BUSINESS STATISTICS FOR MANAGERS

UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION ABOUT RESEARCH

Meaning Of Research:

Research = Re + Search. That is search after search and search. Why? The purpose of such repeated
search is to thoroughly understand the problem or issue or phenomenon and find the apt and effective
solution to the problem or strategy to deal with the issue or the phenomenon. Such solution or strategy
adds to our stock of knowledge in dealing with the problem or the issue.

In common parlance, research refers to a search for knowledge. Research simply put, is an
endeavor to discover answers to problems (intellectual and practical) through the application of scientific
method. The Webster’s International Dictionary gives a very inclusive definition of research as “as
careful, critical inquiry or examination in seeking facts or principles, diligent investigation in order to
ascertain something". The 20th Century Chamber Dictionary defines research as: a careful search or
systematic investigation towards increasing the sum of knowledge.

Research is essentially a systematic enquiry seeking facts through objective, verifiable methods in order
to discover the relationship among them and to deduce from them broad principles or laws. Research is
really a method of critical thinking. It comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and
making conclusions and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulated hypothesis. Thus the term 'Research* refers to a critical, careful and exhaustive investigation
or inquiry or experimentation or examination having as its aim the revision of accepted conclusions, in
the light of newly discovered facts.

Research is the power of suspending judgment, with patience, of mediating with pleasures of
assessing with caution, of correcting with readiness and of arranging thought with scrupulous pain,
according to Francis Bacon.

Francis G, Cornell defines research as, "the activity of collecting information in an orderly and
systematic fashion".

D. Slesinger and D. Stephenspn in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciences define research as "the
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend, correct or verify
knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art".

John W. Best defines Research, "as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the developments of generalisations, principles, or theories,,
resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events".
Objectives Of Research:

The objective of research is to find answers to the questions by applying scientific procedures. In other
words, the main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and has not yet been discovered.
Although every research study has its own specific objectives, the research objectives may be broadly
grouped as follows:
1. To gain familiarity with new insights into a phenomenon (i.e., formulative research studies);
2. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, group, or a situation (i.e., descriptive
research studies);
3. To analyse the frequency with which something occurs (i.e., diagnostic research studies); and
4. To examine the hypothesis of a causal relationship between two variables (i.e., hypothesis-testing
research studies).

Nature Of Research:

The research process is, for many of us, just the way we do things. We research the best buys in cars and
appliances, we research book reviews before shopping for books, we research the best schools for our
children and ourselves, and we probably perform some kind of research in our jobs. Our search for
information may lead us to interview friends or other knowledgeable people; read articles in magazines,
journals, or newspapers; listen to the radio; search an encyclopedia on CD-ROM; and even explore the
Internet and World Wide Web for information. We use our local public libraries and our school libraries.

Research can be a way of life; it is the basis for many of the important decisions in our lives. Without it,
we are deluged with information, subjected to the claims of advertisers, or influenced by hearsay in
making sense of the world around us. This informal, experiential research helps us decipher the flood of
information we encounter daily.

Formal academic research differs from experiential research and may be more investigative in nature. For
example, it may require us to learn about an area in which we have little knowledge or inclination to
learn. It may be library-oriented or field-oriented, depending on the nature of the research.

Academic research, like the everyday research we do, is associated with curiosity and intellectual
discovery. The writing associated with academic research is demanding and challenging, with a
methodology and discipline all its own. Although many of the concepts and processes of research are
generic, academic research is discipline-specific and demands a more rigorous methodology. This chapter
presents the methodology of academic research, many of the generic processes of research writing, and
suggestions for applying the concepts to various disciplines. The chapter ends with a brief look at the
structure of a research paper.

Importance Of Research :

Why research is important seems like a no-brainer, but many people avoid getting involved in research.
The lazy, if not mentally drained, student could say, "Not again." And a disinterested academic could just
be doing it for promotion purposes. Yet, for those who like to learn - whether or not they are members of
a learning institution - doing research is not just an imperative, but a need.
  A Tool for Building Knowledge and Efficient Learning
 Means to Understand Various Issues
 An Aid to Business Success
 A Way to Prove Lies and to Support Truths
 Means to Find, Gauge, and Seize Opportunities
 A Seed to Love Reading, Writing, Analyzing, and Sharing Valuable Information
 Nourishment and Exercise for the Mind

Role of Research in Business:

Learning the role research plays in the decision-making process benefits both the manager and the
researcher. Managers need to be able to evaluate research results and use the information to make
appropriate decisions. The importance of knowledge management cannot be overstated in today's
technologically changing world.

Be sure you include the following in your Role of Research in Business paper:
 Identify factors affecting business decision making
 Explain the purpose of conducting business research
 Recognize manager-researcher relationship issues
 Describe the levels and processes of decision making
 Integrate KM and its associated perspective in the role of business research
By the end of this Role of Research in Business paper, you should be able to:
 Describe the role of scientific theory construction
 Distinguish between the various types of theories
 Implement the fundamental terminology of research
 Demonstrate the relevance and application of science in business research
 Examine the impacts that evolving computer technology and the Internet have had and are
currently having in business research

Business Research provides a person with a basic understanding of quantitative techniques used in
analyzing business trends and statistics. The ability to understand the factors that are involved in making
sound managerial and business decisions through analysis and interpretation of data was illuminated in
the course. The course offered an in-depth look at the value of statistics in business and how one can
utilize these statistics to make sound business decisions. One of the most valuable concepts in business
statistics is the affect that market research has on business decisions. Market research is an invaluable tool
for any organization, regardless of their specific business function. Many businesses retain their own
marketing research team while others utilize the services of outside firms. Businesses utilize market
research as a method of securing the information needed to survive and prosper in competitive markets.
Aims and Types of Social Research:

It is often useful to consider your research questions in terms of aim(s) and objectives.
The aim of the work, i.e. the overall purpose of the study, should be clearly and concisely
defined.

Aims:
 Are broad statements of desired outcomes, or the general intentions of the research,
which 'paint a picture' of your research project
 Emphasize what is to be accomplished (not how it is to be accomplished)
 Address the long-term project outcomes, i.e. they should reflect the aspirations and
expectations of the research topic.
Once aims have been established, the next task is to formulate the objectives. Generally, a
project should have no more than two or three aims statements, while it may include a number of
objectives consistent with them.

Objectives are subsidiary to aims and:

 Are the steps you are going to take to answer your research questions or a specific list of
tasks needed to accomplish the goals of the project
 Emphasize how aims are to be accomplished
 Must be highly focused and feasible
 Address the more immediate project outcomes
 Make accurate use of concepts
 Must be sensible and precisely described
 Should read as an 'individual' statement to convey your intentions

Types of Research:

Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis of the methodology of research,
the knowledge it creates, the user group, the research problem it investigates etc.

Basic Research
(Mastr.lobo) This research is conducted largely for the enhancement of knowledge, and is
research which does not have immediate commercial potential. The research which is done for
human welfare, animal welfare and plant kingdom welfare. It is called basic, pure, fundamental
research. The main motivation here is to expand man's knowledge, not to create or invent
something. According to Travers, “Basic Research is designed to add to an organized body of
scientific knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.”
Such a research is time and cost intensive. (Example: A experimental research that may not be or
will be helpful in the human progress.)
Applied Research
Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to
acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake. The goal of applied research is to improve the human
condition. It focuses on analysis and solving social and real life problems. This research is
generally conducted on a large scale basis and is expensive. As such, it is often conducted with
the support of some financing agency like the national government, public corporation, world
bank, UNICEF, UGC, Etc. According to Hunt, “applied research is an investigation for ways of
using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems” for example:- improve agriculture crop
production, treat or cure a specific disease, improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, how
can communication among workers in large companies be improved? Applied research can be
further classified as problem oriented and problem solving research.
Problem oriented research
Research is done by industry apex body for sorting out problems faced by all the companies.
Eg:- WTO does problem oriented research for developing countries, in india agriculture and
processed food export development authority (APEDA) conduct regular research for the benefit
of agri-industry.
• As the name indicates, Problem identifying researches are undertaken to know the exact nature
of problem that is required to be solved.
• Here, one clarification is needed when we use the term ‘Problem’, it is not a problem in true
sense. It is usually a decision making dilemma or it is a need to tackle a particular business
situation.
• It could be a difficulty or an opportunity.
For e.g.:-Revenue of Mobile company has decreased by 25% in the last year. The cause of the
problem can be any one of the following:
• Poor quality of the product. • Lack of continuous availability. • Not so effective advertising
campaign. • High price. • Poor calibre / lack of motivation in sales people/marketing team. •
Tough competition from imported brands. • Depressed economic conditions

• In the same case, suppose the prime cause of problem is poor advertising campaign &
secondary cause is higher pricing. • To tackle the problem of poor advertising, we have to
answer questions like, what can be the new advertising campaign, who can be the brand
ambassador, which media, which channel, at what time & during which programme
advertisements will be broadcast.
Problem solving
This type of research is done by an individual company for the problem faced by it. Marketing
research and market research are the applied research. For eg:- videocon international conducts
research to study customer satisfaction level, it will be problem solving research. In short, the
main aim of problem solving research is to discover some solution for some pressing practical
problem.
Quantitative Research
This research is based on numeric figures or numbers. Quantitative research aim to measure the
quantity or amount and compares it with past records and tries to project for future period. In
social sciences, “quantitative research refers to the systematic empirical investigation of
quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships”. The objective of quantitative
research is to develop and employ mathematical models, theories or hypothesis pertaining to
phenomena.
The process of measurement is central to quantitative research because it provides fundamental
connection between empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships. Statistics is the most widely used branch of mathematics in quantitative research.
Statistical methods are used extensively with in fields such as economics and commerce.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research presents non-quantitative type of analysis. Qualitative research is collecting,
analyzing and interpreting data by observing what people do and say. Qualitative research refers
to the meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols, metaphors, and description of things.
Qualitative research is much more subjective and uses very different methods of collecting
information,mainly individual, in-depth interviews and focus groups.
The nature of this type of research is exploratory and open ended. Small number of people are
interviewed in depth and or a relatively small number of focus groups are conducted. Qualitative
research can be further classified in the following type.
I. Phenomenology:-a form of research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or
more individuals experience a phenomenon. Eg:-we might interview 20 victims of bhopal
tragedy.
II. Ethnography:- this type of research focuses on describing the culture of a group of people. A
culture is the shared attributes, values, norms, practices, language, and material things of a group
of people. Eg:-the researcher might decide to go and live with the tribal in Andaman island and
study the culture and the educational practices.

III. Case study:-is a form of qualitative research that is focused on providing a detailed account
of one or more cases. Eg:-we may study a classroom that was given a new curriculum for
technology use.
IV. Grounded theory:- it is an inductive type of research,based or grounded in the observations
of data from which it was developed; it uses a variety of data sources, including quantitative
data, review of records, interviews, observation and surveys
V. Historical research:-it allows one to discuss past and present events in the context of the
present condition, and allows one to reflect and provide possible answers to current issues and
problems. Eg:-the lending pattern of business in the 19th century.
In addition to the above, we also have the descriptive research. Fundamental research, of which
this is based on establishing various theories
Also the research is classified into:

1. Descriptive research
2. Analytical research
3. Fundamental research
4. Conceptual research
5. Empirical research
6. One time research or longitudinal research
7. Field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research
8. Clinical or diagnostic research
9. Exploratory research
10. Historical research
11. Conclusion oriented research
12. Case study research
13. Short term research
Research Process:

Step 1: Identify the Problem

The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be
something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the agency, or the
desire to identify a recreation trend nationally. In the example in table 2.4, the problem that the agency has identified
is childhood obesity, which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the focus of the
study.

Collection of Data:

DATA SOURCES

When evaluating a program, there are alternative ways to get the information you need in
addition to collecting the data yourself. Data that you retrieve first-hand is known as primary
data. Alternatively, data that is retrieved from pre-existing sources is known as secondary data.

Primary data sources include information collected and processed directly by the researcher,
such as observations, surveys, interviews, and focus groups.

Secondary data sources include information that you retrieve through pre-existing sources such
as research articles, Internet or library searches. Pre-existing data may also include examining
existing records and data within the program such as publications and training materials,
financial records, student/client data, and performance reviews of staff, etc.

Secondary Data Sources

Primary Data Sources
 Data that are not pre-existing and are
 Information that has already been
collected by the evaluator using methods
collected, processed and reported out by
such as observations, surveys or
another researcher/entity
interviews

 Provides information if existing data on

 Offers an opportunity to review any and
your topic/project is not current or
all secondary data available for your
directly applicable to your evaluation
project before collecting primary data
questions

 Can be more expensive and time-

 Will tell you what questions still need to
consuming, but it enables you to collect
be addressed and what data you should
data that is specific to the purpose of
collect yourself
your evaluation
Primary and Secondary Data in Statistics
The difference between primary and secondary data in Statistics is that Primary data is collected
firsthand by a researcher (organization, person, authority, agency or party etc) through experiments,
surveys, questionnaires, focus groups, conducting interviews and taking (required) measurements, while
the secondary data is readily available (collected by someone else) and is available to the public through
publications, journals and newspapers.
Primary Data
Primary data means the raw data (data without fabrication or not tailored data) which has just been
collected from the source and has not gone any kind of statistical treatment like sorting and tabulation.
The term primary data may sometimes be used to refer to first hand information.
Sources of Primary Data
The sources of primary data are primary units such as basic experimental units, individuals, households.
Following methods are used to collect data from primary units usually and these methods depends on the
nature of the primary unit. Published data and the data collected in the past is called secondary data.

 Personal Investigation
The researcher conducts the experiment or survey himself/herself and collected data from it. The
collected data is generally accurate and reliable. This method of collecting primary data is feasible
only in case of small scale laboratory, field experiments or pilot surveys and is not practicable for
large scale experiments and surveys because it take too much time.
 Through Investigators
The trained (experienced) investigators are employed to collect the required data. In case of surveys,
they contact the individuals and fill in the questionnaires after asking the required information, where
a questionnaire is an inquiry form having a number of questions designed to obtain information from
the respondents. This method of collecting data is usually employed by most of the organizations and
its gives reasonably accurate information but it is very costly and may be time taking too.
 Through Questionnaire
The required information (data) is obtained by sending a questionnaire (printed or soft form) to the
selected individuals (respondents) (by mail) who fill in the questionnaire and return it to the
investigator. This method is relatively cheap as compared to “through investigator” method but non-
response rate is very high as most of the respondents don’t bother to fill in the questionnaire and send
it back to investigator.
 Through Local Sources
The local representatives or agents are asked to send requisite information who provide the
information based upon their own experience. This method is quick but it gives rough estimates only.
 Through Telephone
The information may be obtained by contacting the individuals on telephone. Its a Quick and provide
accurate required information.
 Through Internet
With the introduction of information technology, the people may be contacted through internet and
the individuals may be asked to provide the pertinent information. Google survey is widely used as
online method for data collection now a day. There are many paid online survey services too.
It is important to go through the primary data and locate any inconsistent observations before it is given
a statistical treatment.
Secondary Data
Data which has already been collected by someone, may be sorted, tabulated and has undergone a
statistical treatment. It is fabricated or tailored data.
Sources of Secondary Data
The secondary data may be available from the following sources:

 Government Organizations
Federal and Provincial Bureau of Statistics, Crop Reporting Service-Agriculture Department, Census
and Registration Organization etc
 Semi-Government Organization
Municipal committees, District Councils, Commercial and Financial Institutions like banks etc
 Teaching and Research Organizations
 Research Journals and Newspapers
 Internet

Questionnaire:

The questionnaire is likely to be a less expensive procedure than the interview as it is simply
mailed to the respondents with a minimum of explanation. Further, the questionnaire can often
be sent to a large number of individuals simultaneously; an interview, on the other hand, usually
calls for questioning each individual separately. With a given amount of funds, it is usually
possible to cover a wider area and obtain information from more people by means of
questionnaires than by personally interviewing each respondent. The impersonal nature of a
questionnaire-its standardised wording, its standardised order of questions, its standardised
instructions for recording responses-ensures some uniformity from one measurement situation to
another. Another advantage of the same is that respondents may have greater confidence because
of their anonymity, and thus feel more free to express views which they fear might be
disapproved of or might land them into trouble. Sometimes, the questionnaire places less
pressure on the subject for immediate response. When the subject is given ample time for filling
in the questionnaire, he can consider each point carefully.

Schedule:

The questionnaire requiring extended written responses can be used with only a very small
percentage of the population as even many college graduates have little facility for writing, and
of those who do. few have the patience or motivation to write as fully as they might speak. On
the other hand, the schedule can be used with almost all segments of the population. Surveys
conducted through personal interviews have an additional advantage over surveys conducted
through mailed questionnaires in that they usually yield a much better sample of the general
population and many people are willing and able to cooperate in a study where all they have to
do is to talk. The proportion of returns in questionnaires is usually low, varying from about 10 to
50 per cent. Another advantage of the schedule is its greater flexibility. In a questionnaire, if the
subject misinterprets a question or records his responses in a baffling manner, there is usually
little that can be done to remedy the situation, whereas in the schedule, there is possibility of
repeating or rephrasing questions to make sure that they are understood. In addition, the
interviewer is in a position to appraise validity of reports. He is in a position to observe not only
what the respondent says but also how he says it. Interview is a more appropriate technique for
revealing information about complex, emotionally laden subjects or for probing the sentiments
that may underlie an expressed opinion. In the interview situation, the "social atmosphere" can
be varied in other ways. Behaviour in real life occurs in situations that are seldom free from
social pressures. The interviewer can, for example, point out objections to the position taken by
the person being interviewed, and observe how the latter responds. This flexibility has
advantage, especially if the ultimate objective of the measurement is to predict behaviour in
varied situations.

Concept of Sampling:

Brooke is a psychologist who is interested in studying how much stress college students face
during finals. She works at a university, so she is planning to send out a survey around finals
time and ask some students to rank on a scale of 1 to 5 how stressed out they are.
But which students should she survey? All of the students at the university? Only the students in
the psychology department? Only freshmen? There are a lot of possibilities for Brooke's sample.
The sample of a study is simply the participants in a study. In Brooke's case, her sample will be
the students who fill out her survey.
Sampling is the process whereby a researcher chooses her sample. This might seem pretty
straightforward: just get some people together, right? But how does Brooke do that? Should she
just stand on a corner and start asking people to take her survey? Should she send out an email to
every college student in the world? Where does she even begin?
Because sampling isn't as straightforward as it initially seems, there is a set process to help
researchers choose a good sample. Let's look closer at the process and importance of sampling.
Sample Size :
Sample size determination is the act of choosing the number of observations or replicates to
include in a statistical sample. The sample size is an important feature of any empirical study in
which the goal is to make inferences about a population from a sample. In practice, the sample
size used in a study is determined based on the expense of data collection, and the need to have
sufficient statistical power. In complicated studies there may be several different sample sizes
involved in the study: for example, in a stratified survey there would be different sample sizes
for each stratum. In a census, data are collected on the entire population, hence the sample size is
equal to the population size. In experimental design, where a study may be divided into
different treatment groups, this may be different sample sizes for each group.
Sample sizes may be chosen in several different ways:

 experience – for example, include those items readily available or convenient to collect. A
choice of small sample sizes, though sometimes necessary, can result in wide confidence
intervals or risks of errors in statistical hypothesis testing.
 using a target variance for an estimate to be derived from the sample eventually obtained
 using a target for the power of a statistical test to be applied once the sample is collected.
 using a confidence level determines how accurate a result will turn out with lower chances of
error.

Sampling Procedure/ Types :

Sampling is a process or technique of choosing a sub-group from a population to participate in
the study; it is the process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the large group from which they were selected (Ogula, 2005).
There are two major sampling procedures in research. These include probability and non
probability sampling.
Probability Sampling Procedures
In probability sampling, everyone has an equal chance of being selected. This scheme is one in
which every unit in the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the
sample. There are four basic types of sampling procedures associated with probability samples.
These include simple random, systematic sampling, stratified and cluster.
Simple Random Sampling Procedure
Simple random sampling provides the base from which the other more complex sampling
methodologies are derived. To conduct a simple random sample, the researcher must first
prepare an exhaustive list (sampling frame) of all members of the population of interest. From
this list, the sample is drawn so that each person or item has an equal chance of being drawn
during each selection round (Kanupriya, 2012).
To draw a simple random sample without introducing researcher bias, computerized sampling
programs and random number tables are used to impartially select the members of the population
to be sampled. Subjects in the population are sampled by a random process, using either a
random number generator or a random number table, so that each person remaining in the
population has the same probability of being selected for the sample (Friedrichs, 2008).
Systematic Sampling Procedure
Systematic sampling procedure often used in place of simple random sampling. In systematic
sampling, the researcher selects every nth member after randomly selecting the first through nth
element as the starting point. For example, if the researcher decides to sample 20 repondents
from a sample of 100, every 5th member of the population will systematically be selected.
A researcher may choose to conduct a systematic sample instead of a simple random sample for
several reasons. Firstly, systematic samples tend to be easier to draw and execute, secondly, the
researcher does not have to go back and forth through the sampling frame to draw the members
to be sampled, thirdly, a systematic sample may spread the members selected for measurement
more evenly across the entire population than simple random sampling. Therefore, in some
cases, systematic sampling may be more representative of the population and more precise
(Groves et al., 2006).
Stratified Sampling Procedure
Stratified sampling procedure is the most effective method of sampling when a researcher wants
to get a representative sample of a population. It involves categorizing the members of the
population into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups. An independent simple
random sample is then drawn from each group. Stratified sampling techniques can provide more
precise estimates if the population being surveyed is more heterogeneous than the categorized
groups. This technique can enable the researcher to determine desired levels of sampling
precision for each group, and can provide administrative efficiency. The main advantage of the
approach is that it’s able to give the most representative sample of a population (Hunt & Tyrrell,
2001).
Cluster Sampling Procedure
In cluster sampling, a cluster (a group of population elements), constitutes the sampling unit,
instead of a single element of the population. The sampling in this technique is mainly
geographically driven. The main reason for cluster sampling is cost efficiency (economy and
feasibility). The sampling frame is also often readily available at cluster level and takes short
time for listing and implementation. The technique is also suitable for survey of institutions
(Ahmed, 2009) or households within a given geographical area.
But the design is not without disadvantages, some of the challenges that stand out are: it may not
reflect the diversity of the community; other elements in the same cluster may share similar
characteristics; provides less information per observation than an SRS of the same size
(redundant information: similar information from the others in the cluster); standard errors of the
estimates are high, compared to other sampling designs with the same sample size.
Non Probability Sampling Procedures
Non probability sampling is used in some situations, where the population may not be well
defined. In other situations, there may not be great interest in drawing inferences from the
sample to the population. The most common reason for using non probability sampling
procedure is that it is less expensive than probability sampling procedure and can often be
implemented more quickly (Michael, 2011). It includes purposive, convenience and quota
sampling procedures.
Purposive/Judgmental Sampling Procedure
In purposive sampling procedure, the researcher chooses the sample based on who he/she thinks
would be appropriate for the study. The main objective of purposive sampling is to arrive as at a
sample that can adequately answer the research objectives. The selection of a purposive sample
is often accomplished by applying expert knowledge of the target population to select in a non
random manner a sample that represent a cross-section of the population (Henry, 1990).
A major disadvantage of this method is subjectivity since another researcher is likely to come up
with a different sample when identifying important characteristics and picking typical elements
to be in the sample. Given the subjectivity of the selection mechanism, purposive sampling is
generally considered most appropriate for the selection of small samples often from a limited
geographic area or from a restricted population definition. The knowledge and experience of the
researcher making the selections is a key aspect of the ‘‘success’’ of the resulting sample
(Michael, 2011). A case study research design for instance, employs purposive sampling
procedure to arrive at a particular ‘case’ of study and a given group of respondents. Key
informants are also selected using this procedure.
Convenience Sampling Procedure
Convenience sampling is sometimes known as opportunity, accidental or haphazard sampling
sampling. It is a type of nonprobability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from
that part of the population which is close to hand, that is, a population which is readily available
and convenient. The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations
about the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough
(Michael, 2011). This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
Convenience sampling differs from purposive sampling in that expert judgment is not used to
select a representative sample. The primary selection criterion relates to the ease of obtaining a
sample. Ease of obtaining the sample relates to the cost of locating elements of the population,
the geographic distribution of the sample, and obtaining the interview data from the selected
elements

Diagrametic and Graphical Representation Of Data:

Notes Given In The Class

Tabulation of Data:
Tabulation is the systematic arrangement of the statistical data in columns or rows. It involves
the orderly and systematic presentation of numerical data in a form designed to explain the
problem under consideration. Tabulation helps in drawing the inference from the statistical
figures.

Tabulation prepares the ground for analysis and interpretation. Therefore a suitable method must
be decided carefully taking into account the scope and objects of the investigation, because it is
very important part of the statistical methods.

Types of Tabulation

In general, the tabulation is classified in two parts, that is a simple tabulation, and a complex
tabulation.
Simple tabulation, gives information regarding one or more independent questions. Complex
tabulation gives information regarding two mutually dependent questions.

ONE-WAY TABLE
DIVISION POPULATION
(Millions)
Karachi 10.875968
Hyderabad 14.186954
Sukkur 12.994401
This table gives us information regarding one characteristic information about the population in
different divisions of Sindh.

All questions that can be answered in ONE WAY TABLE are independent of each other. It is
therefore an example of a simple tabulation, since the information obtained in it is regarding one
independent question, that is the number of persons in various divisions of Sindh in millions.

Two-Way Table

These types of table give information regarding two mutually dependent questions. For example,
question is, how many millions of the persons are in the Divisions; the One-Way Table will give
the answer. But if we want to know that in the population number, who are in the majority, male,
or female. The Two-Way Tables will answer the question by giving the column for female and
male. Thus the table showing the real picture of divisions sex wise is as under:
TWO-WAY TABLE
DIVISION POPULATION (Millions)
Male Female Total
Karachi
Hyderabad
Sukkur

Three-Way Table

Three-Way Table gives information regarding three mutually dependent and inter-related
questions.
For example, from one-way table, we get information about population, and from two-way table,
we get information about the number of male and female available in various divisions. Now we
can extend the same table to a three way table, by putting a question, “How many male and
female are literate?” Thus the collected statistical data will show the following, three mutually
dependent and inter-related questions:
1. Population in various division.
2. Their sex-wise distribution.
3. Their position of literacy.

THREE-WAY TABLE
DIVISION POPULATION (Millions)
Male Female Total
Literate Illiterate Total Literate Illiterate Total Literate Illiterate Total

Karachi
Hyderabad
Sukkur
This table gives information concerning the literacy of both male and female in various divisions
of Sindh. From the table we can explain the sex which has more education in relation to division,
and also, we can say whether literacy is low in rural areas than in urban areas.
the following points should be borne in mind while preparing a table

(i) A good table must contain all the essential parts, such as, Table number, Title, Head note,
Caption, Stub, Body, Foot note and source note.

(ii) A good table should be simple to understand. It should also be compact, complete and self-
explanatory.

(iii) A good table should be of proper size. There should be proper space for rows and columns.
One table should not be overloaded with details. Sometimes it is difficult to present entire data in
a single table. In that case, data are to be divided into more number of tables.

(iv) A good table must have an attractive get up. It should be prepared in such a manner that a
scholar can understand the problem without any strain.

(v) Rows and columns of a table must be numbered.

(vi) In all tables the captions and stubs should be arranged in some systematic manner. The
manner of presentation may be alphabetically, or chronologically depending upon the
requirement.

(vii) The unit of measurement should be mentioned in the head note.

(viii) The figures should be rounded off to the nearest hundred, or thousand or lakh. It helps in
avoiding unnecessary details.

(ix) Percentages and ratios should be computed. Percentage of the value for item to the total must
be given in parenthesis just below the value.

(x) In case of non-availability of information, one should write N.A. or indicate it by dash.

(xi) Ditto marks should be avoided in a table. Similarly the expression ‘etc’ should not be used in
a table.
Mechanics of Writing Research Report:

the goal of mechanics of writing is to make the writing precise and grammatically correct. It is
directed to make the writing systematic and being concerned about how to be correct in spelling,
punctuation, italics and so on. The mechanics of writing are the rules that must be followed while
preparing research paper so that the research strategies and the format becomes systematic and
consistent in all academic sectors. If one does not follow or if there are no such ru les of writing then
the writing would be certainly very difficult.
The important factors in mechanics of writing are: 1) Spelling 2) Punctuation 3) Italics( underlying)
4) Names of persons 5) Titles of works in the research paper 6) Quotations
1) Spelling:- Spelling in the research work should be consistent, clean and correct expert in a
quotations. The spelling in quotation must be the original whether correct or inco rrect. If we have to
divide any words, we should not do so at the end of the line. If the word does not fit there, we
should leave the space and bring the words in the next line.
2) Punctuation:- The purpose of punctuation is to bring clarity in writing and to make it
comprehensible. Punctuation clarifies sentence structure, separating some words and grouping
others. It adds meaning to written words and guides for readers to understand as they move through
sentences. Commas, full stops, semicolons, colons, dashes and parenthesis, hyphens, apostrophes,
quotation marks and exclamation point all serve the function of punctuation and one should take
account of all these marks while writing research works.
3) Italics (underlining):- In research papers and manuscripts submitted for publication, words that
would be italicized in print are usually underlined. In general we should underline foreign words
used in an English text. The name of the book in which a person is doing research is always
italicized.
4) Names of Persons:- Generally a researcher should state a person’s name in a text of his or her
research paper fully, accurately and exactly as it appears in the original source. For example Martin
Luther King, Jr. should be used as it is not as only Martin Luther. Researcher must not use formal
tittles in referring to men as women, living or dead, such as Prof. Devklota. Dr.Sangita. Instead of
it, the researcher should only write Devkota, Sangita and so on.
5) Titles of works in the Research Paper:- Title of the publication works in the research paper
should be cited form the title page not form the cover page. For capitalizing titles, one should
capitalize the first words, the last words, the words and the principal words, the last words and the
principal words in both titles and sub-titles. Generally title of the works must be underlined or
italicized. Title of the names of books, pamphlets, periodicals, films, radio and television programs
etcetera should be underlined if hand written or italicized if printed in t he research paper. Titles of
the names of articles, essays, short stories, short poems, chapters of book and so on should be put
with in quotation marks. The same is for the case of unpublished work, such as lectures and
speeches.
6) Quotations:- Only the most important words, phrases, lines and passages should be quoted in the
research paper as briefly as possible. The researcher should put them with in quotation mark if they
are three lines or less than three lines. If a quotation runs to make than four l ines, it should be put
under indent.
7) Capitalization and personal names :The chief reason to capitalize a word is that the word is
proper, not because the word has greater status than other words. A proper noun identifies a specific
member of a class. A common noun, on the other hand, denotes either the whole class or any
random member of the class. For example, King Henry VIII (a particular member of a class) was a
king of England (the class itself). Answering the following question can help you determine whether
a noun is proper. If the answer is yes, the noun is probably a common noun.

Preliminary Pages:
Preliminary pages include everything up to the main body of the text or introduction.

The title should be as short as possible and reflect the focus of the research. Hussey and Hussey (1997
p.286) advise againstphrases such as “An Approach to … “ or “A Study of…”

The title page shall give the following information in the order listed:

1. The full title of the project and the subtitle, if any;

2. The full name of the author, followed, if desirable, by any qualifications and distinctions;
3. The qualification for which the dissertation is submitted (i.e. “in partial fulfilment for the Degree
of...in.....”);
4. The name of the institution to which the dissertation is submitted (i.e. University of Warwick);
5. The department and/or organisation in which the project was conducted (i.e. WMG);
6. The month and year of submission.
The Abstract should not extend beyond a single A4 side, and to facilitate this, single spaced typing is
permitted for the summary only. The purpose of the summary according to Hussey and Hussey (1997 p.
286) is:

 “to introduce the topic

 to describe how you did the research
 to discuss the results of what was done
 to explain the implications of the results.”
The ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS should be short and thank those who have helped you with your
project. It is particularly important to thank any companies that have provided assistance.

You should indicate in a DECLARATION any material contained in the dissertation that you have used
before. If the dissertation is based on joint research the nature and extent of your individual contribution
must be indicated. The declaration should also include confirmation of the manner in which your project
relates to the definition of projects for your degree, which will be signed off by your assessors at the oral
examination. A sample Declaration Page is attached, which should be included in your dissertation.
The CONTENTS should list in sequence, with page numbers, all relevant subdivisions of the
dissertation, including the title of chapters, sections and subsections, as appropriate; any appendices; the
glossary; the list of references; the bibliography (if any); the index (if provided) and other functional parts
of the whole dissertation (not the Preliminary Pages).

Finally BS 4821:1990 distinguishes between DEFINITIONS, that define any specific terms relevant only
in this dissertation, and the GLOSSARY that provides explanations of terms or abbreviations used in the
dissertation. The glossary should follow the appendices.

Appendix :
An appendix or appendices are usually the last pages in a document/project. They contain things that
you did not have space for in the main part of your project.
For example, imagine halfway through my project, I was discussing the increase in the population
between the years 1990 and 2000. If I had a table that showed all the relevant information, but the table
was too long to include in the middle of my project, I could just say: See Appendix A for a breakdown
of population growthbetween the years 1990 and 2000. Then, at the end of my document, the first
appendix
Whould show a table.
We use appendices for many things: tables, figures, permission to use premises letters, informed consent
forms, etc. Basically, anything
That is relevant to your project but would not look good stuck in the middle of your text
There are two main ways to layout your appendices: You can place the heading (Appendix plus letter) on
a blank page and place your information (e.g., table) on the next page, or you can place the heading at the
top of a blank page and add the information directly below.
References:
References usually come at the end of a text (essay or research report) and should contain only those
works cited within the text. So, use the term 'References' to cover works cited, and 'Additional
Bibliography' to refer to works read as general background.
Bibliography is any list of references at the end of a text, whether cited or not. It includes texts you made
use of, not only texts you referred to in your paper, but your own additional background reading, and any
other articles you think the reader might need as background reading.
A bibliographic entry is a 'reference' which offers readers a standard set of information that will enable
them to either

 find the cited source in a library, or

 order it through a library or bookshop.
The information varies according to the type of source. We look at the 3 main sources:

 books
 journal articles
 book chapters or articles in a book
Note: There are many variations of format, even within the same discipline. Browse through the
back pages of different journals to get an idea. Our advice is to choose a system you like - or your
teachers prefer - and use it consistently.