching and cutting, hardness after
gives clear identification of strength. In all hardness testes, a define force is mechanically applied on the test piece
for about 15 seconds. The indenter, which transmits the load to the test piece, varies in size and shape for different
tests. Common indenters are made of hardened steel or diamond.
 Brinell Hardness Test
 Rockwell Hardness Test
 Vicker’s Hardness Test

Brinell’s Hardness Test

The Brinell hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a 10 mm diameter hardened steel or
carbide ball subjected to a load of 3000 kg. For softer materials the load can be reduced to 1500 kg or 500 kg to
avoid excessive indentation. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds in the case of iron and steel
and for at least 30 seconds in the case of other metals. The diameter of the
indentation left in the test material is measured with a low powered microscope.
The Brinell harness number is calculated by dividing the load applied by the
surface area of the indentation. When the indentor is retracted two diameters of
the impression, d1 and d2, are measured using a microscope with a calibrated
scale and then averaged as shown in Fig.

Where:
P is the test load [kg]
D is the diameter of the ball [mm]
d is the average impression diameter of indentation [mm]
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The diameter of the impression is the average of two readings at right angles and the use of a Brinell hardness
number table can simplify the determination of the Brinell hardness. A well-structured Brinell hardness number
reveals the test conditions, and looks like this, "75 HB 10/500/30" which means that a Brinell Hardness of 75 was
obtained using a 10mm diameter hardened steel with a 500 kilogram load applied for a period of 30 seconds. On
tests of extremely hard metals a tungsten carbide ball is substituted for the steel ball. Compared to the other
hardness test methods, the Brinell ball makes the deepest and widest indentation, so the test averages the hardness
over a wider amount of material, which will more accurately account for multiple grain structures and any
irregularities in the uniformity of the material. This method is the best for achieving the bulk or macro-hardness
of a material, particularly those materials with heterogeneous structures.

Vickers Hardness Test

The Vickers hardness test method consists of indenting the test material with a diamond indenter, in the form of
a right pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136 degrees between opposite faces subjected to a load of 1 to
100 kgf. The full load is normally applied for 10 to 15 seconds. The two diagonals of the indentation left in the
surface of the material after removal of the load are measured using a microscope and their average calculated.
The area of the sloping surface of the indentation is calculated. The Vickers hardness is the quotient obtained by
dividing the kgf load by the square mm area of indentation.
When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined the Vickers hardness may be calculated from the
formula, but is more convenient to use conversion tables. The Vickers hardness should be reported like 800
HV/10, which means a Vickers hardness of 800, was obtained using a 10 kgf force. Several different loading
settings give practically identical hardness numbers on uniform material, which is much better than the arbitrary
changing of scale with the other hardness testing methods. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that
extremely accurate readings can be taken, and just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and surface
treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and hardest of materials, under
varying loads, the Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell
machines.

F= Load in kgf
d = Arithmetic mean of the two diagonals, d1 and d2 in mm
HV = Vickers hardness

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Modulus of rigidity of Solid shafts and Hollow shafts
The twisting effect of a force or couple is called Torque. Its unit are N-m. Torsion is the angular deformation
produced by the torque about the longitudinal axis. Following figure shows the torque applied to circular shaft &
its behavior.

Difference between Torque and Bending Moment:

Major difference is the plane of application of load or force. Torque is produced by the force which is applied
parallel to the cross sectional axis at an eccentricity while moment is produced by the force which is applied along
any cross sectional axis without any eccentricity. But basically both are moments. Fig 1. Clearly shows the
difference between the torque and the moment.

Bending Theory:

Assumptions in Bending Theory:

 Material is homogenous
 Material is isotropic
 It is in elastic range I-E obeys the Hooks law
 Plane section remains plane before and after bending.

Torsion Theory:

τ = Torsional shear stress (MPa)

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r = Radius of shaft or bar
T = Applied torque
J = Polar moment of inertia (mm4) (torsional resistance of any cross section)
G = Modulus of rigidity (modulus of elasticity in shear)
θ =Angle of twist (rad)
L = Length of sample

Assumptions in Torsional Theory:

 Material is homogenous
 Material is isotropic
 It obeys the Hooks law
 Cross section of the material is circular
 Plane section remains plane before and after bending
 Length and radius of the sample are same for small angle of twist.

Shearing stresses produced due to torsion are maximum at the extreme outer fiber and zero at the neutral axis.
While the direct/flexural shear stresses are maximum at the neutral axis and zero at the extreme outer fiber.

Polar Moment of inertia "j":

Geometric rigidity of the cross section is termed as polar moment of inertia or polar 2nd moment of area. It is the
resistance of a cross section against the twisting. It is equal to the sum of 2nd moment of inertia about both cross
sectional axis. Stiffness is the resistance of the material against bending while rigidity is the resistance of the
materials against torsional loading.
J = Ix + Iy
For hollow circular sections polar moment of inertia is given by:

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For circular sections polar moment of inertia is given by:

Torsional rigidity or Modulus of Rigidity "G":

When the material is subjected to pure twist loading the slope of the shear stress versus shear strain curve is
termed as modulus of rigidity or modulus of elasticity in shear. It is denoted by "G".

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Shear Strength of Mild Steel
In direct shear test, the shearing stress is considered as uniformly distributed over the entire cross section. The
shear force is applied by a suitable test rig, two different cases of shearing may arise; i.e., single shear and double
shear. In single shear shearing occurs across a single surface and in double shear shearing occurs across two
surfaces. Knowledge of shear failure is important while designing any structures or machine components. Shear
force causes the surface to go out of the alignment with each other and thus the material fails.

Shear Stress is produced in a body when it is subjected to two equal and opposite forces spaced at an infinite
decimal distance or tangentially across the resisting section. Shear strength of the material is the ultimate shear
stress (max) attained by the specimen, which under double shear given by,

Where,
F = Maximum load at which the specimen breaks, and
A = cross-sectional area of the specimen.

The load range to which the machine is to be set for the test is selected bases on the expected maximum load F to
be applied on the specimen. This is calculated from the yield stress fy and the factor of safety , as follows:

Permissible shear stress  for mild steel is,

And therefore,

Shear strength of the specimen is determined by inserting a cylindrical specimen through round holes in three
hardened steel blocks, the centre of which shall be pulled (or pushed) between the other two so as to shear the
specimen on two planes. In this test a suitable length of cylindrical specimen is subjected to double shear loading
using a suitable test rig in a testing machine under a compressive load or tensile pull and recording the maximum
load P to fracture. The speed of testing or the rate of separation of the cross-heads, at any moment during the test,
shall not be greater than 10 mm/min.